IOWA

the population of towa according to the state census was 2,419,927 on july 1 1925, a8 against 2,404,021 in 1920 and 2,224,771 in toro. in 1920 the native whites of native parentage numbered 1,528,553; those of forcign or mixed parentage, 629,981; and the foreign-born whites, 225.647. he negro populailon was 19,005. there were in 1920 43-2 inhabi- tants persquare mile as against 4zoin oro. in rg20the urban popu- lation was 36-4% of the whole. there were seven cities having a population of over 25,000 as follows:— ? ee | 1920 1910 increase ,ua des moines 126,468 86,368 46:4 sioux city . 71,22 47,828 43-9 | davenport . 56,727 43.028 31°83 _ cedar rapids 45,566 32,811 38-9 dubuque 39,141 38,494 1-7 waterloo 36,230 26,693 35°7 couacil bhaifs 36,162 29,292 23'5 agriculture. —in 1925 the aggregate crop acreage in iowa was 21,991,893 and the value of the farm jands and buiklings was $4,001,427,734. in 1924 iowa was first among the states in the acreage, production and total value of both corn and oats. iowa's corn crop in 1909 was 341,750,460 bu., valued at $167,622,834, from 9,229,378 ac.; in 1924, 304,752,000 bu., valued at 283,410,- 000 from 10,854,000 acres. the number of cattle on iowa farms in 1925 was approximately 4,507,000, of horses 1,229,000 and of sheep 891,000; while in the number of swine jowa increased from 7,545,853 in 1910 to 10,539,000 in 1924, but decreased to 8,958,000 in 1925. amfanufactures, mining and transportation.—meat-packing continues to lead manufacturing industries, the value of prod- ucts of slaughtering and meat-packing having increased from $58,913.482 in r909 to $152,631,045 in 1923. the second in- 999 dustry in value of products in 1923 was butter. in rooo9 this product was valued at $24,440,715 and in 1923 at $67,972,113. food preparations, including cereals and breakfast foods, were third, the value of these products increasing from $9,795,000 in 1909 to $37,698,210 in 1923. the valuc of all manufactured products was 8250,237,637 in 19093 $690,042,714 in 1923. the most important mineral product in iowa is bituminous coal; in toro the value was $12,682,106; in r919 $16,903.358; in 1922 $16,119,000. the value of clay and clay products in tatg was $8,127,000. portland cement and gypsum products were also prominent. the railway mileage was 9,781.65 in 1910 and 0,843 in 1924. the mileage of interurban electric lines has increased from 373:92 lo 946-49, or about 153%. iiducation.—the federal census of 1910 credited iowa with the smallest percentage of illiteracy of any state in the union (1-7 %.) in 1020, with a percentage of 1-1 % it still maintained first place. state aid became an important factor in the devclopment of public schools in the period following toro. legislation granted such aid to large, centrally located, con- solidated schools, which replaced small scattered ones. at the close of to2z0 there were 430 consclidated districts, including about 25°%> of the area of the state and taking care of approxi- mately 50,000 pupils. in 1911 state aid was granted by law to high schools organising normal training of rural teachers of which schools there were, in 1918, 172. in 1017 4 state board for vocational cducation was established to take advantage of the provisions of the smith-hughes act offering federal aid for vocational education. a jaw, enacted in 1019, provided for part-time schools for the benefit of children between the ages of 14 and 16 worling on employment certificates. the establish- ment of these schools was required where there were 15 cligible pupils in the district, and attendance became compulsory. legislation.—the only constitutional] change made during the period r9to-25 was an amendment ratified by the people in 1916 fixing the time of the gencral clection for that year on the same day as the presidential election, the time of clection there- after to be determined by the general assembly. in 1916 a con- suitulional amendment extending suffrage to women was sub- mitted to the electors but was defeated. the federal sulirage amendment was adopted in 1920. the vital portions of the “mulct tax” law of 1894 (see 14.734) were repealed by the general assembly in 1915, thus restoring statutory prohibition in lowa, but a prohibitory amendment to the state constitution was voted down by the electors in oct. 1917. the fighteenth (prohibition) federal amendment was however ratified by iowa jan. 15 19190. the constitution of 1857 provided that in 1870 and every ten years thereafter the question, ** shall there be a convention to revise the constitution and amend the same?” should be submitted to a vote of the electors of the state, and in case of a favourable vote the general assembly should provide by jaw for the election of delegates. in the clec- tion of 1920, for the first time, the vote showed a majority in favour of a convention. the general assembly in 1913 passed an employers’ liability and workmen’s compensation act; and at the same session a mothers’ pension act was passed, providing for ihe granting to widowed and indigent mothers of sums not to exceed $2 per week for cach child under 14 years of age. in rors the perkins law was passed, providing free treatment for crippled children of poor parents. in 1917 an appropriation was made by the gencral assembly for the erection and equipment of a hospital at iowa city for such children. two years later the general assembly provided that adults as well might be sent to iowa city for free medical and surgical treatment. in 1917 the general assembly established at iowa city a child-welfare sta- tion for the consideration of conditions and measures. an important development was the farm bureau movement. by 1917 organisations among farmers in the state were numerous, and in that year the general assembly passed an act providing that where a farm-improvement association in any county had among its members 200 farmers or farm owners and had raised $500 in annual subscriptions, the county board of supervisors 510 was authorised to contribute $2,500 for the employment oi a county agent. a law in ro19 modified the amount and terms of the payment by the county and made the contribution man- datory. the movement gained rapid headway, county associa- tions being established for the betterment of both social and economic conditions and the improvement of agricultural methods. in 1920 there was a farm bureau in each county and twoin pottawattamie county, anda membership of over 100,000. there was also a considerable growth within the state of a farmers’ educational and co-operative union which had over 20,- ooo members in 1920. government and finances—the commission plan of govern- ment, authorised in 1907 for cities of 25.000 or more inhabitants, was extended to cities of 2,000 or more inhabitants. by 1920, nine cities had organised under the commission plan: burlington, cedar rapids, des moines, fort dodge, keokuk, marshall- town, mason city, ottumwa and sioux city. in 1015 the general assembly passed acts allowing cities to organise their municipal government under city-manager plans, but they have not been generally taken advantage of. the general assembly in 1913 provided that supreme, district and superior court judges should be nominated and elected on a non-partisan ticket, but in rg1g the nomination and election of judges was restored to a party basis. in ro11 the office of commerce counsel was created, the in- cumbent to be appointed by the board of railway commissioners and to serve as expert counsel for that board. in 1913 the department of insurance was created, and in 1917 a state bank- ing department was organised and the office of superintendent of banking created. in 1915 a state board of audit and a state board of accountancy were created, and the office of document editor was established to relieve the secretary of state. the road administration was reorganised in 1913 when the general assembly established a highway commission consisting of the dean of enginecring of the state college of agriculture and mechanic arts and two appointive members. highway legisla- tion in 1919 divided the highways into primary and secondary systems, and arranged for the distribution of federal and state aid funds for the hard surfacing of primary roads. in 1923 the assessed valuation of property in iowa was $1,766,329,861 on which were levied taxes amounting to $12,523,- 228 ($5.09 per capita). the funded and floating debt of the state was $11,797,100; the net debt was $11,715,131 ($4.76 per capita). history.—the history of iowa in the years igto~25 was marked by no economic or political changes of great importance. the state remained predominantly agricujtural. although its manufactures increased in importance, it was little disturbed by industrial controversies. the supremacy of the republican party in politics was not scriously questioned. owing to a split in the republican party in 1912, the democratic candidate for president received the electoral vote of iowa, but the state returned to the republican ranks in 1916, and in 1920 cast an overwhelming vote for harding for president and for nathan e. kendall for governor. throughout the period u.s. senator albert b, cummins continued to represent the state. the death of senator jonathan p. dolliver in toro caused a vacancy, filled temporarily by the appointment of lafayette young. in rorr, william s. kenyon was chosen to fill the position; he was re- elected in 1913 and 1918. in 1920, albert b. cummins was again elected to the senate, for the term ending march 4 1927. on feb, 24 1922, william s. kenyon resigned his office of senator, gov. kendall appointing charles a. rawson of des moines to fill the vacancy until the next election. at the primary election held in june 1922, smith w. brookhart of washington, iowa, was chosen as the rupublican candidate, and at the general election following was elected for the unexpired term. in 1924, mr. brookhart was nominated and elected for the term ending march 4 1931. republican governors were elected or re-elected every two years, incumbents being: beryl f. carroll, 1909-13; george w. clarke, 1913-7; william l. harding, 1917-21; nathan e. kendall, 1921-5; john hammill, 1925- iraq bibliography.—the iowa journal of history and politics, vol. ix.-xvili.; cole, 7zistory of the people of iowa; shambaugh, lowe applied histery series, vol. i.-iii.; brigzs, sectal legislation in towa: pollock, kconomic legislation in towa; gallaher, legal and political status of wemen in fowa; hansen, welfare campaigns in tow. (a. b.c.) ‘iraq (see mersoporamis, 18.179), a mandated arab kingdom in asia minor embracing the former turkish vilayets of baghdad, basra and mosul. area 143,250 square miles. poputation 2,849,- 232 (1920). ‘iraq is bounded on the west by vransjordan, on the southwest by arabia, on the south by a neutral zone, on the southeast by al kuwait and the persian gulf,on the east by per- sia, on the north by turkey and on the northwest by syria. the british empire is the mandatory power. the terms of the mandate were never formally laid down by the league of nations, but the relations between great britain and ‘iraq were defined in a treaty concluded on oct. 10 1922 and ratified on dec. 19 1925. on sept. 24 1924 the league ac- cepted this definition as giving effect to the provisions of art. 22 of the covenant. the period of the treaty was extended to 20 years by a subsequent treaty executed on jan. 13 1926. and ratified on march 30 1926. the ‘iraq govt. is a limited mon- archy on the egyptian model, with a king, a senate of 20 nom- inated members and a lower house of 88 deputies. the country is divided into 12 liwas. the administration is in the hands of the ‘iraq govt., represented in each liwa by a mutasarrif who is assisted by a british official with advisory powers. the 12 liwas are mosul, erbil, kirkuk, sulaimaniya, diyala, baghdad, du- laim, kut, karbala, iilla, ad diwaniya, muntafiq and basra. i. political history nationalist amfovement.—during the years from 1911 up to the outbreak of the world war, the ottoman regime in the distant mesopotamian vilayets showed marked deterioration. the last hope that any efficient administrative system might be estab- lished in mesopotamia vanished with the fallin tort of nazim pasha, an energetic man of singular integrity, who had set him- self to the intricate task before him with all the rude strength of a turkish soldier of the old order. the italian and balkan wars had weakened the central government, while in the arab prov- inces, in particular, the disappointment of hopes born of the constitution of too8 was leading to a recrudescence of racial aspirations. damascus and beirut had long been centres of nationalist movements, but already, at the end of 1913, the secret society called the ahd (the league) embraced the three mesopo- tamian vilayets as well as syria. a prominent figure in the move- ment was saiyid talib pasha of basra. he had reached the stage in his career when nationalist enthusiasm seemed best cal- culated to serve his ambitions. he had, however, exhausted turkish patience, and steps were about to be taken to dispose of him in true turkish fashion when war was declared on oct. 29 1914. talib approached sir percy cox, and offered to raise an arab revolt in return for recognition as an autonomous local chief. the reply was not satisfactory; he iled to al kuwait, and thence to ibn sa‘ud, who interceded for him. ife ended by going to india, in voluntary exile, and, in 1917, was permitted to move to egypt, where he remained till his return to basra in feb. 1920. the mesopotamian cantpaign.—the declaration of war was followed on oct. 31 1914 by a proclamation by the political resident in the persian gulf to local arab rulers explaining that turkey had entered the war at the instigation of germany and promising the chiefs who had enjoyed the protection of great britain that no act of that country should threaten liberty or religion. with these assurances the princes of the gulf were satisfied. before military operations had begun, sir percy cox, whose efforts had consolidated the british position in the gulf, joined the army concentrated at bahrein as chief political officer. on nov. 6, when the british took fao fort, he issued a second proclamation repeating the assurances already given. a determined attempt was made by the ottoman govt. to rouse fanaticism by preaching a jihad, but the tribesmen gave the turks less than half-hearted support. by nov. 21 the turks had abandoned basra; the british position on the shatt-al-’arab traq was secured, and the refinery of the anglo-persian oil company at abadan was safe. on nov. 22 british troops entered basra and, in the name of the general officer commanding-in chief, sir percy cox published a third proclamation assuring the inhabi- tants that turkish rule was dead and that great britain was their good friend and protector. the british arrival at basra was greeted with acclamation by the terror-stricken popu- lace; civil administration was set up under the g.o.c., with sir percy cox as chief political officer. as success followed success, a large measure of law and order followed in the wake of the arm- ies. the administration was well served by the revenue com- missioner, mr. dobbs, now sir henry dobbs, who made the first study of agrarian conditions. his profound knowledge of tribal custom enabled him to discern and account for agrarian phenom- ena and the accompanying tribal unrest and, not least, to draw up the tribal criminal disputes regulations, on a model which had 40° ( (c) t ur ke sarai: se ‘traq english miles 50 100 150 kelometres | ay ene sees es cf] 50 100 150 ee ourfa ee hamadano mipasr-t-shirin j okermanshah - katbalaoty he g mindiya s x -& ts santa ys bt) vy. ae wutral ai uw rigat 45° fi@enwich c otiaa longitude (b) worked with success on the [indian frontier, thus solving the prob- lem of administering to tribesmen justice which should be ade- quate and also comprchensible to their primitive understanding. the advance from basra to baghdad 1s cescribed under mesopotamia. a period of grave anxiety preceded the victory of shu‘aiba, on april 12 1915, when a reverse would have en, tailed the annihilation of the indian expeditionary force “ d.’, after the retreat from ctesiphon, nov. 25 1915, and the fall of kut on april 29 1916, the fate of ‘iraq hung in the balance, but the reorganisation of the force under general maude laid the foun- dations of victory, and baghdad was occupied on march 11 1917. in the proclamation which general maude issued upon the occu- pation of baghdad a definite promise was given that alien in- stitutions should not be imposed, that arab aspirations should be realised and that on those grounds the collaboration with british political officials of arab nobles, elders and representatiyes was required. a further development of civil administration was made when in july 19r7, sir percy cox was appointed civil com- missioner. the country suffered great loss in the death in nov. 1917 of general maude, whose distinguished powers asa military leader had earned the respect and admiration of ‘iraqis, but under general marshal! the success of british arms was carried on. late in nov. 1917 the northern euphrates was occupied up to ramadi, and in march 1918 up to ‘ana. in the same month, a serious incident occurred on the middle euphrates. the holy towns of karbala and an najaf were not only racked by internal feud, but both they and the adjacent tribesmen owned the sway of persian divines to whom the secular interests of “iraq counted nothing. in the first years the british government of occupation was fortunate in finding in the recognised leader of these mujtahids aman of singular personality who, while consistently refusing east of sil to give open advice on political questions, tacitly backed the power which had been placed in command by the vicissitudes of war. nevertheless, the holy towns presented a fertile field for intrigue, and when the government of occupation showed a de- termination to check the rapacity of the local chiefs of an najaf, a plot, engineered from without, came to a sudden head with the murder of the newly appointed assistant political officer. sir percy cox was on his way home to attend a conference in london, but the situation was handled successfully by colonel wil- son, afterwards sir a. t. wilson, who was in charge. ile was aided by the universal condemnation of the an najaf rebels by public opinionelsewhere and by the friendly relations which were maintained with the chief mujtahid. though an najaf was blockaded, not a shot was fired; but the pressure exerted resulted in the handing over of the guilty by may 1. a court of specially qualified officers condemned 13 of the men to death. over too persons were sentenced to transportation for life or for shorter periods, but all these have since been permitted to return. northeast of baghdad, progress was hindered by the russian debacle, but when, at the end of june 1917, the upheaval which was taking place in russia obliged the russians to retire, the british force gradually drove the turks from the vacated posi- tions, occupying khanagin in dec. 1917, and kifri in april 1918. the first task of the british administration was to save these prov- inces from the destitution and famine into which they had been plunged by the flux and reflux of turkish and russian armies, but again the british advance was impeded by the rapid dissolu- tion of the russian forces in persia and the necessity of guarding northern persia from turkish attack. it was the more unfortu- nate, as nowhere was the establishment of administration effected more smoothly than among the kurdish and turkoman elements with which the british forces now came into touch. kirkuk was reached in may, and immediately a provisional government under a local magnate, shaikh mahmud al barzanji, was set up voluntarily in sulaimaniya in friendly co-operation with the brit- ish. but the exigencies of the persian situation made it impossi- ble for the general staff to maintain the position so easily acquired; the british, accompanied by a large number of the christian population, abandoned kirkuk, which was not reoccu- pied until the final advance, in oct. 1918, ended in the occupa- tion of the whole of the mosul vilayet. liberation of ‘iraqg—on nov. 7 1918, 10 days after the sig- nature of the turkish armistice at mudros, the british and french governments issued a joint declaration of vital import- ance to the occupied arab territories, stating their aims in the east to be:— the complete and final enfranchisement of the peoples so long oppressed by the turks, and the establishment of national govern- ments and administrations drawing their authority from the initia- tive and [ree choice of native populations, the proclamation went on to promise encouragement and help in the establishment of native governments anu administrations in syriaand mesopotamia. general maude’s pronouncement had been made while the upshot of war was still doubtful, and was therefore discounted as a natural mode of propaganda, whereas the anglo-french declaration was published after victory had been achieved. together with president wilson’s fourteen points, it gave unbridled play to political speculation, which was further encouraged when the british govt. directed colonel wilson to hold an inquiry as to whether the people of ‘iraq were in favour of a united arab state from the northern boundarv of the mosul vilayet to the persian gulf under british tutelage, whether they desired that this state should be placed under an arab amir and 1f so whom would they suggest. in the light of experi- ence it can safely be said that public opinion was not ripe to reply to these questions which, in the provinces, at any rate, were nothing but a bewilderment to tribesmen, landowners and cultiva- tors. save on the first point, which was unanimously approved, no definite answer was given. in baghdad the representative mos- lem3 assembled by the sunni and shi‘ah qadhis asked for an arab state under a son of the sharif hussein. elsewhere every variety of reply was given. s12 no action could be taken on replies so conflicting, but during the year 1919 some progress was made towards the appointment of local subordinates in an advisory capacity. other factors had, however, come into play. the first of these was the establish- ment of an independent arab state in syria, largely the handiwork of a number of eager and adventurous ‘iraqis who were anxious to return home and enjoy the same powers as those of which they stood possessed in damascus or aleppo. they carried on an active propaganda in ‘iraq, and when, in march 1920, the amir faisal was proclaimed king of syria they re- sponded by electing the amir ‘abdullah king of ‘iraq. the movement in ‘iraq which led to the rebellion of 1920 was part of a general resentment against the policy of the british and their allies. in india, persia, egypt and turkey, no jess than in sytia and ‘traq, a crisis was reached during the years 1919 and 1920, and the political credit of great britain fell low in the eastern world. ‘iraq was in the centre of this hostile vortex, and was specially affected by the persian shi‘ah divines, who were domi- ciled in the holy towns but were responsive to every shade of feeling in their own country. while the administration was still patently alien, british forces had been cut down to a minimum, and when, in may 1920, the british govt. announced their ac- ceptance from the league of nations of a mandate over ‘iraq, the damascus govt. had already, in the absence of the amir taisal and contrary to his orders, begun its encroachments. in answer to objections raised against the mandate by a self-chosen committee in baghdad, it was announced (june 20) that sir percy cox would return in the autumn to establish a provisional arab govt. and call an assembly, freely elected by the people, in con- sultation with which he would prepare an organic law. but nothing would then have satisfied the claims of the nationalist leaders, and on july 2 1920, the turbulent shi‘ah tribes, en- couraged by their religious leaders, broke into open revolt. to restore peace and order was the first necessity. troops were drafted in from india, and when sir p. cox reached basra (oct. 1), as high commissioner, the rebellion in its main centres, the middle euphrates, the diyala and the adjacent part of kur- kuk district was already doomed to failure. by nov. ro, a pro- visional council of state was formed under the naqib of bagh- dad, it included saiyid talib pasha as minister of interior, sasun effendi haskail, the best known member of the jewish community, as minister of finance, and jafar pasha al ‘askari, distinguished for his services during the war and in the syrian administration of king faisal, as minister of defence. the council of state, some of the members of which were without portfolios, represented all classes and sects of society; at its request some of the leaders of the rebellion who had been in- terned at henjam were released at once. it gave immediate attention to the repatriation of ‘iraqi officers from syria and the hejaz; to the reorganisation of civil government under ‘iraqi officials, greatly facilitated by the return of many experienced men from turkey; and to the preparation of an electoral law and the formation of an army. it was the arrival of ‘iraqi officers who had served under the amir faisal which set on foot a move- ment in his favour in ‘iraq. ife had been driven from syria in july 1920, and had since resided in england. to this move- ment saiyid talib was opposed, and during the absence of sir percy cox in feb. and march 1921, to attend the conference summoned at cairo by mr. winston churchill, saiyid talib’s ambitions developed, and he assumed a menacing attitude to- wards the british efforts to secure a free discussion of the future government of ‘iraq by its people. in april, after a direct threat on the part of the saiyid, the high commissioner secured his deportation to ceylon, and the political atmosphere cleared. the first result of the cairo conference was the publication of a general amnesty in may, and at the same time an attempt was made to ascertain the wishes of the kurdish provinces as to their inclusion in the ‘iraq state. the net result was that sula- maniya remained under the control of the high commission, but the rest of the kurdish population was content with the promise of kurdish officials, under the ‘iraq govt., and the local use of the kurdish language. traq choice of a king —towards the end of june, the amir faisal arrived in baghdad, as a candidate for the throne. this candi- dature was known to be acceptable to the british govt., and on july 11, the council of ministers passed a resolution declaring him king of ‘iraq, on condition that his government should be constitutional, representative and democratic. but sir percy cox fortified himself by consulting the people, and a referendum was carried out, through the ministry of interior, throughout the country, with the exception of sulaimaniva, with the result that 96° of the votes were cast in favour of the amir faisal; outside baghdad most of the townships and districts stipulated for the continuance of the british mandate. the amir was crowned on aug. 23 1921, and entrusted the naqib with the formation of his first cabinet. troubles on lurkish and arabian frontiers —the early years of king faisal’s reign were troubled without and within. to the north, turkish nationalism had taken a turn distinctly hos- tile to ‘iraq. turkish garrisons on the frontier had increased, the tribes were flooded with propaganda, and a turkish official with a small party of irregulars had occupied ruwandiz in june to2t. from that advantageous position the turks kept the whole of southern kurdistan in a ferment till they were finally ejected in the spring of 1923. turbulent chieftains roused some of the tribes of sulaimaniya in the spring of 1922, and a general ery was started for the return of shaikh mahmud, who had been defeated by the british and deported in 1919. ‘the british administration evacuated the province in 1922, and shaikh mahmud was reinstalled in the autumn, under binding assur- ances that he would be loyal to the british and ‘traq govern- ments. he entered at once into cotrespondence with the turks. on the arabian frontier, since the beginning of 1921, the opera- tions of ibn sa‘ud against ibn rashid had profoundly disturbed the tribes. as early as april 1921, the shammar of ibn rashid began to seek safety in ‘iraq where a large section of the tribe resides. their presence embittered relations between ‘iraq and nejd, and after the fall of ibn rashicd’s capital, hail, in nov. 1921, ibn sa‘ud’s pretensions increased, and he claimed the allegiance of the ‘anizah on the eastern side of the syrian desert, who had always been attached to ‘iraq. in march 1922 he permitted the leaders of his akhwan, or brethren, to aitack the ‘iraq desert camel corps and the shepherd tribes grazing under its protection about 30 m. south of the railway between baghdad and basra. heavy loss was intlicted. anti-mandate agitation and the preliminaries ef the ‘trag treafy.— these dangers on the frontiers coincided with a serious divergence of views between the british and ‘iraq governments as to the nature of their relations with one another. king faisal and his prime minister asked for the complete abrogation of the mandate and its substitution by a treaty of alliance, whereas the british govt. were aiming at a treaty within the scope of the mandate. the ditference was largely technical, but it gave rise to grave misunderstandings and embittered controversy. it was alleged that the attack by ibn sa‘ud, who was at that time in receipt of a subsidy from great britain, had been instigated by the latter in order to show the ‘iraq govt. its weakness. at this point the shi‘ah divines took a hand in the matter and summoned a conference at karbala, nominally to consider measures of de- fence against the akhwan, but with the underlying object of protesting against the british mandate. the conference assem- bled, but the sunni shaikhs held off, the wiser among the shi‘ahs nipped any subsidiary intentions in the bud, and the meeting con- fined itself to petitioning king faisal to take steps against the akhwan. but the heat engendered was not extinguished, the anti-mandate agitation continued through the summer, though in june the council of ministers accepted the treaty with great britain, subject to its acceptance by the constituent assembly. on aug. 16 the cabinet resigned, and sir percy cox, when at- tending a levee, was greeted by an anti-mandate demonstration. he demanded and received an instant apology, but at the same moment it was announced that king faisal was struck down by a dangerous attack of appendicitis, and an immediate opera- tion was necessary. | traq. thus, by a singular combination of circumstances, the country was left with no authority but that of the high commissioner. he issued a proclamation explaining the situation, arrested and deported certain agitators, and induced two of the shi‘ah divines to leave voluntarily for persia. by sept. 10 1922 the agitation had died out. on oct. 10 1922 sir percy cox and the naqib signed a treaty of alliance between great britain and the ‘iraqi for 20 years (british treaty series no. 2), but ratification was delayed and negotiations over the subsidiary agreements dragged on until 1924. no sooner was the internal situation stabilised than the north- eastern frontier again demanded attention. with shaikh mah- mud in sulaimaniya and the turks in ruwandiz anc its neigh- bourhood, effective administration had ceased east of erbil, kirkuk and kifri. in oct. 1922 a measure decided on at the cairo conference was put into force and the air marshal, sir john salmond, assumed charge of all imperial forces in ‘traq, ground troops, levies and air force. by his vigorous action he forced the turks to retire to ruwandiz. but the autumn of 1922 was the period of mustafa kemal’s great triumph over the greeks. it influenced both the shi‘ahs of the euphrates and the tribes of the north. on oct. 21 1922 the king issued an iradah ordcring elections for the constituent assembly to begin; it was countered by a fatwah, signed by the shi‘ah divines of karbala and kadhimain forbidding participation in elections. in nov. the naqib resigned, and ‘abdul muhsin beg al sa‘dun formed a new cabinet. in the same month elections were held in great britain, during which a campaign was conducted against the fulfilment of the pledges to ‘iraq. mr. bonar law’s cabinet came in under obligation to consider the question, and sir percy cox was summoned to london in jan. 1923, to take part in the discussion. he left in charge sir henry dobbs who had come out as counsellor in the previous december. the position of the british govt. was extremely difficult. a solution was found in the reduction of the term of the yet unratified treaty from 20 to a maximum of four years after the ratification of peace with turkey,! with the prospect of renewal at the end of that period. the treaty would lapse in the event of “iraq be- coming a member of the league of nations. the protocol em- bodying this agreement was brought back by sir percy cox on march 31 1923, and signed on april 30. sir henry dobbs, who had acted since january, became high commissioner in sept. 1923. operations in afosul——mceantime, in march 1923, sir henry and the air marshal had been obliged to take steps against the turkish threat in the north. the amir zaid, who had arrived in baghdad in the previous autumn, went to mosul, where he su- perintended the formation of a force of arab irregulars to oper- ate in the plains if necessary. the strong stand taken by lord curzon at lausanne reacted on ‘traq. shaikh mahmud, who was in league with the turkish band at ruwandiz, was dealt with, and in april, by a brilliant military movement, supported by air action, the turks were ejected from ruwedandiz, and a kurdish chicf put in as qaimmaqam under the mutasarrif of erbil. with a force of assyrian levies behind him, saiyid taha had closed ruwandiz to turkish intluences. though it was found impossible to set up a local administration i in sulaimaniya, the outlying parts were placed under the ‘iraq administration and shaikh mahmud was allowed to return to sulaimaniya town and the mountains between the town and the persian frontier, till in 1924 his intrigues made it necessary to eject him from sulaimaniya town. this was done by a column of the ‘iraq army, with levies and air force support; the sulaimaniya liwa was included in ‘iraq in march 1924, and sent representatives to the constituent assembly. shaikh mahmud, with small rob- ber bands, was still lurking on the frontier at the close of 1925; he had incurred the hostility of the persian govt. as well as that of the govt. of ‘traq. the electitons.—in july 1923, king faisal authorised his government to deport the chief obstructionist among the shi‘ah divines, shaikh mahdi al khalisi. this act was followed by the 1 this took place on aug. 6 1924. o13 voluntary exodus to persia of a number of other religious leaders, all persian subjects. they were allowed to return after the con- stituent assembly had ratified the treaty, and have since passed out of political history. after its decisive handling of the muj- tuhids, for which the “iraq govt. deserves the greatest credit, the elections went forward without a hitch. from the kurdish mountains to the persian gulf, primary electors enrolled them- selves with surprising alacrity, and, in marked contrast to their practice in turkish times, the tribal chiefs pressed their followers to come forward in great numbers. secondary elections began in feb. 1924, and all results were declared by the middle of march. settlement with nejd—during the winter of 1923-4 an at- tempt was made to settle the growing differences between ‘traq and nejd by a conference of representatives held at a} kuwait under colonel knox. the main point of difference was the repatri- ation of nejd tribes which had taken refuge in ‘iraq. ‘the ‘iraq representatives rightly pointed out that, apart from the viola- tion of tribal custom involved, they had not the requisite force to constrain these unwelcome guests to return to their own country, but they agreed to abide by stipulations considered satisfactory by the british government. though on lesser matters agree- ment was reached, ibn sa‘ud proved obdurate on the major issue, and just as the conference was about to reassemble in march 1924, his followers carried out a brutal raid on the ‘iraq shep- herd tribes. the conference thereupon broke up. other raids occurred during 1924-5, and, as a result, the ‘iraq govt. made a determined effort to remove the tribes from the vicinity of the frontier and ibn sa‘ud gave orders to his akhwan leaders to discontinue raiding. finally, at the conference held at bahra in the hejaz between the sultan and sir gilbert clayton, in nov. 1925, a treaty was drawn up between ‘iraq and nejd on the lines proposed by h. m. govt. and the ‘iraq govt. at al kuw ait. ratification of the treaty.—sir henry dobbs and the ‘iraq govt. had been engaged during the winter of 1923 in discussing the provisions of the agreements subsidiary to the treaty. the resignation of ‘abdul muhsin beg, in nov. 1923, occurred in the midst of these discussions, which were carried on with the new cabinet presided over by ja‘far pasha al ‘askari. the agreements were signed on march 25 1924, and the instrument of alliance being thus complete, the constituent assembly was opened by the king on march 27. the debates on the treaty and agreements seniinied until june ro. there was much misrepresentation and some solid ground for dissatisfaction at the heavy burdens imposed on ‘traq by the obligation simultaneously to expand the army, redeem the capital cost of the railways and shoulder a large share of the ottoman debt. h. m. govt. gave an undertaking that after the ratification of the treaty they would be prepared to reconsider certain of the financial obligations of “iraq towards great brit- ain, and the debates were brought to a close by the announce- ment of the determination of the british govt. to raise before the league of nations at the june session the whole question of the continuance of their mandate, and the warning that if the assembly had not passed the treaty by june 10, it would be taken as a rejection. king faisal and his government clearly discerned the attendant risks, the cabinet called on its followers for support, and the treaty and agrcements were accepted befcre midnight on the appointed date. the instrument was aceepted by the league of nations on sept. 27 1924, as giving effect to the provisions of art. 22 of the covenant of the league for the regulation of the relations between “iraq and the mandatory power, and was ratified by king george and king faisal in the winter of 1924. the constituent assembly then passed the or-’ ganic and electoral laws, and was dissolved on aug. 2 1924. ja‘far pasha and his cabinet having concluded their work, re- signed office, and yasin pasha al hashimi formed a new cabinet. the question which now overshadowed all others was the sct- tlement of the northern frontier with turkey. (sce league of nations; mosul.) it had not been considered advisable to disturb the procced- ings of the frontier commission sent by the league of nations to mosul in the spring of 1925 by the holding of elections; on 514 march 21 1925, however, the organic law was promulgated and elections for the first parliament began. yasin pasha’s cabinet had previously passed four notable measures, vital for the further prosperity and stability of ‘iraq. the first was the signature with the anglo-persian oil company of an agreement for the dredging of the shattal-‘arab bar. the second was a trade tran- sit agreement with syria. the third was the granting to an inter- national group, known as the turkish petroleum company, of a concession for the development of oil in the baghdad and mosul vilayets, while the fourth was the signature of long term contracts with over a hundred experienced british advisers and officials. the visit in april 1925 of the secretaries of state for the col- onies and air gave opportunities for frank and valuable exchange of views, and also resulted in the adoption of a scheme which should provide for the speedier training of the ‘iraq army, so that it might eventually assume responsibility for internal secu- rity and external defence. elections were completed by june 23 1925, but before parlia- ment met yasin pasha resigned, owing to differences of opinion in his cabinet, and ‘abdul muhsin beg was again charged with the formation of a government. parliament, consisting of two chambers, a senate of 20 members, appointed by king faisal, and an elected house of 88 members, met on july 16 in extraordi- nary session to consider the budget and certain necessary amend- ments to the organic law. its debates were characterised by earnestness and good sense, and when its task was finished it was prorogued, on oct. 28, by the amir zaid, acting as regent during king faisal’s absence. the second session was opened formally on nov. 1, but was postponed for six weeks and met definitely on dec. 20. the new treaty.—the settlement of the question of mosul (see league of nations) was accepted by ‘iraq with relief, and negotiations for the signature of the new treaty were initiated before the end of 1925. the treaty was signed by the represen- tatives of the two governments on jan. 13 10926, and accepted by the ‘iraq parliament on jan. 18 and by the british parlia- ment on feb, 18. it is contracted for a maximum period of 25 years or until “iraq shall be permitted to become a member of the league of nations. when the delimitation of the northern fron- tier along the brussels line and of the syrian frontier, which is as yet only provisionally fixed, has been completed, it will remain for ‘iraq to satisfy the league that the conditions of member- ship laid down in article i of the covenant have been fulfilled. the arrangement was not accepted by the turks until june, 1926. (see mosut.) since 1920 great progress nas been made in this direction. a police force, which compares favourably with any in the east, does its part in preserving internal order; a body of responsible ‘iraq civil officials is coming into being; communication by rail and road are opening up the country, the trans-desert route, in particular, having brought ‘iraqi into much closer touch with syria, egypt and europe; the tribal leaders are stepping into their place in public life, thus tending to reduce the former gulf between tribesmen and the effendis of the town. justice is on the whole satisfactorily administered; the ottoman law still remains the principal system of law in use in the civil courts, while the criminal codes are founded on those of egypt and the sudan. good hospitals exist in baghdad, basra and mosul and smaller establishments in other provincial towns; the baghdad hospital is as well equipped as any in asia and is able to deal with and stamp out recurrent epidemics. education has perhaps seen the greatest revolution since turkish times. arabic is now the ‘medium of instruction, or the local vernacular in kurdish or turkoman districts. great efiorts have been made to provide a sound grounding. four secondary schools are all that the gov- ernment can yet afford, but teachers are being trained, recruits engaged in syria and the quality of education shows a marked improvement. the desert route has enabled many boys to seek higher education abroad. the agricultural department is raising the level of husbandry by providing selected seeds and has given special attention to the growing of cotton, which bids fair to become one of the most valuable crops of the country. jtraq brsliography.—draft mandates for mesopotamia and palestine, british, cd. 1,176 and misccllancous no. 3 of 1920; treaty between great britain and ‘iraq, league of nations series 35, nos. 1, 2 and 3 (series 35 also contains four supplementary agreements); gertrude l. bell, rewew of the civil admintstration of mesopotamia, cd. 1,061 (1920); e. b. soane, to mesopotamia and kurdistan in disgutse (1912). (g. be.) il. financial and economic history the truth about the public revenue and expenditure of ‘iraq is very hard to determine. figures dating back to the period of ottoman rule bear small resemblance to fact, and during the war period fancy played a large part in the preparation of figures relating to the “ civil administration.” to draw a distinction during that period between military and civil expenditure, be- tween the activities of the expeditionary force and those of the civil service, and to analyse the respective liabilities of the im- perial govt., the government of india and the civil administra- tion of mesopotamia were tasks which provided abundant exercise for a lively imagination. revenue and expenditure —the average revenue during the two years ig10-2 was made by the treaty of lausanne the de- termining factor in “iraq’s liability for the ottoman public debt, and the total figure for the three vilayets of baghdad, basra and mosul was £t. 1,492,953. “iraq was no source of profit to the ottoman empire. basra, in spite of a complete lack of harbour facilities, was an important gateway, and customs receipts there were heavy. but ‘iraq was to all intents and pur- | poses a foreign dependency in which other revenues were only collected by means of minor military operations, the cost of which exceeded their proceeds. the review of the civil administration of mesopotamia which the british govt. published in 1920 (cmd. 1061 of 1920) gave figures showing a large balance of revenue over expenditure for each of the four years ending with march 31 1919, and only a com- paratively small deficit for the following year, and stated that for the whole period of five years “‘ the aggregate civil expenditure was approximately £8,000,000 ... while the receipts amounted to about £10,000,000."' 1920-1 was a bad year, with a rebellion in progress, little revenue coming in and expenditure inevitably heavy. in 1922 parliament was asked to vote money to make good the “ civil deficit ” in mesopotamia on march 31 1921, from which date re- sponsibility for the finances lay with the ‘iraq government. the figure was put at £1,087,000, but ultimately oniy £559,000 was required, even this figure, although supported by appropriation accounts and audits, hardly represents the real facts. there was expenditure in persia and in nejd, expenditure on refugees from armenia and from russia, and expenditure in connection with fan- tastic war-time enterprises, which had no real connection with the public services of ‘iraq. the financial mission which reported to the british and ‘iraq govts. in 1925 (cmd. 2438) quoted the figures as follows:— 1921-2 | 1922-3 mates) (in lakhs of rupees) expenditure revenue surplus . deficit the mission pointed out that for the year 1925-6 ‘iraq was faced with a liability of about 80 lakhs for the ottoman public debt and an increase in expenditure on the army of 34 lakhs, and that the cost of these two services was beyond the present financial capacity of the country. they maintained that a reduction of one or the other was inevitable, and in fact the ottoman public debt contribution has not been paid, the actual determination of an amount not having re- sulted from the treaty of lausanne. the position of the public finances of ‘iraq affords no ground for pessimism. ‘‘ history,” says the report of the financial mission, ‘‘ probably shows no instance of a state expected to do so much so soon.”’ the public revenue and expenditure are not a safe index of the resources of a country even when, as in ‘iraq, a large proportion of the revenue is derived from the government’s share in the agricultural output. the machinery of assessment and collection is primitive and defective; and the government gets far less than its theoretical share, which over a large part of the country is as high as aos . ireland, john—ireland agriculture and irrigation.—‘traq is a country within which | are found records and traces of very ancicnt civilisation. great centres of population were in existence thousands of years ago in places which are now descrt, and these great centres depended for their existence on a highly-organised system of agriculture based on irrigation. down to the 13th century ‘iraq was an agricultural country made wealthy by the proceeds of its har- vests and its pastures. those harvests and pastures depended on - the tigris and the euphrates rivers which, thanks to an ancient and elaborate system of irrigation canals, fed vast areas which to-day lie derelict. the destruction of that system is definitely traceable to the mongol invasion of the 13th century. to that supreme catastrophe succeeded a long period of upheaval and unrest, and then the alien rule of the ottoman turk, inimical to all attempts at reconstruction, and destructive not only of mate- rial resources, but also of the initiative and capacity by which such resources are fostered and developed. the irrigation problem in ‘iraq was made the subject of an elaborate series of enquiries and reports in turkish times by sir william willcocks, and he was responsible for the one important engineering enterprise which has been carried out in the country, the hindiyah barrage across the euphrates, which regulates the supply of water to an elaborate series of canals. the completion of the programme which he sketched out would entail a capital expenditure far beyond the present resources of ‘iraq; and the increased difficulty of raising large sums of money for such enter- prises after the great war inevitably postpones the fulfilment of even a more modest programme. the whole question of irri- gation in ‘iraq requires further study and experiment before ambitious schemes are undertaken. irrigation without drainage may be a danger, and may even do more harm than good; for irrigated land easily becomes salt and water lavished on one area may leave other areas, which need it equally, dry and unfer- tile. but the subject is now receiving close study, and it may be prophesied with confidence that the productivity of the coun- try will be increased by a better use of the water available. the immediate need is for a systematic examination of possibilities and a rigorous avoidance of pretentious schemes inadequately prepared. population—the population which once cultivated vast areas of arable land has disappeared, and its restoration must depend less upon immigration from other arab areas—for the national spirit of ‘iraq will not tolerate an alien immigration— than upon a lowering of the death-rate, and especially of the rate of infant mortality, which will give the ‘iraqi nation the numbers for which the cultivation of such areas calls. the dif- ference between desert and fertile land is summed up in this part of the world by the single word “ water; ” but fertile land will not be productive unless there is a population to cultivate it. nowhere else in the world will peace, order and good government so surely find reilection in economic development. improved conditions of health, education and social well-being mean quite definitely in ‘iraq increased productivity. cotton and oul.—there are well-grounded hopes that new sources of wealth will be found in cotton and oil. a concession was granted in 1925 for the development of the oil resources of the mosul and baghdad vilayets to the turkish petroleum com- pany, which represents a combination of international oil inter- ests and is a development of the company which had obtained a promise of a concession from the ottoman govt. in 1914. the anglo-persian oil company enjoys similar rights, in virtue of the original persian concession of the d’arcy exploration co., in the “ transferred territories ” which were formerly part of persia, and here boring for oil has already been successful. the british cotton growing association have interested themselves actively in the development of cotton cultivation. the production is, as yet, comparatively small, but the possibilities have been.effec- tively proved, and with the improvement of public security the investment of more capital may be anticipated. there is there- fore every reason to expect that a country which was once the chief granary of the eastern world will once more become a great grain-exporting land. o15 communications.—to-day ‘traq derives much profit from the transit trade with persia. the route through russia has been practically closed for some years, and its reopening must be dependent upon the most incalculable of all factors, the political and economic future of russia. the ‘iraq railways, which have grown out of an emergency war-time line of communications, nearly reach the frontier of persia, a country undeveloped as regards railways. baghdad is the evtrepet of persia and basra its gateway, and the importance of fostering this transit trade is fully appreciated in “iraq. the motor service across the desert via damascus to the mediterranean at beirut, due to the enter- prise of a new zealander, has already had far-reaching conse- quences, and an air service as yet in its infancy has possibilities which can hardly be gauged. ‘iraq looks west to-day, after looking east for thousands of years, and baghdad is only a week from london. port of basra.—traq has inherited one asset of great value from the war period in addition to its railways—the port of basra, where vessels of the deepest draught can lie alongside fine wharves fully equipped with railway connections, electric cranes and warehouses. work is now in progress, and it is hoped nearing completion, which will provide a deep-water channel across the bar of the shatt-al-arab and thereby enormously improve the speed and reduce the cost at which vessels can be berthed and cleared. the shatt-al-arab is the way not only to the wharves of margil and the navigable tigris. but also to abadan, where the refinery of the anglo-persian oil company is situated, served directly by a pipe-line from the oil-fields. imports and exports—figures of imports into and exports from ‘iraq are as follows (in lakhs of rupees—re-exports ex- cluded) :— 1922-3 1923-4 1924-5 imports 969 879 890 exports 370 422 423 they appear to indicate a heavy “ adverse balance of trade,” but like most figures relating to ‘iraq, they are misleading unless they are analysed. the expenditure of h.m. govt. in ‘iraq on the maintenance of the garrison must be accounted an ‘invisible export,’’ and there has also been a large export of currency—indian rupees and rupee-paper—since the steady re- duction of the garrison reduced the amount of currency needed for internal circulation. there is some reason for believing that the adverse balance has now almost reached vanishing point, and this view is confirmed by the latest movements of the ex- change-rate with india. the percentage (in values) of imports from the united kingdom in 1924-5 was 33, and of those from british india 30. textile goods formed by far the largest item, sugar and carpets and tea coming next. all these items represent largely articles in transit between europe and persia. the prin- cipal items of local produce figuring among the exports were dates (183 lakhs in 1924-5), raw wool (84 lakhs) and grain (54 lakhs). (rae vi) ireland, john (1838-1918), american roman catholic prelate (see 14.742), died at st. paul, minn., sept. 25, ror8.