{
    "system": "GoGuides Verified Text",
    "api_version": "verified-text-v1",
    "status": "ok",
    "response_type": "verified_text_record",
    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
    "license_code": "public_domain",
    "attribution": null,
    "license_url": null,
    "chunk_id": "1926:intelligence animal:7fa73bf4ae34",
    "title": "INTELLIGENCE, ANIMAL",
    "section": null,
    "hash_alg": "sha256",
    "hash_sha256": "75c1cad2691e490b7d7fe8d137b93d5719a9bcfce2b5b9e985a0dbcc20b7cf20",
    "normalizer": {
        "name": "ggnorm",
        "version": "1.0"
    },
    "verified_text": "a broad distinction is commonly drawn between instinctive and intelligent behaviour in animals, and it is necessary therefore to frame some definition of what is meant by intelligent action. in this matter mcdougall (1923) writes as follows:— the definition and demarcation of tnstinct and intelligence have been much debated of recent years; but no general agreement as to the precise use of the words has yet been reached nor can be reached until agreement as to the nature of the facts denoted shall have been achieved. but the great majority of all parties would agree that we may properly call ‘instinctive’ those actions of animals which seem to be purposive (t.e., exhibit the marks of behaviour) and which are performed by any animal independently of previous experience of similar situations. intelligent action, on the other hand, is generally defined as one which seems to show that the creature has profited by prior experience of similar situations, that it somehow brings to bear its previous experience in the guidance of its present action. instinct (abstractly conceived and with a capital letter) is native or inborn capacity for purposive action; intelligence is the capacity to improve upon native tendency in the light of past ex- perience (pp. 70, 71). (see psychology.) some authors, particularly fabre and bergson, have attempted to make the distinction between instinct and intelligence an absolute one, attributing to instinctive animals psychical powers of an almost miraculous kind. this view is not widely accepted by those who have studied most carefully the manifestations of instinct. the fact is that neither form of behaviour appears “pure.” glimmerings of intelligence may be awakened in even the most stereotyped of instinctive actions, and intelligent action ts often merely an extension and embroidery of instinctive behaviour. their resemblances are more important than their differences—both are forms of purposive activity, adapted to fulfilling some end connected with the maintenance and con- tinuance of life, and finding their driving force in the primary hormic impulses of the living thing (e. s. russell, the study of living things, 1924). the contrast is between the accuracy and mechanical undeviability of instinctive behaviour, inborn in the animal, and the probing tentativeness of intelligent action, which seeks to modify in the light of individual experience and to adapt to changing circumstance the blind impulsions of in- stinct. 495 definition.—li we adopt this broad criterion—modifiability of behaviour in relation to past experience—we may say that in- telligence in this sense is practically coextensive with animal life, for even the protozoa alter their mode of reaction if their first response fails, and show the beginnings of “‘ learning by experience ”’ (jennings 1906). animal behavieur.—since about tg00, much attention has been paid to the study of animal behaviour, both by zoologists, who have studied particularly the sensory physiology of animals and have tried to analyse their behaviour in terms of tropisms and reflexes (see, for instance, loeb 1919), and by professional psychologists, who have studied particularly the intelligence of the higher animals (and some of the lower) by means of highly developed and ingenious mechanical contrivances, such as puzzle boxes, mazes, and the like. nor should one omit to mention the good work done by field naturalists like beebe and miss frances pitt upon the behaviour of animals going about their ordinary business in their natural environment. experimental work.—with respect to the question of the in- telligence of animals, particularly of the higher forms, in the works of yerkes, thorndike and hunter, and in the useful general account by miss smith (1923) and kafka (1922), details are given of elaborate experimental researches carried out on habit-formation, the processes of association, sensory discrim- ination and so forth. generally speaking, these experiments afford little evidence of anything like reasoning power even among the higher verlebrates. learning appears to be a rather mechanical process, in which little intelligence, in the ordinary acceptation of the word, is shown. the objection may, however, be fairly made to many of these experiments that the animals are placed in unnatural conditions which inhibit them from de- veloping the full range of their capacities. of quite special interest in connection with the general problem of the intelligence of the higher animals are the experiments and observations of the distinguished german psychologist kehler, on a number of chimpanzees which were kept at an experimental station in teneriffe under very easy conditions of captivity. the apes had the run of a large open-air enclosure, and were allowed to de- velop a normal social life without undue interference. the tests applied were simple and based upon a thorough and sympathetic khowledge of their normal behaviour. they con- sisted generally in setting the animal the problem of attaining a coveted object, say an attractive fruit, which was placed beyond their reach—outside the bars of the enclosure, for instance, or suspended high up from its roof. the use of a stick, or of any- thing which might function as a stick, to draw the object within reach was grasped at once, and one ape learned to join two sticks together if both were too short. the use of a short stick to draw within reach a longer stick with which to attain the ob- jective also presented little difficulty to the more gifted indi- viduals. many learned to pile one box upon another in order to reach a high object—the best effort in this direction being a (somewhat ramshackle) construction of four boxes one on top of the other. what was really striking and significant about the experiments, however, was that the apes did not come by the solution of their problems by a random method of trial and error, but by suddenly grasping the situation after a longer or shorter period of puzzlement, and applying a correct solution straight away. kohler argues very convincingly that these apes must possess a certain power of insight or judgment of the visual situa- tion as a whole; their problem-solving is accordingly a very dif- ferent thing from the gradual beating out of a solution through undirected efiort and chance associations, which is found in the experiments of thorndike and his school. thinking animals.—in conclusion, a brief reference may be made to the so-called “thinking animals ’’—the elberfeld horses, the mannheim dog and others—which by means of signs can apparently spell out answers to questions and give the solution of mathematical problems. while the phenomena are not yet fully explained, there is a general consensus of opinion that these animals do not really reason, but are in some way ; guided unconsciously by their trainer—and perhaps by the spectators also. on the question of trained animals in general the works of hachet-souplet should be consulted. bibliography.—h. s. jennings, behavior of the lower organisms (1906); r. m. yerkes, the dancing mouse (1907); j. von uexkiill, umwelt und innenweli der tiere {1g09, 2nd ed. 1921); mi. f. w ash- burn, the animal mind (1909); g. bohn, la naissance de l’intel- ligence (1910); ff. pieron, l fevolution de la oe (1910); g. bohn, la nouvelle psychologie animale (1918); ee thorndike, animal intelligence (1911); p. hachet- sourlee, “la genese des instincts (1912); k. krall, denkende tiere (leipzig, 1912); w. me- dougall, psychology, the sindy of behaviour (1912); c. lloyd morgan, instinct and experience (1912); gs. kafka, einfihriung in die tier- psvchologie, |., die sinne der wirbellosen (leipzig, rora)* [. bs wat- son, behaviour (1914); l. t. hobhouse, afind in evolution, 2nd ed. (1915); e. m. smith, phe investigation of mind in animals (cam- bridge, 1915, 2nd ed., 1923); s. j. holmes, studies in animal be- havior (boston, pens il. bouvier, la vie psychique des insectes (1918, eng. tr., 1922); ‘y. loeh, forced movements, troepisms and animal conduct ( - 8): j. b. watson, psychology from the stand- point of a behaviorist (1919); p. hachet-souplet, les anmmanx savanis (1922); g. kafka, tierpsychologie in handbuch der ver- gleichenden psychologie (munich, 1922); w. s. tlunter, general psychology (chicago, 2nd ed., 1923); w. mcdougall, ai outline of psychology (1923); w. m. wheeler, social life and the insects (1923); w. von buddenbrock, grundriss der vergleichenden phystologie, v., sinnesorgane nnd nervensystem (1924); fe. s. russell, the study of living things (1924). see the journal of cant parative neurology and psychology (philadelphia); the journal of animal behaviour, and and behavior monographs. (hc r. ) intelligence, human (sce 14.680). —this name is among the most widely used and hotly disputed in the psychology of to- day. to call any one “ intelligent,” or one of its synonyms, as ‘ bright,” “sharp,” ‘‘ brainy,” or one of its antonyms, as “ stu- pid ” or “ dull,” is a universal custom, alike in scholastic work, industrial management and familiar conversation. the word has also long played a very conspicuous part as clenoting the aleged distinguishing privilege of the human species. but by far the greatest excitement has arisen jrom the claim raised that any person’s intelligence can actually be measured by means of mental tests. after some important theoretical work by others (sce later on), the first great practical success with these tests was effected by binet and simon in 1905. the test-scale devised by them was applied in a great many schools, and it still to this day—with radical revision —continues to be the standard scale, at any rate for young children. but the most startling achievement of the testing (chiefly by means of another scale) was its application to nearly 2,000,000 men of the american army in 1918. the results proved to be so useful as to elicit a very high eulogy from the american secretary of war. since then, the application of one or other of the multiplying scales to schools, universities and other institutions has in most civilised countries extended so widely as to comprehend the greater part of the juvenile population. what the tests afeasure—despite all this outward success, however, there has sprung up much and vehement criticism. the main source of trouble has been that those who are making such mental measurements cannot agree as to what they are measuring, or even as to what they ought to measure. for ex- ample, some think that intelligence should include memory, and they therefore introduce into their scales. a certain amount of memorizing. but other testers rigidly exclude any such thing. many—as binet himself—tirst declare that memory does not appertain to intelligence, and thea nevertheless proceed to make memorizing a conspicuous part of their actual tests. similar confusion and inconsistency reign about imagination, about attention and about sensory perception; both theory and actual practice are at loggerheads as to whether the tests should in- clude any or all of these. some authorities go the length ot wanting intelligence to embrace, not only the co-ordination of ideas, but equally that of movements. in short, this state of affairs can without exaggeration be called one of complete chaos. historicul development.—-the key to understanding the situ- ation appears to be supplied by historical considerations. with the old latin-writing philosophers, intelligence (intelligentia) meant the using of the intellect (intellectus); and the latter word was their rendering of the still older rods. this and sensory perception (aio@yots) were regarded as the two great faculties in'telligench, human of man. the sensory perception was his evil genius, tricking him with all manner of appearances and illusions, whilst the intelligence opened his eyes to the real truth. but in course of time other philosophers and psychologists brought into this the- ory various complications. by some a further faculty of memory was added on. by others, imagination was honoured in this way. by yet others, attention, and even movement. moreover, alongside of this tendency to set up various faculties outside of intelligence, and thus curtail the sphere of the latter, there also occurred some change in the opposite direction of expanding its sphere; in this way, it was sometimes made to comprehend even sensory perception,—which had originally been regarded as its very antithesis. with lapse of time, these diversified doctrines, each fairly distinct as handled by the school which advocated it, began to percolate down to wider and less instructed circles. in so doing they became more and more intermingled. what the word eventually evoked in the mind of the man in the street - never too nice about logical consistency—was a confused reverberation of all the different views. the last phase of the history was when modern psychologists— instead of properly moulding clear ideas for themselves—complacently took over this old notion of in- telligence from the popular usage. all went well enough until they began to examine what they had really got into their hands, which proved to be a word with so many meanings as practically to have none. definitions —vo cure such equivocality, the natural course would seem to be a definition. accordingly, there have been many attempts at this. most adherents appear to have been gained by the proposal to define intelligence as conscious ada pt- ability fo new situations (w. stern). but, unfortunately, nothing could be more equivocal than the term “ adaptation ”’ itself. admittedly it means a change that fulfils some purpose; but as to whose purpose, and of what kind, nothing is usually said; widely divergent interpretations are possible, and actually given. the next most favoured definition has been as the cupacity to feuri (buckingham). but this “ fear ”’ is at least as bad as the “adapt.” by the dictionary, it signifies the acquirement of any skill or knowledge. but most advocates of this definition evi- dently mean neither the acquiring of skill nor many forms of acquiring knowledge (¢.g., memorizing). what they do mean is left unstated. education. tation of intelligence has been extensively advocated, namely, as the power to perform what is called “ eduction’ (spearman). this is said to have two forms, of which the first consists simply in the perceiving of relations between any two given ideas (taking “idea ” in its broadest possible sense). the other form is when an idea and a relation are given, and from these two there has to be found the correla-- tive idea. now, eduction in this sense does escape the bane of equivocality. also, it has shown itself to be a power of para- mount importance, especially as contrasted with the only other possible ways of obtaining ideas (namely, by sensation and by reproduction}. moreover, this eduction does seem to indicate something which most persons will admit that they, in using the word intelligence, are really “ driving at.” dijiculttes of \\feuasuremeni.—any way, even after fitting the term intelligence with the most irreproachable definition there still remains a great difficulty in aceepting the far-reaching claims to have tested and measured if. the rub consists in the face that such a mental power—whichever of the definitions we may choose for it, even the last—always admits of being subdli- vided; hence, a separate measurement would seem to be indis- pensable for each subdivision, thus, binet himself admitted that the intellect breaks up into several different faculties, and wrote about these: ‘* the mental faculties of each subject are independent and unequal; with a little memory there may be so associated much judgment. our mental tests, always special in their scope, are each appro- priate to the analvsis of a single faculty ” (les idees moderines sur les enfants, paris, toro). if he thought this, then why did he not, why do not his followers, measure each of these independ- intelligence, military and naval ent faculties, memory, judgment, etc.,one by one? furthermore, each faculty itself can be divided up. for instance, why should not a person have a good memory for some things and a bad one for others? and if we push this argument far enough, the re- quired measure- ments would seem to become infinitely numer- ous, and therefore incapable of ever being really executed. tests by samples——for this difficulty of measurement there have been only two solutions so far proposed that deserve serious consideration. the first and most widely known—especially associated with the name of thorndike—is that the current tests measure a represesfative sample af the subject’s abilitics. but this view, plausible enough at first sight, does not bear scru- tiny. in order to pick any genuinely representative sample of anything, every portion of this must be represented fairly (see loacic). for example, the sampling of a field of potatoes would be far from representative if we selected many from some par- ticular areas and few or none from others; we ought to divide the field into equal parts, and pick an equal number from each. but in the case of mental abilities there seems to be no possible method of settling what parts are really equal. test scaies.—in a well known test-scale (yerkes}, judgment is made to supply three test-clements, whereas ideation supplies only one. oa what conceivable ground can we settle whether judgment is or is not three times as large a faculty as ideation? other test-scales no less arbitrarily reverse this ratio. as for the scale of binet, this even within itself gives the most widely divergent ratios between clifferent test-elements when the scale is applied to children of varying ages. coefficients of correlation.—there remains the other serious attempt at solution (spearman). if a large number of people are submitted to two tests, the degree in which the same persons tend to excel in both cases can be expressed numerically by what is called a coefficient of correlation. if several tests are used, there will of course be a correlation for each different pair of tests. now, proof has been given that, when the magnitudes of all these correlations satisfy certain mathematical conditions, then and only then the score of each person in each test can be divided into two factors, of which the one has always the same value (for the same individual), whereas the other varies inde- pendently from one test to another. these two factors have been symbolised as “ g’’ and “s’”’ respectively. measurement of “«”.—further evidence has been furnished that, with suitable tests (of ‘‘ eduction,’’ sce above), these mathe- matical conditions are actually fulfilled. it is easy to sec, then, that if the tests are made sufliciently numerous, the independent values of the “s’’ must tend to neutralise one another on an average, leaving the “ g”’ as a value uniformly characteristic of the individual. this “ g ” it is that has actually been measured —more or less accurately—by the mental tests now in usage. it is not in the least equivocal, for we know exactly under what conditions it always occurs. but there still remains the task of interpreting it; herein it resembles electricity, which was meas- ured with great exactitude long before its intrinsic nature was even approximately understood. in both cases, too, the ilumi- nation does not arrive in a flash, but accumulates gradually. at the present moment, “ g*’ seems to be best conceived as a person’s “ general mental energy,’’ whcreas the “s” varying from test to test represents so many different mental “ engines,” into any of which (alternatively) the energy can be switched. in this “ g,” then, the “ intelligence ” receives vet another pos- sible interpretation. here, it would not consist in any entire ability whatever, but constitute a factor that enters into multi- tudinous (eductive) abilities. but whether or not the “g” be invested with this title of intelligence, it at any rate furnished the original inspiration for the miscellaneous mixture of test- elements that currently claim to measure it (in this respect, binet appears to have been an unconscious borrower). also, it supplies such tests with their sole genuine justification. bibltogrrapity.—this is widely dispersed, for the most part in the many journals specially devoted to psychology. a general account may be found in the nature of intelligence, by c. epee (1923). sp.) 497 intelligence, military and naval.— under this desig- nation may be considered the work of obtaining, collating, inter- preting and distributing information, in peace and war, about foreign powers, the countering of foreign powers’ efforts to ob- tain intelligence, and the organisation which performs these duties. information as to actual or potential enemies, allies and theatres of war, has always been required and obtained by gov- ernments and commanders in the field; the employment of spies, the questioning of prisoners, date from the earliest times in hits- tory, but never have the scope, and what might be termed the technique of military intelligence, reached such a high degree of development as in the world war. i. intelligence in peace ‘time in time of peace, the relative military power of a nation with regard to other foreign powers, and in particular to its immediate neighbours, necessarily affects its foreign policy. every gov- ernment therefore maintains an intelligence svstem, which gen- erally forms a section of the headquarters staif of its military forces (known in most countries as the general staff), for the purpose of -— (a) providing its government with all necessary information regarding the military power of foreign nations; (b) devising means whereby, in case of war, all essential informa- tion concerning the enemy, allies and theatre of war may be placed at the disposal of the commander and troops, and the supply of further information continued throughout the campaign; (c) preventing the acquisition of information by the enemy. type of information required ~the fighting power of a na- tion can only be gauged when accurate and detailed information is available on certain factors, the most important of which are the organisation, strength and power of expansion, armament, tactics and morale of its armed forces, the characteristics of 1ts jeaders, its defensive works and fortresses, its communications, such as road, railway, waterway, aerodrome, cable, telegraph and wireless telegraphy systems, its physical and political geog- raphy, climatic conditions and economic and industrial re- sources in relation to military requirements. this information also enables the general staif to prepare, and keep up to date, plans for offensive and defensive operations, together with esti- mates of the forces required for their execution against any power or combination of powers, with which the particular power, either alone or in co-operation with other powers, might be brought into conflict. : sources and walue of information.—the main sources from which information is derived in peace time are statistics and economic data obtained from foreign government publications, from the press and technical works, foreign training manuals, military and geographical publications and from information procured by the secret service. when war breaks out, this intelligence system provides the commander and troops about to take the ficld with maps and all available information regarding the theatre of war, the armed forces and military resources af allicd and hostile powers, with their special characteristics; this information forms the basis of the plan of campaign, but requires to be supplemented with in- formation concerning the enemy’s mobilisation, concentration and order of battle in general. for this purpose preparations must be made beforehand and an intelligence organisation pro- vided for the troons in the field; the intelligence section therefore lays down the foundation of the tntelligence organisation re- quired in war and makes arrangements for expansion by training the special personnel required. il. intelligence in war time in war, the greatly increased activities of the home or head- quarters intelligence service are mainly directed to arcas outside the theatre, or theatres, of operations. in the latter, the armics in the field are provided with intelligence services of their own, who form an additional source of information for the home intel- ligence service, which is responsible for the further callation and distribution of the information thus received. 498 field or ganisation.—in the field, the intelligence section of the general staff collects and collates all information regarding the enemy’s forces and intentions and the theatre of war, supplics to the commander, stafis and fighting troops all information which will assist them in preparing and carrying out plans for the defeat of the enemy and endeavours to prevent the acquisi- tion by the enemy of similar information. to be of practical value, the information supplied must be relevant, furnished in time to be of use and in such form as will admit of its immediate application by those concerned. ‘these conditions require the closest co-operation and mutual understanding between the in- telligence and operations sections of the general staff. the developments, technical and otherwise, of modern warfare have placed at the disposal of the intelligence section many resources for collecting information which were not available prior to the 1914-9 campaign. intelligence in the field has become a large and intricate organisation, the varied and complex nature of whose duties necessitates the employment as assistants to the general staff proper, of a large number of highly trained specialists. knowledge of the enemy’s intentions is of supreme value to a commander, and the intelligence section should therefore pos- sess throughout the campaign early, accurate and continuous information regarding the enemy’s “ order of battle,”’ his move- ments of men and war material, his tactical method, armament and equipment, the organisation of his defences and rear serv- ices, the topography of the theatre of war. the relative value of these different classes of information varies with circumstances; the character of the operations may change at any moment from open warfare to stabilised warfare, or the reverse; an intelligence service must therefore be elastic both in method and organisation. method, accuracy and speed are essential for the collection, re- ception, transmission and collation of information, but this work is of no value unless timely deductions can be made from the evidence available. the making of deductions, appreciations and forecasts both as to the probable action of the enemy and the prospect of successful operations undertaken by its own troops is the most important duty of an intelligence section. its true function, in fact, is to represent the operations section of the enemy, for broadly speaking it provides all information concern- ing the enemy, the allies and the theatre of war, whilst the opera- tions section provides similar information regarding the troops of its own army. scope and nature of information.—information regarding the enemy’s “order of battle’ is of paramount importance. it includes the organisation, composition and strength of hos- tile formations, the direction of their initial concentration and subsequent movements, their distribution, morale and fighting efficiency, the characters of their commanders, methods of re- cruiting and man-power available to replace wastage. the identification of units is the foundation of all “ order of battle ” intelligence. movements of men, supplies and matcrial on a large scale normally portend some important development or a change of the enemy’s plans, but as they must take place along organised lines of communication are difficult to conceal. de- tailed knowledge of the enemy’s system of communications and means of transport is therefore essential; the capacity of railways, quality of roads, navigability of waterways at different seasons, system of acrodromes and auxiliary landing grounds must be carefully studied if reliable conclusions are to be arrived at re- garding the size of any movement and the time required for its execution. full information regarding the tactics and armament of the enemy at the outbreak of war is usually available by the study of his peace training and organisation; but his methods of employ- ing troops and their weapons in the ficld must be followed very closely in order to discover new developments as early as pos- sible. in the world war full knowledge of each others’ pre-war tactics and armament was possessed by the opposing armies, but almost from the beginning of hostilities modifications and new ideas were introduced, which frequently provoked counter measures. instances were the employment of poisonous gases, flame and gas projectors, “ storm troops,’ stokes mortars and intelligence, milifary and naval tanks. all the economic resources of a state may be required to meet the strain of a prolonged campaign, and accurate knowl- edge regarding these resources is one of the means of gauging the enemy's staving power. sources and means of collecting information.—the main sources of information are prisoners, deserters, localinhabitants, captured documents and material, land reconnaissance and observation, hostile signalling communications, air reconnaissance and pho- tography, the enemy and neutral press and agents; the principal agencies for its collection are the fighting troops, the signal service, aircraft and secret service. the information, whether positive or negative, acquired by contact with the enemy is that on which every commander mainly relies in making his tactical plan. hence, to keep the enemy under such close and continuous ob- servation that he can make no movement without being detected is the primary object of all reconnaissance, whether on the ground or from the air. ground reconnaissance may be purely topographical, e.g., the acquisition of unmapped information about the ground; it may be tactical, e.g., to discover the enemy’s positions, the strength and distribution of his defences, his tactics, movements and in- tentions; or for the purpose of obtaining ‘‘ identifications,” 7.e., information about the hostile troops in line, their morale, arma- ment and equipment, by the capture of prisoners or documents. these objects are achieved by sending out mobile troops, patrols or raiding parties, or by observation from fixed points. the latter may be visual or instrumental. visual observation for intelligence purposes is an organised system for the observation of all enemy activity within the range of vision of its observation posts by trained observers provided with a special equipment of maps, telescopes, periscopes, etc., its elements being generally so placed and co-ordinated that the exact location of the enemy activity recorded can be fixed by intersection, ¢.g., ‘‘ flash-spotting.”’ instrumental observation is mainly automatic, by instruments disposed to receive, trans- form and transmit impulses from outside, e.g., sound-ranging installations, electrical listening posts, wireless interception and direction-finding apparatus. clir reconnaissaunce.—information from the air is derived from balloon observation, aeroplane reconnaissance and air photog- raphy. the development of air reconnaissance and photog- raphy has to a great extent revolutionised the whole service of military intelligence in the field; not only are aircraft capable of assuming the duty of strategic reconnaissance, but the caimera has made it posstble to obtain, particularly in position warfare, a far more detailed and exact knowledge of the enemy’s system of defence, communication and supply than has ever been pos- sible before. the principal weakness of air reconnaissance and photography, however, lies in their necessary dependence on the weather. balloon observation is used principally for the observation of movement by road, railways, and in back areas, of defence works, the location of hostile batteries and the observation of hostile artillery activity. aeroplane reconnaissance is used at the beginning of a campaign to locate the direction of the enemy’s main concentra- tion, to report on the movements and activities of the enemy's troops; and subsequently to supply information on the latter's tactical dispositions, the construction or destruction of bridges, the construction of new defences, ete. strategical reconnaissance involves long distance reconnaissances, extending frequently to distances exceeding 100 m.; they are usually carried out by single aeroplanes flying at such an altitude as to minimise the chance of hostile interference; at this height, move- ments of troops on the ground are unnoticeable, and the information gained is largely confined to reports of railway movements, activity at important junctions, formations of large camps, etc. it is often necessary to fly at medium altitudes and to employ formations of aircraft capable of dealing with air opposition, to obtain more de- taile.| strategical information. tactical information can only be ob- tained in sufficient detail by aircraft flying low (close reconnaissance) who can be expected to distinguish troops in the open and artillery in action, can dive neac enough ‘to the ground to clear up a defi- nite point, such as the existence of a machine gun emplacement or whether a trench system is occupied or not. photography forms an essentia! part of all air reconnaissance. even in the cases of reconnaissances at high altitudes photographs may be expected to show road movements, tracks, camps, new intelligence tests works, battery positions, dumps, hospitals, light railways, telegraph lines and other signs of military activitv, while in the case of close reconnaissance carried out at lesser altitudes, photographs taken in favourable weather enable experts to discover the smallest details of the enemy’s defences. ill. the secret service the secret service supplies information regarding matters behind the enemy's front, and in his home territory, including strength and location of reserves, rear defences and lines of com- munication, internal conditions in the enemy's country and the state of his resources in man power and material. secret service methods —the methods employed in this branch of intelligence work can only be referred to in general terms. broadly speaking, its duties are:— 1. offensive, in the acquisition of information by means other than those described in sections [. and ui. above; 2, defensive, in the prevention of the acquisition by foreign powers of information regarding the forces of its own country. the duties of the offensive section, to which alone the name of secret service is popularly applied, are similar in peace and war, but war increases the importance, and with it the difficulties and dangers of the work of secret agents or spies. agents work @ poste fixe, on definite missions or on general roving commissions; they penctrate into enemy territory through the ports, in the guise of peaceful neutrals armed with all the necessary papers, or get there by other means, which in war include penetrating the enemy lines, either in uniform or mufti, during the progress of an action; landing behind them from an aeroplane or free balloon or crossing a frontier guarded by sentries and electrified wire. false papers, disguises, secret ink and all the other tricks beloved of the spy novel may form part of their equipment, but in practice, the most dangerous and efficient spy ts the least sensational in his meth- ods: when arrested he invariably has all his papers in order, and is the most plausible person alive. an espionage system in war involves the employment of many thousands of men, women and even children of all grades of society and of all professions: post-boxes, smugglers, guides, train watchers, pigeon men, couriers, runners, etc. all have their part to play, and that part, far from being ignoble, may be, if actuated by patriotism, as noble, as dangerous and as heroic as any played in the armies in the field. contre-espionnage.—the duties of the defensive section, popu- larly described as contre-es pionnage, are also the same in peace or war, but the machinery and methods vary when carried out in home territory, in occupied enemy or allied territory. the conire-espionnage section in home territory commands in peace and war all the assistance of trained police, censorship, port control, hotel registration, the erection of arbitrary barriers such as prohibited areas and of all the preventive measures which are the outcome of years of experience in combating enemy espionage under all conditions. in occupied territory, intelligence in the field equally enjoys these powers, and, in addition, the arbitrary powers of an occupying army, but the whole population is potentially hostile. in allied territory the difficulties are greater, as it is the ally who con- trols in his own home territory all the real preventive machinery. the object of contre-espionnage is, first and foremost, preven- tion. information may be gained by the enemy’s agents equally from one’s own troops and from the civil population; the former may sell or convey information deliberately, but will more prob- ably convey it to the enemy’s agents through indiscretion. ‘“‘ leakage ’’ may occur in several ways; gossip about impending operations among the troops, especially when on leave and out of the line; indiscreet conversations, messages and misuse of code on field telephones and telegraph; marking of railway trucks, transport and billets, with inscriptions giving identifications of units; indiscre- tion in correspondence; careless handling of confidential papers and books; taking orders, codes, books, papers of any kind, even private letters into the front line; wearing of badges and numbers, which reveal identifications and in many other analogous ways. the contre-espionnage section 1s also responsible for the con- trol of the civil population. this involves the control of circu- lation, of the use of telegraph, telephone and other methods of communication, which might be utilised by enemy agents. (tg. ga) intelligence tests.—<an intelligence test or intelligence examination is an instrument to measure the amount of intelli- gence shown by a human being or a lower animal. the tnstru- 499 ment consists of a series of questions to be answered, or direc- tions to be followed, or things to be learned, or intellectual tasks of any sort to be performed. intelligence or intellect may be defined as the ability to perform intellectual tasks; and an intelli- gence test is a specially instructive sampling of such tasks. sample tests.—the tasks shown below are representative of those used in standard intelligence tests. ‘‘show me your nose. put your finger on your nose.” same with eyes, mouth and hair. three responses out of four must be correct. what is the difference between: (a) laziness and idleness; (6) evolution and revolution; (¢) poverty and misery; (d) character and reputation. repeating three digits. after some explanation and practice, the person tested is asked to say 6-4-1, then to say 3-5-2, then to say 8-3-7. the test is passed if one scries out of three is repeated without error, after a single hearing. repeating six digits reversed. the series used are 4-7-1-9-5-2, 5-8-3-2-9-4 and 7-5-2-6-3-8. the test is passed if one series out of three is repeated without error. tom runs faster than jim, jack runs slower than jim. which is the slowest of the three? john said: i heard my clock strike yesterday, 10 minutes before the first gun fired. i did not count the strokes, but j am sure it struck more than once, and i think it struck an odd number.” john was out all the morning from the earliest hours; and his clock stopped at five to five the same afternoon. when do you think the first gun was fired? after some explanation and practice, the person tested is asked to ‘“‘ finish what i say.” at night you sleep in. . . . mary has a ring on her... . you wear gloves on your. ... you weara... on your head. the... of character is its ability to... liberty ... from licence. judicial decisions are of . . . or less authority as prece- dents . . . to circumstances. a person who has been tested in respect of an examination consisting of from 50 to 200 such tasks may be given a score, and so be put in comparison with all others who have been tested with the same collection of tasks. intelligence quotient.—subject to certain limitations, the score may be expressed in terms of a mental age, that is, the age at which the average child is able to attain it. thus if john doe, aged 12-0, scores 118 in the national intelligence examination, and if the average child of age 13-1 attains a score of 118 in this examination, john doe has a mental age of 13-1 years. john tdoe’s intelligence quotient, or i.q., is his mental agext1o0o 13°11 x 100 12-0 this form of statement is useful for individuals whose scores are not higher than those made by the average child of 14, and whose chronological ages are not over 18. for higher levels and jater ages the method is of doubtful value. the score may also be expressed in terms of the percentage of some defined group who would attain lower scores than it. thus, if 71°. of persons aged 12-0 score lower than 118, and 29°% score higher, in the national intelligence examination, john doe may be recorded as in the 71 percentile for his age. this method is especially useful in the case of the higher levels of intelligence and adult ages. a more retined measure of this type expresses any individual's score as a plus or minus deviation from the average for some detined group in terms of the variability of that group as a unit. the technique by which this is done is bevond the scope of this article. systems ti use--—there are 30 or more such intelligence exam- inations now in use. some, like the pintner-cunningham pri- mary tests, are adapted to measure very young children aged two to five years. the national intelligence examination is designed to fit the intellects of the jevel of ordinary children from nine to 15. the terman group test is especially suited to measure young people from 14 to 20. some, like the thorndike examination for high-school graduates, are adapted to measure gifted adults. some, like the army group examination alpha, require an ability to read and write; some, like the binet, are given orally; some, like the army beta, are largely independent of language. some, lke the otis group intelligence scale, meas- ure chiefly intellect as it operates with words and numbers and abstract relations; some are more concerned with information divided by his chronological age, that is , or toq. 500 about things and persons. in some, the speed of response counts a great deal in determining the score made; in others, it counts very little, the time allowed being sufficient to permit almost everybody to do almost everything of which he is capable. historical development.—fexisting instruments for measuring intelligence developed from three roots: the tests of sensory acuity, memory, attention and the like devised in the early history of psychology; the interview, as of physician with patient or employer with candidate for employment; and the school examination. galton, cattell and binet were pioneers in this field of psychology. sir f. galton’s zaguiries into human fac- aty (1883) presented the general problem of the measurement of individual differences; and he soon thereafter set up in the south kensington museum in london a laboratory where any person could be measured in a series of physical and mental traits. under the intluence especially of cattell, many short examinations or “ tests ” of special mental powers were devised and rather widely used in the united states from 1890 on. im- portant work was done by kraepelin and ebbinghaus in ger- many. an eminent french psychologist, alfred binet, using the gencral form of an interview between physician and patient, enriched by suggestions from psvchological tests proper, pro- duced in 19053 what may be called a standardised interview, consisting of 30 questions and tasks, many of which were chosen from the tests of special powers now familiar to all psvcholo- gists. this ‘‘ metric scule of intelligence ” was further improved and divided into age levels in 1908, and finally revised in ro11. many variations of it have been used in different countries. while binet was developing a scientific interview and record and score, various psychologists in america were testing children in groups by means of printed collections of tests. the next step was the arrangement of such a collection in a standardised unitary examination, after the general plan of written examina- tions in school subjects. one of the earliest and by far the most influential of such arrangements was the group examination alpha prepared in 1917 for measuring recruits in the u.s. army. this examination was taken by nearly 2,000,000 men, large groups (sometimes over 1,000) being sometimes examined at one time and place. ‘afodes of u'se.—since then, intelligence examinations have increased rapidly in number, have become diversified in nature, and have been much improved in respect of convenience in giving and scoring. they are widely used, especially in the united states, as an aid in the proper grading and classifying and treatment of school children; and in studies of special groups such as defectives, delinquents and dependents. the methods used in conducting intelligence examinations are also being ap- plicd to examinations in school subjects, producing the so-called ‘“new-type ” examinations and educational achievement tests. at least 1,000,000 such examinations were made in the case of school children alone in the year 1925. some of the leading american universities require an intelligence examination as a part of the general admission requirement. in spite of notable improvements during the last 20 years, existing instruments for measuring intelligence suffer from serious deficiencies. just what they measure is not known; how far it is justifiable to treat the scores by ordinary arithmetic is not known; just what the scores signify concerning intelligence in general is in dispute. an intelligence examination is still a more or less undefined collection of tasks, its score is still a somewhat arbitrary summation of credits, and the correspondence of the scores 1o the abilitics which they purport to measure is still far from perfect. psychologists are working to supply these deti- ciences, seeking to replace the undefined collections of tasks by tasks rigorously defined in nature and graded by a true scale of intellectual difhiculty, so that the score may mean the precise height of intellectual difficulty which the person in question can master (see examinations). bistiogrrariy.— a. rinet and t. simon, “! methodes nouvellcs pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux,” annee psychologique, vol. 11, pp. 191-244 (1905); g. m. whipple, afaszal of menial and physical tests (1910); l. m. terman, the aleasure- internal combustion engines ment of intelligence (1919); w. stern, die intelligens der kinder und jugendlichen (1920); r. m. yerkes and others, ‘‘ psychological exam- ining in the united states army,” afemoirs of the national academy of scrences, val. 15 (1921); c. burt, afental and scholastic tests (1921); r. pintner, intelligence testing (1923); c. spearman, the natire of intelligence’ and the principles of cognition (1923); k. young, “the history of mental testing,” pedagogical seminary, vol. 31, pp. 1-48 (1924); e. l. thorndike, and others, the measurement of intelligence (1926). 4 em read era internal combustion engines.—for the evolution of the internal combustion engine from its first appearance in prac- tical form as the otto silent gas engine of 1876 down to the year 1910 see the articles gas engine and o1l engine (11.405 and 20.35). | the essential feature of all internal combustion engines is the exceedingly rapid combustion, or explosion, within the working cylinder itself, of a mixture of air and some inflammable gas or vapour; great heat is liberated by the explosion and this causes a correspondingly great rise of pressure in the working mixture which then drives the piston forward, so performing the working stroke. all present-day internal combustion engines operate upon either the otto (de rochas) four-stroke, or upon the clerk- type two-stroke cycle; in the first of these only one working stroke, per single-acting cylinder, occurs in every alternate revo- lution at the crankshaft, while in the second a working stroke is obtained in each revolution. -: the types from 1910 are conveniently referred for descriptive purposes to five groups, viz.: large gas engines (exceeding, say, 400 h.p.). medium gas engines (less than about 400 h.p.). i-ngines using heavy oils as fucl. iengines using light oils as fuel. special types. large gas engines.—the changes in this class between 1910 and 1925 consisted almost wholly in improvements in detail; in the extended employment of waste substances as fuel for the gas producers; in the employment of high-tension electrical methods of ignition; in better cooling and governing arrangements, etc. ‘the increase in the number of ges engines of the inverted-verti- cal multi-cylindered, quick-revolution, floor-space-saving type is also noteworthy. the large, horizontal, slow-speed type is illustrated by the niirnberg, or m.a.n., four-stroke, single-cylinder or tandem, or twin-tandem, double-acting engines commonly using as fuel producer gas, coke-oven gas, blast-furnace gas or natural gas. one notable installation in japan includes four horizontal tan- dem double-acting, single-crank, four-stroke cycle engines, each direct-coupled to a 1,500 kw. alternator. the cylinders are 474 in. diameter and the stroke is 51} in.; each engine is capable of developing 2,500 h.p. at 100 r.p.m.; the fucl used is mond producer gas, the producers (with ammonia recovery) yiclding 111,000 cu. {t. of gas per ton of japanese coal. these engines are very massive; each cylinder weighs 25 tons; the fly-whecl too tons (sce fig. 2 on plate) and the complcte engine about 400 tons. at full load the consumption of fuel was about 1-8 lb. per kw. hour. among other similar installations is that at the san mateo power station of twin-tandem, double- acting, horizontal four-strokers, each unit containing four cyl- inders, 42 in. diameter x 60 in. stroke, and developing 5,40 b.hlp. at 90 revolutions per minute. the m.a.n. type, though large and heavy and occupying considerable floor space, is ex- ceedingly reliable and economical; thus, a 2,000 h.p. m.an. engine using blast-furnace gas ran day and night during 109 months; in 13,870 consecutive hours the engine actually raz during 13,687 hours, 7.¢., 98-6° of the whole time; and the stop- pages were due not to the engine but to repairs necessary to the blast furnace. a third noteworthy large installation has 17 hori- zontal, twin-tandem, doulle-acting, four-stroke m.a.n. type engines, capable of an aggregate output of over s50,oc0 horse- power. large two-siroke gas engines —the large two-stroke clerk cycle engine has also found considerable favour in the horizontal designs at koerting and oechelhauser. (sce 11.499-500.) internal combustion engines plate [4 —— fic. 1. 500 b.h.p. 4-cylinder diesel engine. fic. 2. flywheel of 2,500 b.h.p. horizontal gas engine; approx. weight, 100 tons. fic. 3, 3,000 b.h.p. galloway twin-cylinder horizontal gas engine. fic. 4. part sectional view of modern air-cooled single-cylinder, two-stroke engine, with principal parts named. fic. 5. latest type rolls-royce 40-50 h.p. car engine, (fig. 4. by courtesy of ‘the motor cycle.” fig. 5. by courtesy of messrs. rolls-royce limited.) internal combustion engines koerting—the double-acting, two-stroke koerting engine, with its characteristic very long water-cooled piston and central ring of exhaust parts has been built in england in units of up to 1,000 h.p., with cylinders 373 in. diameter x 63 in. stroke, run- ning at 7o r.p.m., while on the continent of europe units giving 2,000 h.p. per cylinder 42 in. diameter x 55 in. stroke x 80-90 r.p.m. have appeared; the koerting type engines installed at bufialo aggregate 40,000 horsepower. the american worth- ington co.’s first large inverted-vertical, cross-head-type, double- acting, two-stroke engine, built in 1924, using oil as fuel in the diesel manner, employed the koerting type piston. oechclhauser—the manufacture of this type of single-acting, two-stroke, opposed-piston, open-cylindered, internal combustion engine has been greatly stimulated by the ingenious arrange- ment adopted by mr. fullagar, who has retained the character- istic advantages of the type and has obtained in addition marked economy in space, weight and production cost by associating two oechelhauser cylinders side by side with cross-over piston coupling rods, as his power unit. the fullagar engine is built in england mainly for marine purposes, using heavy oil as fuel in the diesel manner. | vertical gas engines.—the considerable bulk and weight of the horizontal slow-revolution large gas engine has caused much attention to be devoted to the faster-running, multiple-cylin- dered, inverted-vertical type occupying much less floor space and of diminished bulk and weight. prominent among builders of this type is the national gas engine co. of england, who build a series ranging from a 4-cylinder, 2-crank, single-acting four-stroke, inverted-vertical tandem design of 300 b.ji.p. at 300 r.p.m. toa 12-cylinder, 6-crank similar design of 1,500 b.ee.p. running at 200 revolutions per minute. one instailation of these national engines aggregates 11,500 horsepower. horizontal multiple-cylindered engines are also built; one british installa- tion includes six soo h.p. four-cycle, four-crank, single-acting, horizontal, four-stroke engines running at 100 revolutions per minute. fig. 3 on plate illustrates a horizontal gas engine with two cylinders in tandem, working on a four-stroke cycle. medium gus engines.—in gas engines of less than about 400 h.p. no essential change has occurred; there is a steady output by many builders of a practically standard type of four- stroke, horizontal, single-acting, single- or cdouble-cylindered engine using coal gas or suction-producer gas as fuel, and em- ploved in 2 great varicty of services by the smaller classes of power users. designs of two-cylindered engines range in power from about two up to some 3c0 h.p.or over. the gaseous fuel is provided by many more or less waste substances, includ- ing bituminous slack, peat, scrap wood, sawdust, straw, cocoa- nut husks, etc. these smaller gas engines, in conjunction with modern plant producing gas from industrial and vegetable refuse, are very valuable in enabling complete power plants to be in- stalled and successfully operated by native labour in situations remote from civilised centres. engines using heavy oils.—it is in the entirely successful use of heavy oil (petroleum oils having a flash point exceeding about 73° f.) as fuel in internal combustion engines that the greatest advance was made from 1910-25; this applied to all types of engines, from the smallest to the greatest, and particu- larly to the exceedingly important and rapidly extending marine applications where, owing to their relative compactness and the absence of boilers and bunkers, the space occupied by the pro- pelling machinery is greatly reduced. the earliest heavy-oil engines as, for example, those of priest- man (1885), samuelson, thornycroft, gardner and others, in- cluded a vaporiser, heated by an external blow lamp, in which the fuel was gasified, and then, mixed with a suitable volume of cool air, exploded within the working cylinder by a hot tube. compression pressures were necessarily low to prevent detona- tion, and the fuel consumption was correspondingly high. next came <akroyd stuart’s (1886-90) epoch-making invention, successfully embodied in the hornsby-akroyd oil engine, of utilising the hot walls of an unjacketed vessel (communicating through a restricted passage with the water-cooled combustion 501 chamber of the working cylinder) first to vaporise the charge of oil fuel pump-injected into it during the air-suction stroke, and then automatically to ignite the resulting charge of oi], vapour, and air at the end of the compression stroke. equally important was the progress made by the diesel engine (see fig. 1 on plate) from 1893 in both four-stroke and two-stroke designs; the essen- tial feature of the true diesel is defined as the injection of the oil fuel directly into the water-cooled combustion chamber at, or about, the end of the compression stroke; air alone is com- pressed to a pressure of some 500 |b. per sq. in., the resulting high temperature automatically igniting the explosive mixture of air and oil spray; the fuel feed is so regulated that combustion proceeds at approximately constant pressure during a small part of the working stroke. the oil fuel was for long sprayed into diesel engines by an air blast at a pressure of up to 1,000 lb. per sq. in., involving compressing plant costly in production and maintenance; more- over, the high compression pressure employed necessitated ex- tremely strong and heavy parts, and an extraordinary refine- ment in workmanship in order to achieve permanently satisfac- tory running. the efliciency attained was, however, remark- able, and considerably greater than that of any other form of internal combustion oil engine. these practical drawbacks soon resulted in the procuction, for smaller powers, of a large, varied and important class of engines usually termed semi-diesels, in which the charge of heavy oil fuel is sprayed, usually by a small force pump, into the combustion chamber at or about the in- stant of maximum compression. the heat of an uncooled por- tion of the combustion chamber wall, aided by the heat gener- ated by the moderate compression of the air, then ignites the charge automatically asin the well-known ruston c.c., and in the two-stroke bolinder ‘‘ hot-bulb ” marine engine, as used in so many trawlers, and in ocean-going boats of up to 1,000 h.p. in two units. the semi-diesel engines combine many of the ad- vantages of the akroyd and diesel types in a practical manner, and show considerable economy in running. more recently, about 1924, it was discovered that the ‘ hot- bulb ” or “ hot-spot” in the combustion chamber could also be dispensed with, allowing the whole to be water-cooled as in the vertical, vickers-petter, two-stroke, two-part, heavy-oil, c-type engines which are built in sizes up to 500 h.p. running at 250 r.p.m., with six cylinders. in these the charge of oil is pump- injected into a completely water-cooled combustion chamber of approximately spherical form about one-half the diameter of the working cylinder; the compression employed, though much lower than that usual in the diesel engine, is yet great enough to cause automatic ignition of the charge, and to ensure an eco- nomical use of the fuel; the cheapest grade fuel oils are used in these engines, having a flash point above 150°f., and otherwise also in accordance with b.e.s.a, specifications. the consump- tion of oil at full load in the larger engines is stated to be not more than o-43 ib. per bhp. hour (see marine engineering). the progress evidenced in the application of the internal combustion engine to marine purposes of all types was of a revolutionary character during the period here contemplated, and continued at a constantly increasing rate; at the end of 1925 all the great british marine engineering companics had taken up their manufacture. engines using light otl.—yhis comprises the petrol motor now applied universally to the propulsion of all types of road and land vehicles, aircraft, small motor-boats, farm tractors and miscellaneous small services. for road, land and air service they were still, in 1925, almost all four-strokers, with the exception of cars in the united states, where the six-stroker is equally pop- ular except in the lightest classes, e.g., motor-cycles, small motor- boats and a few light cars in which the simple three-port two- stroker had become well established. the progress of the petrol engine from igto consisted mainly in the perfecting of details of design, improved carburation, charging and ignition, in lighter moving parts, and in the commercial production of fuel mix- tures free from liability to cause detonation or “ pinking,” thus enabling much higher revolution speeds to be maintained and greater mean elfective pressures reached. the success attained 502 is indeed remarkable, tiny petrol engines rivalling in efficiency large, high-powered engines of almost any other type. small engines of racing type have been run in contests at well over 6,000 r.p.m., 7.e., upwards of so complete cycles per sec.; and tiny four-cylinder four-stroke engines of only 2-2 in. bore and 3 in. stroke were in extensive use in small “ occasiona) four-seater ”’ motor cars capable of speeds, on the track, of fully 80 m. per hour! a number of very encouraging attempts have recently been made to increase power outputs still further by aid of super- charging devices. at the british motor car show of 1925, 65°% of the vehicle engines were four-cylindered: 27% six-cylindered: and 5% eight-cylindered. side by side valves were fitted in 45° and overhead valves in 44°% of the exhibits. producer gas lorrics-—a post-war development of much interest and potential value is that of driving heavy motor lor- ries by small high-speed internal combustion engines of the usual type, but using as fuel gas supplied by specially designed very fue wine fic. t.—(a) 75-b.h.p., single-cytinder horizontal engine. 200 r.p.me. weight 200 ib. per b.h.p. total 15,000 lb. (@) 75-b.ilp., 6-cylinder, vertical, water-cooled aero engine. 1,200 r.p.m, weight 5!4 ib. per b.h.p. total 410 ib. (c) 75-b.h.p., 7-cylin- der, rotary, air-cooled acro engine. 1,200 r.p.m. weight 234 ib. per b.hl.p. total 205 ib. small suction producers mounted upon the vehicle, and using anthracite, coke, charcoal, etc., as their fuel; encouraging prog- ress has been made in this direction. engines for aircraft—chaacterised by their extreme light- ness, these internal combustion engines display the utmost skill in design and refinements in manufacture, and important ad- vances have been made in all details since 1910. (sce aero engines; aeronautics.) special types——among special types of internal combustion engines may be mentioned the humphrey pump. in 1913 an installation of five large hlumphrcy pumps at the chingford reservoir of the metropolitan water board commenced opera- tions; this plant is capable of dealing with 180,000,000 gal. daily, a quantity exceeding the whole daily supply of greater london. at the end of 1925 these pumps continued in regular service, and a second similar installation was in course of erection tn australia. the construction of a 1,000 million-gallon-per-day plant near alexandria (egypt) was commenced, but was not completed on account of the outbreak of the world war. a second recent design of internal combustion engine of much interest is the michell crankless engine oil-operated in the diesel manner. in this engine the working cylinders are grouped sym- metrically around the driving shaft, with their axes all parallel to the shaft axis, and the rotation is effected through a ‘f swash- platc,”’ or inclined disc affixed to the shaft upon which the sev- eral pistons act through a bearing “ pad” of the well-known michell thrust-bearing type. engines of three, four, five, seven international labour organisation, the and eight cylinders have been built, both of single-ended and double-ended type. an eight-cylinder michell engine of 50 h.p., recently built, showed on test a mechanical efficiency of 86% at full load. the extremely great difliculties of the internal com- bustion turbines still remain to be overcome, and little or no real progress can be recorded in this type of motor during the period herein reviewed. (g. a. bu.) international labour organisation, the.—this or- ganisation was created in 1919 by part null. of the treaty of versailles, headed ‘‘ labour.” this part was reproduced in all the later peace treaties, appearing as part xiii. of the treatics of saint germain, neuilly, trianon, and part xii. of the treaty of sevres. these treaties are the first known to history to contain articles dealing with labour. i. origin and constitution the idea of protecting labour by international conventions is in reality not a new one. strictly speaking, its origins might be traced back to the humanitarian theories of a handful of thinkers who over a century ago foresaw the necessity of establishing economic co-operation among the nations in order effectually to remedy the evils which might spring from the development of modern industry. the name of robert gwen is often quoted as a pioneer of international labour legislation on account of the two memoranda which he submitted to the congress of aachen in 1818. in reality, although owen was indisputably a pioneer of protective iegislation for national, wage-earning labour, his memoranda do not contain the idea of an understanding between governments for the establishment of identical protec- tive measures in favour of their wage-earners. a french indus- trialist, daniel le grand, attempted to promote this idea between 1840-60. but it was only after 1890 that certain governments began to show an interest in it. a conference was held in berlin, convened by the german govt., but it confined itself to enunciating a few very general principles. at last, in 1900 the idea took form when a private organisation, encouraged and subsidised by certain governments, was formed under the name of the ‘international association for labour legislation ”’ (assn. int. pour la prot. legale des travailleurs} with headquarters at basel. in 1903 a technical conference summoned by the association worked out two draft labour conventions, the one dealing with the limitation of night work for women in industry, the other with the prohibition of the use of white phosphorus in the match industry. in 1906 a diplomatic conference adopted these drafts and a few states ratified them. a new technical conference was convoked in 1913 to regulate by new conventions the pro- hibition of night work for young persons employed in industry and to fix a 10-hour working day for women and young persons. the second diplomatic conference was due to assemble in the autumn of 1914. meanwhile, the world war broke out. this 1s the work which was taker.-up again and officially consecrated by the peace treaties which concluded the war of 1914-8. labour in the peace treaties —it may be asked why clauses dealing with the protection of labour were inserted in the peace treaties. the pre-war movement in favour of protection of labour was not in itself strong enough to enforce it. in most countries it was the work of intellectuals, legal experts, or politicians. with few exceptions (e.g., germany), the workers’ organisations took little interest in it. but in almost all the belligerent states the war brought into prominence the share taken by the working classes in national defence and national life. the workers be- came conscious of this fact. as early as sept. 1914 a manifesto of the american federation of labour declared that peace should not be signed without the participation of representatives of labour. in july 1916 at a conference at leeds, of the trade un- ions of the allied countries, again in oct. 1917 at a conference of the trade unions of the neutral countries and the central powers at berne, then again at the conference of the inter-allied social- ists at london itn sept. 1918 the same idea was again taken up. ‘phe ‘treaty of peace which will end the war and will assure tu the peoples political-economic liberty and independence;” ? said ihe london manifesto, “must also safeguard the working international labour organisation, the class of all countries from the attacks of international capitalist competiton and assure it a minimum guarantee of moral and material order as regards labour legislation, trade union rights, migration, social insurance, ”’ etc. immediately after the war these tendencies grew far more pro- nounced. revolutions had broken out in the conquered coun- tries and their character had been invariably social. in the victorious countries the leaders of the governments pronounced, in accordance with the general feeling, that “‘ the old world must end ” and that the working classes must receive a new place in the national communities. in feb. 1919, at berne, the trade unions of all european countries, allied, neutral, or defeated, claimed a labour charter and suggested that the old association, with its labour office, should be transformed into a great official organisation of international labour iecgislation. a few days earlier (jan. 29 1919) the peace conference had resolved to con- stitute a commission for international labour legislation under the presidency of samuel gompers, and had called on it ‘to enquire into the international means necessary to secure common action on matters affecting the conditions of employment.”’ the commission sat from feb. 1-march 24 1919. it worked out a text which, having been adopted by the peace conference on april 11 and 28 ro19, became part xiii. of the treaty of versailles. principles and procedure of the organisation——a preamble at the head of part xiii. defined as follows the principles which gave birth to the organisation. 1. universal peace, which it is the object of the league of nations to establish, can be established only if it is based on social justice, and social justice implies the working out of equitable conditions of labour, which it is urgently necessary to apply. 2. the regulation of labour conditions can be accomplished only internationally because ‘‘ the failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of labour is an obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve the conditions in their own countries.” 3. the equitable conditions of labour, and the “ humane condi- tions of labour,”’ which must be applied were defined: the establish- ment of a maximum working day and week, the prevention of unemployment, the provision of an adequate living wage, the pro- tection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment, the protection of children, young persons, and women, provision for old age and injury, protection of the in- terests of workers when employed in countries other than their own, recognition of the principle of freedom of association, the organisa- tion of vocational and technical education and other measures. in another article (427) of the treaty of peace, these principles are formulated afresh and jn a more precise form and recognised as “‘ well fitted to guide the policy of the league of nations ”’ in industrial matters. these principles having been laid down, the peace treaty prescribed that a permanent organisation should be established for their promotion. the commission, on meeting in paris, was approached with proposals emanating from work- ers’ representatives and even from certain states (such as italy) which aimed at permitting a sort of international parliament to decree labour conditions which every state would be compelled to adopt. such proposals appeared incompatible with the idea of national sovereignty as entertained by most states. the in- ternational labour organisation, it was thought, should not form a “‘ super-state,” any more than the league of nations. the commission adopted as a basis of its deliberations a british draft which was more modest and, above all, more elastic, and attempted to reconcile the independence of individual states with the authority of an official organisation. the system adopted was as follows: the international labour organisation consists of two essential organs: the general con- ference of representatives of the members, and an international labour office controlled by a governing body. the conference meets ‘‘ from time to time as occasion may require and at least once in every year.” it is composed of four delegates of each of the member states, of which two are government delegates and the two others represent respectively the employers and the workpcople. these last two delegates must be chosen by the governments in agreement with the industrial organisations, if such organisations exist, which are most representative of em- ployers or workpeople, as the case may be, in their respective countries. this shows a characteristic feature of the new organ- 503 isation. in the assembly of the league of nations only govern- ment delegates have seats, but here delegates representing the employers and the workpeople of the member states inter- vene. this indicates the solidarity of economic and protective forces which has imposed itself on the world since the war. the conference deals with questions which have been included in its agenda by the governing body, and the agenda is trans- mitted to the member governments four months before the meet- ing of the conference. at the close of its discussions it may adopt recommendations or draft conventions by a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast by the delegates present, but not otherwise. the member states undertake that, within a year at most from the closing of the session of the conferences, or if special circumstance prevent this, in no case later than eighteen months, they will bring the recommendation or draft conven- tion before the authoritics within whose competence the matter lies, for the enactment of legislation or any other action. in the case of a recommendation the member states will inform the secretary gencral of the league of the action taken. in the case of a draft convention the member will, if it obtains the consent of the proper authorities, communicate the formal ratification of the convention to the secretary-general and will take all neces- sary action to make the convention effective. in the case of a convention the obligations which are assumed by member states on ratification are far stricter. it is necessary to consider the exact weight which the system carries. the states, under the peace treaty, have not under- taken to ratify automatically all draft conventions adopted by the international labour conference. they have simply undertaken to submit the drafts to the authorities competent to enact the legis- lation. here lies the essential innovation. finally, they are still free to ratify or not. but when there was only the inter- national association for labour legislation, before the war, the states which had sent plenipotentiaries to the diplomatic con- ferences were not even bound to approach their parliaments with the resolutions adopted. now they have undertaken this obligation. this obligation may seem to carry little weight, since each state remains free, within its sovereign rights, to ratify or not. but in essence the whole system rests on an appeal to the public opinion of each of these states, and an appeal to parlia- ment, which is, so to speak, the authoritative expression of this opinion. the whole mechanism invented by the negotiations of the treaty constitutes an act of faith in the feeling of justice which should animate corporate humanity. once the conventions have been ratified the mechanism of their application instituted by the peace treaty develops in the following manner: by the act of ratification the states contract a mutual agreement to respect equally all clauses contained in a convention. they must allow mutual supervision of their appli- cation of these clauses. by art. 408 of the treaty of versailles they undertake to send an annual report to the conference in which they give a list of the measures for their application. comparison of these reports may always form the subject'of dis- cussion at the conference. if one of the ratifying states fails to apply the convention, or applies it imperfectly, other ratifying states, or even industrial associations of employers or of workers may file complaints. when such complaints are received, the governing body of the international labour office is charged to deal with them. if necessary it may submit the complaint to a commission of inquiry (art. 409 and 414). in the last instance, the permanent court of international justice can be called on to pronounce judgment. this court may even, under art. 418, indicate the measures, if any, of an economic character which it considers to be appropriate and which other governments would be justified in adopting against a defaulting government. il. the 1.l.0. in operation the first conference was convoked at washington in oct. 1919. the international office was not yet constituted. the programme of the conference had been fixed in the peace treaty itself. a committee of organisation had been entrusted with its preparation. six draft conventions were voted concerning:— 504 1. the limitation of hours of work in industrial establishments to eight hours a day and 48 hours a week. 2, unemployment. 3. the labour of woinen before and after child-birth. 4. night work for women, 5. the maximum age for the admission of children to industrial labour. 6. night work for children in industry. the washington conference constituted the international labour otiice, and nominated its first governing body. this governing body appointed the director, m. albert thomas. in 1920 4 con- ference was held at geneva, which was devoted to maritime questions and passed three draft conventions. the first fixed the age of admission to work at sea, the second dealt with unemploy- ment benefit in case of loss by shipwreck, the third dealt with finding employment for sailors. in rg21 the third session at geneva voted seven draft conven- tions dealing with:— 1. the age of admission for children to agricultural labour. 2. the right of combination and coalition of agricultural labourers. 3. compensation for accidents incurred during work in agri- culture. 4. the use of white lead in paint. , 5. the application of the weekly rest to industrial establishments. 6. the age of admission of young persons to employment as trim- mers or stokers. 7. the compulsory medical examination of children and young persons employed on board ship. each of these sessions voted at the same time a number of recom- mendations. the fourth session at geneva in 1922 only voted a recommen- dation concerning statistics and documents relative to emigration and immigration. the fifth session at geneva in 1923 also voted only one recommendation concerning general principles for the organisation of inspection services destined to ensure the applica- tion of laws and regulations for the protection of workmen. the sixth session at geneva in 1924 instituted the procedure of giving the conventions two readings, at intervals of one vear. some conventions were thus given a first hearing, most of them being voted in 1925. the session of 1924 only definitely passed one recommendation concerning the utilisation of the spare time of workmen. the seventh session, geneva 1925, finally voted four draft conventions concerning (1) compensation for accidents aris- ing out of employment, (2) compensation for sickness arising out of employment, (3) equality of treatment for workmen when em- ployed in countries other than their own as regards compensa- tion for accidents incurred during work, (4) night work in bakeries. in all, then, not counting recommendations, twenty internation- al labour conventions were submitted to the states for ratification between 1919 and 1925. these conventions dealt with industry- commerce and in some cases navigation and agriculture. as re- gards agriculture a dispute arose in 1921. it was maintained that the international labour organisation had not the night, under the peace treaty to deal with the protection of agricultural labourers. on this point the advice of the permanent court of international justice was taken through the mediation of the league of nations under art. 14 of the peace treaty. the per- manent court gave a judgment recognising the competence of the international labour organisation. ratifications —in what proportion have the states ratified these conventions by the procedure indicated above? in march 1926 the league of nations had registered 194 ratifications. this figure has given rise to much discussion. it is important to gain a just estimate of its worth. theinternational labour organisa- tion includes 56 states. if one excepts the four last conven- tions of 192s, which could not be ratified by the time of writing, about goo acts of ratification could in theory take place for the other 16 conventions. there are only 194—that is, about one- fourth. but this low figure calls for certain remarks. the same value cannot be attached to all ratifications. 1. there are a certain number of conventions which could not be ratified by all states, despite their general character. the maritime conventions, for example, do not interest the states which have neither coasts nor flects. similarly, there are countries of small proprietors where the number of wage-carning agricultural labourers international labour organisation, the is quite insignificant. there are others, again, where certain un- healthy industries against which conventions are directed have not established themselves. 2, there are numerous states in which industry is of little im- portance and where national labour legislation hardly exists. the hledjaz, siam and other states have indicated that the measures laid down in certain conventions are inapplicable to the conditions under which the wage-earning labourers in these countries work. 3. international action 1s only beginning, and all sorts of reasons delay ratification; not merely the inexperience and inattention of the great national administrations, for which the international conventions are often matters of secondary importance, but also the hesitation to contract obligations which sometimes appear to threaten the output or at least the competitive capacity of the country on the international market. but in spite of these delays important results have been obtained. in the eight years preceding the war the two conventions of berne had only been ratified by a very few states. when to-day such conventions as that which forbids night work for women or that which attempts to cope with unemployment obtain the ratification of 16 or 20 states, including great industrial countries like great britain, france or italy, many thousands of work- men are definitely assured of the enjoyment of the benefits of reform. for, under the text of the conventions, the contracting states cannot, fora period of ro years, go back on the obligations which they have assumed, even in crises where they would be tempted to do so. the effect of the ratifications has been also particularly important in certain countries, for example in india, where the conditions of labour have been greatly improved by the application of the measures contained in the international conventions such as that of washington. but even when the conventions are not ratificd, they become the model on which the new national legislations form themselves. a country such as belgium, for example, has established the eight-hour day, which was voted in 1921 in strict conformity with the clauses of the washington convention. similarly, all the young states of central and eastern europe which were formed or resuscitated in 1919 have modelled their entire labour legisla- tion on the general rules laid down by the international labour organisation. it seems, then, that despite the difficulties inherent in its first constitution and despite the economic crises which most nations have gone through since 1920, the work accom- plished by the unification of labour conditions on a relatively high level by the organisation has had appreciable results. a centre of information.—the work of the international labour organisation is not confined to preparing the international con- ventions, to seeking to obtain their ratification by the states, or to watching over their application. art. 396 of the peace treaty also assigns it further functions which include the “ collection and distri- bution of information on all subjects relating to the international adjustment of conditions of industrial life and labour.'’’ also “‘ the conduct of such special investigation as may be ordered by the con- ference.” it has “ to edit and publish in french and english period- ical publications.””’ the conference may even assign to it, besides the functions mentioned above, ‘‘ such other powers and duties ”’ as it chooses. thus, since 1919, the international labour organisation has be- come a sort of great clearing house of all information on social questions. it has a library of 150,000 volumes. the ideal would be to make of it a centre where workers would be certain of finding all publications of all countries touching on the regulation of labour. this office collects by means of corresponding offices in paris, rome, berlin, london, washington and toky6, and collaborators in other capitals, periodical information on social developments in most great countries. it publishes two general periodicals: the weekly fidistrial and labour information, the task of which 1s to give an exact account of important news in the various branches of social life, and a scientific monthly review, the international labour review. it further publishes the zudustrial safety survey, which reports all new measures taken and all experiences obtained regarding security of labour; and a monthly record of migration. {t publishes reviews or bulletins giving a summary of all these publications for the infor- mation of different countries, in german in berlin, in italianin rome, in spanish in madrid and in japanese in tokyd. carrying on the tradition inaugurated before the war by the basel office, it publishes an annual collection, in french, english and italian, of the docu- ments of social legislation promulgated every year in different coun- tries (legislative series). since its formation it has undertaken enquiries on a large scale in all matters of particular importance. among them may be mentioned the great enquele sur la production which deals with the economic situation of the world between 1918 and 1925; an inquiry into the conditions of labour in all the coal international law roducing countries; inquiry into legislation and labour conditions in russia; another into labour conditions in asia, etc. it publishes quarterly a brbliography of industrial hygiene. the i.l.o. has also attempted to simplify and unify methods of labour statistics used in different countries. two conferences of jabour statisticians have already been convoked under its auspices. every year more demands for information are addressed to it by different governments. corresponding committees, consultations of experts and special commissions permit the office to maintain con- tact with technicians and scientists of the branches of social life. internal organisation of the ofice——in order to deal with its twofold task of keeping up daily contact with the governments, and especially with the ministries of labour with which it corre- sponds directly under art. 397 of the treaty, and with the organi- gations of workers or employers, the office has to equip itself with a sound internal organisation. under the peace treaty it is administered by a governing body nominated for three years by the conference. the governing body consists of 24 members, of which 12 represent the governments, six the employers and six the workers. of the 12 governmental representatives eight belong ex officio to the most important industrial countries (ger- many, belgium, canada, france, great britain, india, italy and japan). if any dispute arises regarding relative industrial im- portance, this must be settled by the council of the league of nations. a system of indexes has been adopted (based on pop- ulation, working population in relation to the total population, steam horse-power, length of railway lines, etc.) which makes it possible to decide this point. the six workers’ representa- tives are nominated by the delegates to the conference represent- ing the workers, and the six employers’ representatives by the employers’ delegates. the conference has proposed to enlarge the governing body, but this will need the amendment of the peace treaty, and it has not yet been done on account of the slow procedure of ratification of the amendment, necessary under art. 422 of the treaty. the governing body nominates a director and gives him his instructions. the director nominated in 1920 was m. albert thomas, formerly a french minister of state. he is assisted by a deputy director, who is an englishman, mr. harold b. butler. the personnel of the international labour organisation amounted in 1926 to about 370 employees of all ranks, who were drawn from 30 different nationalities. under art. 395 of the peace treaty the director “‘ shall as far as possible, with due regard to the eficiency of the work of the office, select persons of different nationalities.” the nations chiefly represented among the per- sonnel are france and great britain, because french and english are the two official languages used by the office; next, switzerland, because the executive personnel is recruited locally. the budget of the international labour organisation varies between 7,000,000 and 8,000,000 gold francs. this budget is introduced annually by the governing body before the assem- bly of the league of nations. it is supplied for the most part by contributions from the states which are members of the organisa- tion. this contribution is fixed under a scale adopted by the league of nations for its own contributions. relation io the league.—the international labour organisa- tion is in fact part of the organisation of the league. for this reason, since 1920 it has been established at geneva. it was first installed in an old college. in 1922 the sum of 3,000,000 gold francs was voted for the erection of a suitable building on a site which had been given for this purpose by the swiss federation. the i.l.0. is attached to the league of nations and entitled to its assistance, when required, and receives the funds granted it by the states through the league, but is nevertheless, like the permanent court of international justice, an autonomous in- stitution. its decisions are not subject to the control of the council of the league. the director of the office is in no way subordinate to the secretary-general of the league. indeed, if membership of the league carries with it membership of the i.l.o. (art. 387), it was decided by the persons who negotiated the peace treaty as by the assembly of the league of nations in 1921, that states which are not members of the league can be- come members of the i.l.o. thus, since 1919 germany has be- longed to the i.l.o. with equal rights without being a member 995 of the league. a representative of the german govt. has always sat on the governing body; the workers’ group has regularly elected a german member, and the employers have also, since 1922, had a german member in the governing body. there are german employees throughout the office. in order to gain general information and to carry through sci- entific research, the i.l.o. remains in almost daily contact with the u.s.a. and with russia, the only two great states which, for various reasons, do not belong to the organisation. conclusion.—the organisation has often been criticised and attacked. it has been reproached with the desire to exceed the limits of its competence. the permanent court of international justice decided, at least in the case of agriculture, that this criti- cism was not justified. it has also been reproached with being exclusively guided by the workers’ interests, and even with being guided by socialist thought. yet, no instance has taken place which could justify such an accusation against the director or even less against the governing body. but one fact must not be forgotten, which was brought out in 1921 by a report of the com- mission of inquiry and organisation of the league of nations, that the international labour office is not simply an organ of conciliation or of keeping the balance between various industrial interests; it must look for conciliation only in order to attain a definite end, which is to realise the programme drawn up in the preamble to part xiii. of the peace treaty. experience also shows that measures protecting workmen are never fully carried through unless they are:made by agreement with the workers and unless the workers are interested in their application. it is one of the merits of the international labour organisa- tion, as conceived and conducted since 1919, that it has been able to keep the sympathies and confidence of the important workers’ mass organisations. it is true that the communists, the leaders of the third international, violently attack the collaboration of workers in the work of geneva. but the international federa- tion of amstersdam, with its 20,000,000 members, the christian unions, the italian fascist organisations, take regular part in the conferences of geneva, and demand that the conventions be ap- plied. it is equally remarkable that the employers continue to be represented at the conferences and on the governing body. the office of the international labour organisation, while it aims at bringing about the “ physical, moral and intellectual well-being of the wage-earners,”’ attempts at the same time to take account both of the interests of production, and (to quote art. 427 of the peace treaty) of the differences of climate, habits and customs of economic opportunity and industrial tradition, which make strict uniformity in the conditions of labour difficult of immediate attainment.” further, from the general point of view, the international labour organisation has helped to popularise among the industrial masses both of the workers ard even of the employers the idea of a definite peace based on an ecc- nomic understanding and the social solidarity of the nations. it is already the great centre of international collaboration. it is recognised as being one of the great factors of peace. its history bears witness to all the difficulties attending new international creations. the life of a nation enjoys the natural support of geographical contiguity, of racial community and of age-leng tradition. an international organisation can only come to birth and live if public opinion and the judgment of the governments favours a common programme. it appears that the programme of social justice drawn up in the peace treaty has sufficient authority and sufficient reason to assure the existence of the international labour organisation. bibliography.—see the treaty of peace between the allied and associated powers and germany, part xiii. (h.m. stationery office, london, 1925). a list of publications of the international labour office can be obtained from the publications department of the office at geneva, or from their correspondents in different countries. (av th”)",
    "source_url": "https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-encyclopaedia-britannica.-3-encyclopaedia-britannica-inc.-1926",
    "observed_at": "2026-05-17 12:14:12",
    "integrity": {
        "hash_check": "match",
        "hash_scope": "full_normalized_text",
        "computed_sha256": "75c1cad2691e490b7d7fe8d137b93d5719a9bcfce2b5b9e985a0dbcc20b7cf20"
    },
    "machine_use": {
        "read": true,
        "cite": true,
        "decision": "verified_public_domain_text"
    },
    "goguides_data_license": "https://www.goguides.com/data-license",
    "goguides_data_license_version": "2.0",
    "documentation": {
        "white_paper_url": "https://www.goguides.com/white-paper.php",
        "pdf_url": "https://www.goguides.com/whitepapers/goguides-ai-source-clearance-white-paper.pdf"
    }
}