HELIUM

helium, next to hydrogen, is the light- est of all the chemical elements. except at exceedingly low temperatures, it exists only in the gascous form. sources of helium.—investigations carried out since 1895 have shown that helium is widely diffused throughout the earth. it can be obtained from many types of rocks, minerals and earths, and it is present in varying amounts in probably all natural gases and spring waters. it is present, too, in the atmosphere of the earth to the extent of about one part in 185,000 by volume. evidence that helium is universally distributed is afforded by the fact that many of the white stars exhibit its absorption spectrum, while certain other stars and nebulae show the bright line spec- trum of the gas. helium has also been found in a meteorite that reached the earth at augusta co., va., united states of america. helium from rocks and minerals.—in the case of most of the rocks and minerals that contain helium in appreciable amounts the gas is present as a result of the radioactive disintegration of the uranium or of the thorium present in them. of all the min- erals examined, thorianite, which consists chiefly of thorium oxide, is probably the richest in helium. it has been found to contain 9-5 cu. cm. of helium per gramme. monazite, a phosphate of thorium and other rare earths, con- tains on the average about 1 cu. cm. per gramme. cleveite, samar- skite and fergusonite contain a little more than monazite. helium is found in minute quantities in practically all the common min- erals of the earth, and its origin in them has been traced to radio- active matter that is universally distributed in minute amounts in the material constituents of the earth’s crust. in two cases helium has been found in minerals in the absence of appreciable amounts of uranium and thorium compounds, namely in beryl and in sylvine (potassium chloride). it is interesting to note, however, in this connection that potassium and rubidium in © their elemental state as well as in the form of chemical com- pounds have been shown to be radioactive at least to the extent of emitting beta rays. in extracting helium from the mineral thorianite, which is imported from ceylon usually for the manu- facture of thoria, the method generally followed is that given by lord rayleigh. ‘the mineral dissolves readily in strong nitric acid, and the helium contained is then liberated. the gas con- tains a certain amount of hydrogen and of oxides of carbon, also iraces of nitrogen. to get rid of carbon some oxygen is added to the helium and the mixture 1s exploded with an electric spark. all the remaining impurities, including the excess of oxygen, can then be taken out of the gas by sir james dewar’s ingenious method of absorption with charcoal cooled in liquid air. helium is but slightly absorbed by the cold charcoal, and consequently can be pumped off from the vessel containing the charcoal in a state of the highest purity. if liquid air is not available helium can be purified by the methods employed for argon, the various impurities present being removed by one or other of the agents —calcium carbide or metallic calcium, copper oxide, caustic potash and phosphorus pentoxide. if thorianite is not available, monazite, which 1s more abundant, may be utilised. in 1895 lockyer showed that the helium contained in minerals could be extracted from them by heat; j. a. gray (prec. roy. soc., 82a, p. 301, [909) confirmed this discovery at a later date, and showed that helium could also be extracted by simply grind- ing the minerals into a fine state of division. helium from the atmosphere —helium may be extracted from the atmosphere by passing ordinary air through tubes cooled with liquid hydrogen. at the temperature of liquid hydrogen all elements in the air become solidified excepting helium, and the latter, after passing through the tubes, can be collected in a highly 342 purified state. in the process of the liquefaction of air, or in that of extracting nitrogen or oxygen from the air by liquefaction and rectification in large industrial plants, 1t has been found feasible to include in the machines used for the purpose devices that allow the helium and the neon of the air to be separated out, these two gases being the only constituents of the atmosphere that remain in the gaseous form when air is liquefied. as char- coal cooled with liquid air has more condensing power for neon than for helium, it is generally used to separate out the helium from a mixture of these two gases. final purification, however, is best effected by the use of liquid hydrogen. helium from mineral springs and natural gases—helium is found in the gases evolved from many thermal water springs. moureu and lepape, who made an exhaustive determination of the helium content of the gases evolved from mineral springs in france, found that many of them contained a considerable pro- portion of helium. at one spring in maizicres it amounted to 5:92%, and at two others in santenay (cete d'or) helium con- tents of 8-4% and 9-76% by volume were found. in the hot springs of bath, england, the helium amounts to about one- thousandth part of the gas evolved. traces of helium have been found in the gases of the thermal springs in iceland, and also in many of the natural gases of the other countries in europe. the quantities involved in the latter, however, are extremely small and the occurrences unimportant. lord rayleigh has sug- gested that the helium found in hot springs may be derived from the disintegration of common rocks at great depths. by far the best practical sources of helium are the natural gases of america. in canada, while natural gases are found in all the provinces, they exist in commercial quantities only in the provinces of alberta, ontario and new brunswick. the helium content of these gases has been determined on several occasions, and the latest results are those given by the mines branch of the dept. of mines of canada. this report shows that while helium is found in all the canadian gases it has not been found to be present in any of them to a greater extent than 1%. a conserva- tive estimate of the amount of helium recoverable from the natural gases of canada would be 5,000,000 cu. ft. per annum. in the united states of america the main helium resources occur in the texas, mid-continent and appalachian natural gas- fields, where the supplies of helium-bearing gas are widely dis- tributed, and where in some localities they are of great magni- tude. the helium content of the gases from a majority of the wells is not greater than 0-6°%, but in kansas a number of wells exist that give a supply of natural gas containing from 1-5% to 1:84% of helium. it is estimated that it would be possible to extract nearly 50,000,000 cu. ft. of helium yearly from the natural gases of the united states. properties of helium.—helium is less soluble in water than any other gas, and recent determinations by antropoff give the follow- ing values for its solubility: 0° c. -00967, 10° c. -oogor, 20° c. -00996, 30° c. -o1007, 40° c. -o1029, 50° c. -o108. quartz glass at a red heat is freely permeable to helium. the effect is even per- ceptible at a temperature as low as 180° centigrade. at 500° c. quartz glass has been shown by williams and i'erguson to be 22 times as permeable to helium as to hydrogen (jour. of am. chem. soc., oct. 1922). this property has been put forward as the basis of a practical method of separating helium from other gases. m. travers has suggested, also, that it may explain the liberation of helium from minerals by heat, the gas being enabled to permeate the siliceous materials in which it is enclosed. thorianite, however, contains no silica, and until it is shown that metallic oxides are permeable to the gas this explanation can scarcely be accepted as valid. with rubbered balloon fabrics the permeability to helium has been found to be less than to hydro- gen, the ratio of helium to hydrogen permeability being about 0-7. with skin-lined fabrics the ratio of helium to hydrogen permeability has been found to be about unity. the temperature coefficient of increase of pressure at constant volume is perfectly normal for helium, and has a value of 0-0036614 (fourth int. cong. on refrigeration, june 1924). the thermal conductivity at o° c. is given by schwarze as 0:0003386, and the viscosity as helium determined by schultze at 15° c. is 1-086 compared with that of airas unity. this determination has been confirmed by rankine. the velocity of sound in helium at o° c. is 971 metres per sec., and the ratio of the specific heats, c,/c,, has the value 1-671 at 180° c. and 1-659 at 18° c., which indicates the monatomic character of the gas. at 18° c. the specific heat at constant pres- sure, cp, 1s 1:251, and the atomic heat consequently 5-004. the refractive index of helium at normal pressure and temperature for the wave-length sso0a is 1-000035. helium has two reso- nance potentials, 19-77 volts and 20-5 volts, and its jonisation potential is 24-5 volts. the minimum sparking potential for helium is 261 volts. gaseous helium at normal pressure and temperature has for its dielectric constant 1:000074. helium as a gas is diamagnetic, and according to hector (piyvs. rev., oct. 1924, p. 148) it has a volume magnetic susceptibility of —o-78x to!9 at 20° c. and 760 mm. pressure. helium atoms and nuclet.—the atomic weight of helium is 4, and its density is 1-995. since the gas is monatomic its atomic and molecular weights are the same. of all the rare gases helium alone has no isotopes (q.v.). the square root g of the mean square molecular velocity of the atoms of gaseous helium at o° c. is 13-11 x104 cm. sec"! and the mean free path at normal pressure and temperature is 28-5 x1o0-§ centimetre. the molecular diam- eter as deduced from the viscosity of the gas is 2-18 x10°8 centi- metre. like the atoms of other elements, those of helium have a nuclear structure, the positive electric charge on the helium nuclei being 2€ where € is the elemental charge of electricity. the two electrons that neutralise the nuclear charge are supposed to describe about the nucleus two nearly circular orbits with planes inclined to each other at an angle of 120° centigrade. the radius of these orbits is approximately 1-25 10-9 centimetre. spec- troscopic evidence goes to show that while helium in its normal state exists in the form of atoms with crossed electronic orbits it can also, under electric excitation, be transformed into a meta- stable state designated as orthohelium. with atoms in the latter state the electronic orbits are supposed to be in the same plane with one orbit circular and the other elliptical, the major axis of the elliptical orbit being approximately four times as great as the diameter of the circular one. for spectroscopic purposes helium, with its atoms in the normal state, is sometimes given the designation parhelium. the alpha rays expelled by radioactive substances have been shown to be helium nuclei. the initial velocities with which they are expelled from such substances vary from 2:22 x10 cm. sect to 1-45 x 10%cm. sec according to the radioactive substance that gives rise to them. the corresponding kinetic energies are 1°53 x10 and 0-645 x10“ ergs. it was by observations on the scattering of alpha rays of very high speeds through large angles by thin sheets of matter that rutherford in ro11 established the view that atoms generally possess a nuclear structure. through phenomena associated with this scattering of alpha rays by matter it has been shown that the nucleus of a helium atom possesses very great stability. helium nuclei themselves are supposed to be complex in their structure and to consist of four hydrogen nuclei and two electrons. numerous experiments lead one to take the view that a helium nucleus or alpha particle behaves in impacts with nuclei of other atoms as if it were a perfectly elastic body, spheroidal in shape, with its minor axis 4x10 cm. in the direction of motion and its major axis 8x to-}3 centimetre. . the mass of a helium atom is slightly less than the combined masses of the hydrogen nuclei and electrons of which it is constituted, and this indicates that a large amount of energy must be liberated during its formation in the form of radiation of wave-length approximately 1-75 x1o-" centimetre. a view held by astrophysicists gencrally is that the exccedingly high temperature of certain stars that exhibit a helium hydrogen spectrum can be accounted for by assuming them to be the seat of the formation of helium out of hydrogen. by bombarding the nuclei of the atoms of various elements with alpha rays, ruther- ford has proved that atomic nuclei generally have a complex struc- ture with hydrogen nuclei and electrons as primary constituents, and in some cases with helium nuclei as secondary ones. helium liquid helium.—the liquefaction of helium was achieved by h. kammerlingh onnes at leyden in 1908. in jan. 1922 a cryogenic laboratory was instituted in the university of toronto and helium was liquefied in jan. 1923. finally, in the summer of 1925 helium was lquefied in small quantities in the reichs- anstalt, charlottenburg, germany. liquid helium is a colour- less, very mobile liquid with a low surface tension. according to onnes and boks (leyden, comm., no. 170) the density of liquid helium has a maximum value of 0-1462 at 2°-39 k witha value o-1404 at 3°-19 k. and one of 0-1456 at 1°-49 k. assuming the absolute zero to be — 273°-o9 centigrade. the saturation vapour pressure (p. in mm.) of liquid helium is 415 at 1°-475 k., 359°5 at 3°-516 k., 757-5 at 4°-205 k., 1329 at 4°-9 k. and 1668 at 5°-16 kelvin. the heat of vapourisa- tion at 4°-25 k. has been estimated to be 19-38 gr. calories. the critical temperature of helium is 5°-19 k., the critical pres- sure (p. in int. atm.) 2-26, and the critical density 0-066. ‘the ““ slope diameter ”’ is —o-0033 and the boiling point at atmos- pheric pressure is 4°-21 kelvin. the triple point temperature and pressure (p.in int. atm.) are respectively less than 0°-89 k. and 0-002 (see report of fourth int. cong. on refrigeration, june 1924). according to kammerlingh onnes the boyle point lies close to 20° k. and the “ inversion temperature ” to 40° kelvin. | from certain considerations brought forward by perry (jour. of phys. chem., vol. 28, no. 10, oct. 1924) it can be shown that the optimum working pressure to use when liquefying helium, after cooling it with liquid hydrogen, is between 15 and 20 atmos- pheres. the lowest temperature attained by h. kammerlingh onnes with liquid helium boiling under low pressure was a few hundredths of a degree below 0°-9 kalium. the vapour pressure corresponding to this temperature was estimated to be o-o13 millimetres of mercury. liquid helium has been extensively used as a refrigerating agent by h. kammerlingh onnes and his collaborators and by others when investigating the physical and chemical properties of various substances at the lowest attainable temperature. though the great majority of the investigations carried out have been connected with the thermal properties of substances, others dealing with the phenomena of phosphorescence and fluorescence, magnetism and magneto-optics, crystal structure, radioactivity and electrical conductivity have led to results of great scientific value. probably the most interesting phenomenon discovered and investigated by h. kammerlingh onnes through the use of liquid helium is that of electrical super-conductivity in metals. in this field of investigation onnes has shown that at tempera- tures attainable only with liquid helium the metals mercury, lead, tin, indium and thallium offer no resistance to the passage of electric currents through them and become perfect electrical conductors. it may be added that up to 1926 helium, alone of all the elements, had not been solidified. chemical activity of helinm.—although helium is chemically inert under ordinary conditions, evidence obtained in recent years suggests the possibility of its exhibiting chemical activity under certain very special conditions. particularly under the influence of the electrical discharge, helium atoms may be united with other helium atoms in the same state or with atoms of other elements, to form compounds either of a fugitive or a permanent character. the fact that helium under certain conditions can be made to emit a band spectrum in addition to its line spectrum connotes the possibility of the gas existing in the molecular form. experiments made by e. h. boomer (prec. roy. soc., vol. 109, no. a 740, p. 198) with an intense electric discharge from an incandescent tungsten filament in helium at low pressures show that a distinct and stable compound can be formed out of tungsten and helium with the formula w hes. boomer has also obtained evidence of chemical combination of helium with the vapours of mercury, iodine, phosphorus and sulphur. these compounds are fugitive in character and appear to be stable only at very low temperatures. industrial uses.—in 1914 sir richard threlfall put forward a suggestion to the board of inventions of the british admiralty, 343 that if helium were available in large amounts it might be used to replace hydrogen as a filling for airships. the fact that helium is non-inflammable and non-explosive and possesses 92°%% of the lifting power of hydrogen makes it a most suitable material for giving buoyancy to airships. following up the suggestion, prof. mclennan and his associate mr. john vatterson initiated experiments for the british admiralty on a semi-commercial scale on the natural gases of canada. a machine was designed, constructed and successfully operated, with results that showed it was quite feasible to extract helium economically from natural gases when helium was present in them to the extent of only 0°33°. at the same time vastly greater experiments were initiated and carried through independently by the military and naval authorities of the united states, in co-operation with the bureau of mines of that country. enormous quantities of helium. were extracted from the natural gases of ‘texas, and the possibility of separating out the helium from the natural gases at a low cost was fully demonstrated. in the electrical industry helium may be used for the con- struction of thermionic amplifying valves of the ionisation type and of gas arc lamps. in spectroscopy, especially for investi- gations in the ultra-violet region, helium is of use and possesses an advantage over most other gases in that it is transparent to light of extremely short wave-lengths. owing to its high diclec- tric properties and its high heat conductivity it has been pro- posed to use helium in place of oil as a filling for transformers and for surrounding the switches and circuit-breakers of high tension electric transmission lines. tests have been made by the general electric co. of the united states on the use of hydrogen as a cooling medium for large electric generators. these machines were operated in an atmosphere of hydrogen, with the result that owing to the lightness of hydrogen the windage loss was reduced, and owing to its high heat conductivity compared with air, the generators were made to give a 30% greater output with the same temperature rise. since helium is also a light gas with a thermal conductivity slightly greater than that of hydrogen and can be used without the danger of explosions occurring, it would appear that it may be used for the same purpose if obtainable in large quantities at a low cost. in 1917 considering the hygiene of labor, it was suggested by elihu thomson and others that if divers and workers in tunnel- ling operations carried on under high atmospheric pressures were supplied with a mixture of oxygen and helium in place of air the liability to caisson disease might be minimised or perhaps elimi- nated. preliminary tests made in this direction by r. r. sayers, w. p. yant and j. h. hildebrand for the united states bureau of mines (reports of investigations, serial no. 2,670) have shown that through the use of helium and oxygen mixtures as a sub- stitute for air in diving work the time of decompression can be materially reduced. this results from the fact that helium dif- fuses more readily out of the blood and body tissues than nitro- gen. as the depths at which divers can operate depend largely on the duration of the period of decompression these experiments open up the possibility for extending somewhat the safety depth limit for diving operations. spectra modified by action of helitm—a number of in- vestigators, including merton, barrett, johnson, cameron and others, have shown that profound modifications may be observed in the spectrum of an element when 1t is present in small quantities in a discharge tube containing helium at a compara- tively high pressure. as an example, the ‘* comet-tail ”’ spectrum discovered by fowler is greatly enhanced by high-pressure helium. merton and pilley, too, were able with the addition of helium not only to bring out the hitherto practically unknown arc spectrum of atomic nitrogen, but also to isolate it completely from the spark spectrum of this element. mclennan and shrum recently made some observations on the spectrum of small quantities of air in a large admixture of helium, and analysis of the spectrum obtained by them with these mixtures showed the presence of a line at \= 5577-35 angstrem units. when mixtures of oxygen and helium were used and an uncondensed discharge passed through, the line a=5$577-35 a. was enhanced. 344 the line was obtained with the strongest intensity when the partial pressure of the oxygen in the mixture was about #5 that of helium, the partial pressure of the latter being about three centimetres. the line was also obtained with pure oxygen, which shows that it belongs to the spectrum of this element. as the intensity of the line when obtained with pure oxygen is low, it would appear that the function of the helium is to maintain the oxygen atoms in a state that permits them to radiate the light a=5577°35 when once they are brought into that state by electrical stimulation. these results have a bearing on prob- lems connected with the identification of the lines in the auroral spectrum, and mclennan and shrum’s experiments are of in- terest in that the wave-length \= 5577-35 a. which they obtained with oxygen is identical with that of the green line in the spectra of auroras that has long defied identification. the result is also interesting in that it may be taken as evidence of the existence of helium containing a small amount of oxygen in the upper atmosphere, for it is known that auroral displays originate at atmospheric heights of about roo kilometres. the spectrum of helium.—both theory and experiment indi- cate that in the ultra-violet spectral region the radiation emissible by helium does not include any wave-length shorter than a= 228 angstre6m units. the line spectrum of helium’as observed ordi- narily in vacuum tubes consists of a system of singlet series and a system of doublets. the doublets are very close and are some- what unusual in that in the sharp diffuse series the more intense component is on the more refrangible side, while the first prin- cipal line has its stronger component on the side of the greater wave-length. it is generally accepted by spectroscopists that the singlet series of wave-lengths in the spectrum of helium orig- inate in parhelium, and that the doublet series have their origin in atoms in the metastable or orthohelium state. besides the line spectrum there is, as previously stated, an interesting band spectrum of helium which is well developed under appropriate conditions. fowler has shown that the heads of some of the stronger bands, in contrast with all other known band spectra, are arranged in accordance with the laws of line series. there is, however, no apparent relation between the band and the line series, except that the main series of bands runs nearly parallel with the principal series of helium doublets. all lines in the helium spectrum that have been investigated are resolvable by magnetic fields into normal zeeman triplets. recently curtis and jevons (nature, nov. 21 1925) showed that a zeeman effect can be obtained with certain lines in the band spectrum of helium. the wave-lengths of a number of lines in the spectrum of helium were accurately measured by merrill at the bureau of standards, washington (astrophys. jour., 46, p. 357, 1917) and are now accepted as secondary standards for the purpose of spectrum analysis. they are as follows:— (t.a.) cia.) (tas) 2945-104 4026-189 4921-929 3187-743 4120-812 5015-675 3613 -o41 4143°759 5047-736 3795 ‘003 4337-928 §875:618 3819606 4437-549 6678-149 3888-646 4470-477 7065-188 3964727 4713143 7281-349 _ bibliography.—an extensive bibliography of the work on helium : “ae in circular of the bureau of standards, washington, no. 81 i9iq). _ for the results of low-temperature investigations the communica- tions from the physical laboratory of the university of leyden should be consulted. (j. c. mcl.) helsingfors or helsinki (see 13.252), the capital, chief seaport and only large town of the republic of finland, had a population in 1922 of 201,435. the chief buildings are largely classical in style, but a number of modern ones showing the national spirit by using local materials and peasant decorative mo- tives, have been erected, in particular a church overlooking the town, the cyclopean parliament buildings on the heights of brunnparken, a new railway station and a fine memorial to those who fell in the finnish fight for freedom. the town is an industrial centre, and the harbour accommodates the largest helsingfors— henderson vessels, but it is usually closed by ice from jan. to the end of april, except for a channel kept open by an ice-breaker. the harbour has been much improved in recent years, and had over 7,000 yd. of quays in 1924; in 1925 a coal wharf was in erec- tion, and a goods station was to be built alongside the harbour. in 1918 civil war, promoted by bolshevist intrigues, broke out in finland, and helsingfors was occupied by red guards. later they were defeated by finnish nationalists under german leadership. hemy, charles napier (1841-1017), british painter (see 13.265), died at falmouth sept. 30 1917. henderson, arthur (13863- ), british politician, was born in glasgow of working class parents sept. 15 1863; but his work and interests subsequently lay at newcastle (where he served an apprenticeship as moulder at robert stephenson & co.’s works), and in the county of durham. he became promi- nent in the trade union movement, and after a while took a leading part in local affairs, being for some years a member of the newcastle city council and the darlington borough council. he was mayor in 1903; and was made a magistrate for the county of durham. he entered parliament for barnard castle, as a labour member, at a by-election in 1903, and soon made his mark. in 1908 he was elected chairman of the party, a post which he held for two years and to which he was re-elected after the outbreak of war in 1914, when the then chairman, mr. ramsay macdonald, had to resign owing to his pacifist views. as chairman, at the opening of the new session in that autumn, mr. henderson promised the full support of organised labour in maintaining the “‘ splendid unity ” of the nation. when the first coalition ministry was formed by mr. asquith in 1915, mr. henderson was included in the cabinet mainly as adviser of the government on labour questions arising out of the world war, with the office, first of president of the board of education, and afterwards of paymaster general. he showed himself resolved on a strenuous prosecution of the war, strongly advocating both the munitions bill and the registration bill, and having no hesitation in taking the further step of compul- sory service. he followed up this action by urging the labour party to rally in dec. 1916 to mr. lloyd george, and by accept- ing himself the position of an original member of the war cabi- net of four without portfolio. in the spring of 1917 he visited russia, just after the revolution, on behalf of the british govt., and found the then provisional govt. at st. petersburg (lenin- grad) strongly in favour of an international! labour and socialist conference, which was to meet at stockholm under the auspices of the international socialist bureau. he came to the conclusion that, provided the conference were merely consultative, it would be better that british representatives should go, rather than permit russian representatives to meet german represent- atives there alone; and accordingly, on his return to england, being still secretary of the labour party as well as a member of the war cabinet, he promoted the participation of british labour therein. but public opinion in general was strongly against any conference with germans in the midst of war; the sailors and firemen’s union refused to carry the delegates; french, belgian, italian and american labour declined to have anything to do with the conference; and all his labour colleagues in the government opposed his views. on mr. lloyd george expressing the surprise of the rest of the war cabinet at his action, and their dissent from his policy, he resigned. mr. henderson warmly espoused the labour decision of the latter part of 1918 to take the labour men out of the government and to appeal for support on a purely labour platform in con- junction with the pacifist wing of the party. this cost him his seat in parliament at the general election of dec. 1918, when no pacifist labour candidates were successful. indeed, ill-luck pursued him also at the next two general elections, in 1922 and 1923; but in all three cases he returned to the house of commons afew months later at a by-election. inthe parliament of 1923-4 he had the satisfaction of having two sons as fellow members, though they were both defeated in the autumn of 1924. in macdonald’s ministry he was secretary of state for home affairs; henri— heredity ‘but he was not conspicuous cither in administration or in debate. he actively endorsed the policy of his party in 1925-6 in severing themselves definitely from the communists who advocated armed revolution; and he protested strongly, in march 1926, against the suggestion made by the independent labour party for the formation of a comprehensive international society which should include the communists. (g. e. b.) henri, robert (1865- ), american painter, was born in cincinnati, o., in 1865. in 1886 he entcred the pennsylvania academy of the fine arts, philadelphia, pennsylvania. pro- ceeding to paris in 1888 he studied at julien’s and the ecole des beaux arts and visited spain and italy. returning to the united states he became in 18gr an instructor at the women’s school of design, philadelphia. in 1896-1900 he was again in paris and exhibited at the salon. during an extremely active life as a painter, he found time to teach, many of his pupils attaining marked distinction. during the period ro1s~23 he taught at the art students’ league, new york city, and also travelled extensively. his portraits are distinguished for their vigour and vivacity. of his works, ‘“ la neige ’’ was purchased in 1899 for the luxembourg in paris, and “‘ girl in white waist ”’ (later destroyed by fire) was purchased by the carnegie insti- tute, pittsburgh, in 1904. his other works include “ young woman in black,” in the art institute, chicago; ‘‘ the spanish gypsy,” in the metropolitan museum, new york city; and “indian girl in white ceremonial blanket,” in the corcoran gallery, washington, d.c. he wrote the art spirit (1923). henry, edward lamson (1841~1019), american painter (see 13.299), died at ellenville, n.y., may 9 roro. henry, o. (1862-1910), american short story writer, was born in greensboro, n.c., sept. 11 1862. his real name was william sydney porter. until the age of r5 he attended school, then for five years served as clerk in his uncle’s drug store. the indoor employment threatened his health, and in 1882 he went to a friend’s ranch in la salle co., texas. here he spent two years, absorbing the colour and robust life of the southwest. in 1884 he moved to austin, texas, worked as bookkeeper and then spent four years in the general land office. in 1887 he was married, and about this time he began to send paragraphs and humorous sketches to newspapers. during 1891 he was teller in the first national bank of austin. in 1894 he bought brann’s iconoclast, a satiric weekly, and trans- formed it into an extraordinarily humorous farrago of skit and burlesque, illustrated by himself; the venture was not a success and in 1895 he joined the staff of the houston post, writing a daily column. in 1806 he was indicted on a charge of having embezzled funds (amounting to about $1,150) from the bank in austin. the details of this aflair have never been cleared up; there seems no doubt that he was innocent; the bank’s affairs were very slipshod; he may have been shielding some friend; in any case, in a moment of insane impulse he fled from trial and went to honduras. the fatal illness of his wife brought him back in 1897. while waiting for trial he had the first news of acceptance of some of his stories by important magazines. in 1898 he was sentenced to five years in the ohio penitentiary. his term was reduced to three years and three months for good behaviour. in prison he seriously settled down to story-writing, and probably took his famous pseudonym from the name of a french pharmacist mentioned in a dictionary of drugs. he left prison in 1901 and went to new york in 1902. in 1903 he con- tracted to do a short-story a week for the new york world, at $100 each. his first book, cabbages and kings, was published in 1904. in 1907 he was married to miss sarah coleman, a boy- hood friend. he died in new york june 5 1910, and was buried in asheville, north carolina. the varied phases of o. henry’s life are reflected in his stories. ‘the extraordinary productivity of his eight years in new york brought him rapid fame, though he himself lived secluded and known to few. the sale of his books has been enormous and they have been translated into many languages. for ingenuity of plot and racy vividness of narration he has rarely if ever been 345 short story into a “ vaudeville stunt.” but the genial magic of his fine imagination, antic humour and brilliant narrative skill triumph over the occasional journalism of his method. subse- quent tendencies in literary technique run in an altogether different current, yet o. hlenry remains endlessly and enchant- ingly rereadable. his new york storics ‘are the most famous, but it is probable that some of the southern and western tales, in which there is less strain for glittering effect, are of more lasting value. the tragedy of his own life taught him a chival- rous tenderness for the unlucky; some of the greatest native endowments a writer can have were undeniably his, but his reckless use of them often arouses the trained reader’s amaze- ment. of him, as much as of any modern writer, it can be said that he had ‘‘no talent, only genius.” o. henry’s stories were collected in book form under the following titles: cabbages and kings (1904); the four mullion (1906); the trimmed lantp (1907); heart of the west (1907); the gentle crafter (1908); the voice of the city (1908); roads of destiny (1909); options (1909); whirligigs (igio); strictly business (1910); sixes and sevens (1911); rolling stones (1912); and waifs and strays (1917). see c. alphonso smith, o. henry biography (1916) and also post- humous collections of sketches and fragments, e.g., o. ienryana (1920), letters io lithopolis (1922), postscripts (1923). (c. my.) henry, victor (1850-1907), french philologist (see 13.301), died at sceaux, near paris, feb. 8 1907. herbert, victor (1859-10924), american musical com- poser, was born in dublin, ireland, feb. 1 1859. his musical education was received in germany, where he studied under the leading masters. he became principal violoncello player in the court orchestra, stuttgart, also appearing as a soloist on the concert platform in european musical centres. in 1886 he ac- cepted a position as solo violoncellist in the metropolitan or- chestra, new york city, being subsequently connected with other orchestras as soloist and conductor. in 1894 he was ap- pointed bandmaster of the 22nd. regt. (n.y.) band. in 1808 he became conductor of the pittsburgh orchestra. he composed the music for a number of light operas, of which his greatest successes were babes in toyland (1903), aflle. afediste (1905), and the red afill (1906). in 1904 he organised victor herbert’s new york orchestra. in 1911 he wrote a grand opera, natomiu. more successful, however, was the music which he composed for the photoplay, the birth of a nation. in his later years he com- posed much for musical revues. he died in new york city may 20 1924. hercegovina: sce bosnia-hercfegovina. herczeg, ferencz (1863- ), hungarian novelist and dramatist, was born at versecz (virset) of a family of german extraction. he decided first to adopt a legal career, but soon turned to literature, and after the publication of his first novel his reputation and popularity steadily increased. he became honorary president of the pet6fi society and a member of the hungarian academy. he was several times elected a deputy and through the medium of his review, jafugyar figyele, showed himself to be a staunch supporter of count tisza. he was a master of the psychological novel, excelling in the analysis of the feminine mind and in depicting the life of the nobility and of the well-to-do bourgeois class. among the most notable of his historical novels are pogenyok (the pagans) (1902) and a hee sveb (the seven swabians), while his tragedy byzance (1912) is considered a masterpiece. ilis novels and plays have been translated into nearly every european language. heredity (see 13.350 and biolocy; cytolocy; embryology; evolution; mendelism; sex).—iieredity is the relation of organic continuity between successive generations. it is a genetic or flesh-and-blood relation, effected by the germ-cells which are liberated from parents and develop into offspring. heredity secures the continuance of a specific organisation; it implies some measure of racial entailment or organic inertia; and yet it does not preclude variability, that is to say the occurrence of marked differences between offspring and their parents. even if there had been no evolution there would still be surpassed, but he has been sharply criticised for turning the | heredity; it would be the genetic relation between successive 346 generations of unprogressive protists. but there could be no evolution without heredity, for heredity implies the possibility that new departures can be entailed from generation to genera- tion. it is possible that in early times and among simple types there was greater variability than is common nowadays and among more advanced types, and that the evolution of the hereditary relation, e.g., in the advance from asexual to sexual reproduction, put a useful check on the occurrence of variations. but it does not conduce to clearness to say that variation is older than heredity, or to make any antithesis between the two sets of facts. there is a contrast between complete hereditary resemblance in successive generations, which might be compared to inertia in the physical domain, and marked variation, which might be compared to kinetic divergence; but the hereditary re- lation is such, especially in sexual multiplication, that it allows of novelties or new departures. in short, heredity includes the possibility of variation. vehicle of the jnheritance by inheritance is meant all that the organism is or has to start with in virtue of its hereditary relation to its parents and ances- tors. thus it does not include ante-natal infection, or any im- print impressed on the embryo before birth, or any result of being nurtured in the same environment as the parents. in asexual multiplication the vehicle of the inheritance is obviously the separated off-bud or portion, and it is of interest that a small fragment of a polyp or of a leaf may develop into a perfect organ- ism, always provided that the initial amount be not too minute, that it contain a fair sample of the different kinds of cells in the body, and that it find the appropriate environment. thus drops of minced sponge, forced through a sieve, may develop into typ- ‘ical forms. in sexual reproduction the vehicle of the inheritance is ob- viously in the sex-cells or gametes, but the question arises whether the cytoplasm counts at all as a bearer of hereditary qualities, or whether these are restricted to the chromosomes. that the latter bear many of the hereditary characters is practically proved by mendelian and micro-dissection experiment, and it is believed by many students that the characters or, more strictly, their initia- tives, technically called ‘‘ factors ” or “ genes,” lie in linear order in each individual chromosome. the chromosome theory —some of the arguments for this chromosome theory of inheritance may be briefly stated (sce mendelism). (1) there must be significance in the persistence of a particular number of chromosomes for each species, e.g., two for the threadworm of the horse and 48 for man. (2) there is a parallelism in odgenesis and spermatogenesis such that the nor- mal number of chromosomes is reduced to one half by a chance meiotic division, and this conforms to the facts of mendelian inheritance. (3) in fertilisation there is a restoration of the nor- non mal number cia) , and homologous chromosomes from the two parents unite in couples. the two parents contribute in equal amounts the chromosomal warp and woof of the offspring web, as van beneden first showed in his famous paper of 1883. but the full force of this cannot be realised without linking the fertilisation to the antecedent maturation. as mcclung puts it:—~ in preparation for the union of the sperm and ovum in fertilisation, by which the duplex chromosome scries is established in a new in- dividual, each of these germ-cells reduces its own duplex state to a simplex one by segregating its maternal and paternal members of each pair into different cells by chance distribution in relation to the others. we may perhaps say that this shuffling of the hereditary cards is one of the opportunities for the origin of fresh permutations and combinations—new departures in short. but there is another suggestion of variability in the fact that in the pairing of chromo- somes before maturation-division there is an intimate physical contact (synapsis)} in virtue of which there may be interactions and resulting changes. this may be another fountain of varia- tion. (4) in related species there is often a close resemblance in the shape and structure of the chromosomes, and several cases heredity are known in which the numbers of the chromosomes in a group of species form an arithmetical series, such as multiples of seven in roses. (5) in some cases there is strong evidence to warrant associating a particular chromosome with a particular character in the organism, notably mcclung’s correlation of the accessory chromosome with sex (see sex). an individual chromosome with a recognisable peculiarity of shape has sometimes been traced from generation to generation, and there is no getting past the large fact that the chromosomes are the only individualised elements that perpetuate themselves with precision from generation to generation. (6) in some cases the unit characters or separably hereditary characters of an organism form a number of linked groups of unequal numerical value, and with these there is sometimes correlated a similar num- ber of chromosomes, differing proportionally in size. (7) here also may be noted the growing evidence that there is in the chromo- somes of the various individuals of a species a definite and con- stant linear arrangement of factorial areas orchromomer. plainly, then, there are many reasons for regarding the chromosomes as the bearers of the hereditary factors. the cytoplasm in inheritance.—on the other hand, the cell is a unity, and a physiological firm, so that the cytoplasm of the ovum may be very important although it is not the bearer of the hereditary factors. the experiments of wilson, conklin and others show that an egg-cell may contain definitely localised materials that are made use of in the development of particular structures in the embryo. these, therefore, must be components contributing to the resultant, yet it has to be kept tn view that the organisation of the materials in the egg is effected under the control of the nucleus and its chromosomes. since modern studies of genetics have had very largely to do with the newer and more external specific characters, it seems premature to shut out the possibility that the vehicle of the older and fundamental hereditary characters may be in part at least carried by the cytoplasm of the egg-cell, which would not neces- sarily mean that they were outside nuclear influence. loeb maintained that racial characters were cytoplasmic and specific characters chromosomal. yet, since the quantity of cytoplasm in the spermatozo6n as compared with the ovum is very minute, on loeb’s view the female parent should count more predom- inantly than it does. the question should not be foreclosed. fundamental facts of ileredity the largest fact is that all kinds of inborn characters, normal or abnormal, ‘‘ bodily ” or ‘‘ mental,” important or trivial, struc- tural or functional, except complete sterility, may be continued on in the next generation. even subtle characters, such as longevity and fecundity, may form part of the hereditary organ- isation which is continued on in the lineage of germ-cells. the term “ transmitted ”’ should be given up, since it suggests the erroneous idea that the parent makes and endows the germ-cells that become the offspring. the parent is more like a trustee. continuity of the germ-plasm.—the large fact of the per- sistence of a general resemblance from generation to generation depends on the continuity of the germ-plasm. what weismann and galton suggested has been confirmed in detail, that the germ-cells from which offspring develop are continuous along an unspecialised cell lineage with the fertilised ovum that gave rise to the parent. in many cases the future germ-cells are segre~- gated at an early stage in development (even at the first cleavage in ascaris), but whether they are set apart very early or not, the germ-cells are those cells which have remained unspecialised, with approximately the whole inheritance intact, not having shared in body-making and the differentiations therein involved. some saving clauses must be added:—({a) for plants where the distinc- tion between germ-plasm and somatoplasm is only incipient (a piece of leaf readily developing into a whole plant, flower and all); (b) for animals in which the reproductive organs are late of being recognisable, e.g., when there is a prolonged asexual larval period as in echinoderms and many of the higher insects; and (c) for a few more difficult cases, known experimentally in adult higher animals, such as the frog, where body-cells are said to be heredity able to form germ-cells. but on the whole, the fact of the con- tinuity of the germ-plasm is a firm foundation-stone. germinal origin of variations.—it follows theoretically from the continuity of the germ-plasm that any novel peculiarity in the germ-cells, still more in the fertilised egg-cell, may be con- tinued in the germ-cell lineage of the offspring and thus reappear in the next generation, and so on. but what is possible on general grounds must be proved for particular cases; and it is known of many new departures of germinal origin that they come tostay. the variants breed true. this leaps to the eye when the novelty is pathological, but it holds even more true of the normal. it holds (a) for what may be called ‘‘ recombination-characters,” where the novelty is interpretable as a reshuffling of ancestral factors, yielding, as it were, a new pattern; and (b) for mutations which are more distinctively novel—brusque emergences of some feature which was not distinctly represented in the ancestry. thus new combinations and mutations agree in being in many cases very heritable, whereas it is uncertain that this can ever be said of exogenous ‘‘ modifications,” which do not emerge from within but are imprinted from without. in his prolonged studies of garden snapdragons, prof. erwin baur finds that there is an abundant occurrence of small muta- tions (of unexplained germinal origin) which are hereditarily en- tailed and summed up into stable varieties. for this organism it seems that the minute mutations count for more than striking large mutations in the establishment of stable cultivated races; and it is interesting to note that they correspond closely to the small variations that darwin started with as his main form of evolutionary raw material. in other organisms, however, new combinations may count for most, and in others large mutations; the indispensable quality is that the germinal new departures are such that they can be hereditarily continued. disappearance of a germinal variation.—the non-continuance of a variation of germinal origin may come about in different ways. its chromosomal representative (a ‘“ factor ” or “ gene ’’) may be lost in a maturation-division, e.g., in the formation of the first polar body which is given off from the ripening egg-cell and never comes to anything, though it carries off one member of each of the chromosome-pairs. or it is possible that when two homologous chromosomes are coupled in intimate synapsis, an influence passing from one to the other may change the nature of a factor. when they eventually separate they may have lost or gained by “ crossing-over ” (see \iendelism). or it may be that a factor or gene changes in character just as a microbe some- times does, perhaps in response to a subtle environmental stimulus. another possibility is that the new departure may be fatal or lethal, or that it may result in a sterile organism. what often happens is that a variation seen in the first filial generation does not reappear in the next owing to the absence of some environ- mental or nurtural influence necessary for its developmental expression. but what is common to all theories of evolution is the verifiable postulate of the heritability of variations, what dis- tinguishes the lamarckian school is the inclusion of somatic ““ modifications ” as part of the evolutionary raw material. unit characters —another foundation stone laid by experi- mental work is the concept of unit characters, features that are continued on, intact, from generation to generation, without blending or fractioning, either present fully or absent altogether. in other words, unit characters illustrate mendelian inheritance, and the analysis of the organism into a bundle of unit characters has for its corollary the germinal representation of these unit characters by a set of factors or genes in the chromosomes of the germ-cells. what a ‘ gene” is, we do not know; perhaps a group of molecules in some particular collocation. they are often compared to ferments. the progress of investigation has indicated that genes are not immutable, that they may influence one another and be influenced by their cellular environment, that they may be distributed in linked groups, that several different genes may be concerned in the development of one character, that one gene may influence several different characters. finally, the expression that the genes find in development may be dependent 347 on the presence of the appropriate liberating stimulus in the environment. what has been actually proved is that the organism includes a congeries of unit characters which are hereclitarily continued as units, somewhat like the radicals in chemical reactions. it is possible, however, that part of the inheritance consists of a con- solidated bloc of fundamental racial characters, which undergo little if any change in the course of generations. it is possible, for instance, that the characters constituting a rabbit a rodent are not hereditarily continued in the same way as the unit characters that constitute the rabbit an angora. gualton’s two laws.—also important as averaging statistical conclusions are galton’s laws of inheritance. according to the law of ancestral inheritance an inheritance is not merely dual, it is multiple; and the average contributions made by grand- parents, great-grandparents and so on, are definite and diminish in a precise ratio according to the remoteness of the ancestor. the two parents between them contribute, on the average, one- half of each inherited faculty, each of them contributing one- quarter of it. the four grandparents contribute between them one-quarter, or each of them one-sixteenth; and so on backwards. this will not apply to cases which illustrate clear-cut mendelian inheritance; but when characters blend, or have so many fac- torial units involved that they seem to blend, there may be value in galton’s conclusion that on the average the inheritance of an individual is a mosaic of ancestral contributions. the second law is that of filial regression, or what might be called the tend- ency to approximate either upwards or downwards to the mean or average of the stock. as galton said:— the more bountifully a parent is gifted by nature, the more rare will be his good fortune if he begets a son who is as richly endowed as himself, and still more so if he has a son who is endowed yet more largely. but the law is even-handed; it levies an equal succession- tax on the transmission of badness as of goodness. the value of a fine parentage is obvious, but “ the ablest of the children of a few gifted pairs is not likely to be as gifted as the ablest of all the children of a great many mediocre pairs.”’ on the other hand, two gifted members of a poor stock may be personally equivalent to two ordinary members of a good stock, but the children of the former will tend to regress; those of the latter will not. to take prof. karl pearson’s illustration, the mean height of the sons of, say, 1,000 six-ft. fathers will be 70-8 in.; the mean height of the sons of 1,000 66-in. fathers will be 68:3 in., again a regression toward the mean of the general population. “‘ the father with a great excess of the character contributes sons with an excess, but a less excess of it; the father with a great defect of the character contributes sons with a defect, but less defect of it. the general result is a sensible stability of type and variation from generation to generation.” galton’s laws are statistical, not physiological; they require correction in regard to characters which are subject to per- sistent keen selection, either natural, sexual or artificial; they will not apply to sharply defined ‘ unit characters ’’ which do not blend. the data which galton utilised were chiefly the rec- ords of family faculties, as to stature, eye-colour, temper, ar- tistic ability and so on, but they were to some extent supple- mented by measurements in galton’s anthropometric labora- tory, and by observations on plants and animals. the most reliable data were those relating to stature, and they are open to the criticism that they included indiscriminately what is due to somatic modification and what is due to germinal consti- tution. in the view of many biologists this greatly lessens the value of galton’s laws. the past in the present—looked at broadly, the facts of heredity illustrate the way in which the past lives on in the organism, active and acting. the inheritance includes many items of different degrees of antiquity, some very ancient. these have for the most part useful inertia, but there is often a striking persistence of anachronisms, both of structure and function. there is a remarkable staying power in characters that illustrate mendelian inheritance, whether for good or ill. there is an indubitable recapitulation of phylogeny in ontogeny, 348 especially in organogenesis; and it is the continuity of the germ- plasm that makes all this possible. for the same reason, thereis a conservation of advantageous tentatives in so far as these are the outcome of germinal variations. in short, heredity and de- velopment show us the organism as a historic being, and moreover as one that enregisters the ages that are past. heredity and development the most elusive of problems concerning heredity is the most familiar one: how does the hereditary material in the chromo- somes and in the cytoplasm develop into the organism. there is a hereditary preformation of some sort in the chromosomes with their genes, and to this the cytoplasm—with so little in the way of organisation to start with—responds in a perfectly precise and controlled way; but physiological embryology, though rapidly progressive, is still a long way from an understanding of what occurs. as to the mind of aristotle, so to the biologists of to-day, development remains a central secret (see embryology). pransmisstbility of somatic modifications —some advance has been made in regard to the long-standing problem often desig- nated “ the inheritance of acquired characters.”’ the history of the discussion shows that weismann and spencer, who took opposite sides, meant by “‘ acquired characters ” only one kind of thing—those somatic changes that are directly due to some peculiarity in use and disuse, nutrition, or environmental in- fluence, and which persist in the individual, for some time at least, alter the inducing conditions have ceased to operate. it is irrelevant and illegitimate to maintain that ‘ acquired char- acters ’’? should mean something else. as long as the weismann- spencer argument continues, it is necessary to keep to the original use of the terms. that there are corollaries must be allowed, such as (a) the transmissibility of the secondary effects of moclifications, or (b) the possibility of a specific influence being impressed simultaneously on soma and on germ-cells. but the main question is a precise one: can a modification, as defined, affect the germ-cells in such a specific or representative way that the offspring will, through its inheritance, exhibit, even in a slight degree, the modification which the parent or parents acquired? may there come about in the germ-cells a heritable registration of some specific modification imprinted on the parental body? to get a clear issue, as regards the precise problem, there should be an avoidance of (a) data referring to unicellulars, where there is only a beginning of the contrast between soma- toplasm and germ-plasm; () data which involve the possibility that the germ-cells may be influenced along with the body by some penetrating toxin or hormone or radiation or the like, con- nected with the imprinting of the original modification and (c) data relating to viviparous organisms, e.g., mammals and seed- bearing plants, where it may be that a modification of the parent, such as acquired immunity or acquired evergreenness, comes to be shared by the offspring because of the intimacy of the ante- natal partnership. if this occurred it would have in the first generation the same practical result as if there had been a specific repercussion on the germ-ceils, but it would not be a convincing case, unless it held good when the modification was exhibited by the male parent only. both for placental mammals and for seed- bearing plants it is easy to conceive of specitic metabolic products or metabolites passing from the mother to the offspring before separation occurs. necd for data from at least three generations —when organ- isms are transferred to novel surroundings or conditions of life, such as those of a colder climate. it often happens that an ad- vantageous modification is induced, such as a longer coat of hair in a mammal; and it may be that this modification appears in increased expression in the next generation. but this would prove nothing more than modifiability, for the second generation was exposed for a longer time than the first to the modifying in- fluence. ut if the character in the third generation was larger in amount than in the second, an interesting fact would be established. changed environment.—yvyet the crucial cases must be those where the offspring of modified parents develop in an environ- heredity ment which does not include the modifying factor which effected the change in the parental soma. thus in prof. w. e. agar’s model experiments, specimens of the entomostracan simocepha- lus that were reared in water with certain nutritive peculiarities, showed a distinctive reversal of their two shell-valves doubtless due to the altered metabolism. they were reared to maturity and then transferred to ordinary water where they liberated their ova. these developed into individuals which showed the modificational peculiarity that their parents had acquired. later on, however, when the parents again liberated ova, the abnormal effect was scen only to a very slight degree, and in a third brood (not generation) it had dwindled away. this very instructive case suggests that the abnormal nurture had resulted, not in any disturbance of the inheritance, but in the formation of some peculiar non-living metabolite, which was included in the cytoplasm of the egg, passed passively into the body which de- veloped from the egg, and there produced on the body of the offspring the same effect as it originally produced on the body of the parent which acquired the character in question. as the supplies of the metabolite were exhausted, its influence dwindled in the second brood, and disappeared in the third. this illus- trated the importance of changing the environment in such experiments. alcoholised anintals—many experiments have been made on the effect of alcohol (usually inhaled fumes) on animals, but the results are not altogether in accordance. thus while there may be no observable deterioration in the treated guinea-pigs, there is clear evidence of this in their untreated offspring. on the other hand, prof. raymond pearl found that after alcohol treat- ment his fowls produced offspring which were superior in a marked degree to those produced by non-treated controls. pearl’s interpretation of this is that the alcoholic treatment eliminated all the inferior germ-cells in the ovary of the fowls, leaving the coast clear for the superior ones to produce the next generation. of the reality of this process of germinal selection there is some histological evidence. in dr. f. b. ilansom’s experiments on white rats there was no observable effect on to the end of the second generation. those that were subjected to inhalations of alcohol were in no way different from their relatives that breathed normally. moreover, the treated offspring of the treated parents were indistinguish- able from their first cousins, the untreated offspring of untreated parents. but in the third generation, a change occurred. at the age of 20 days, before any individual treatment, the members of the treated lineage showed themselves inferior in body weight, body length and tail length, when compared with their counter- parts on the untreated lineage. when alcohol-inhalation began, the difference became more marked, as if the animals were re- sponding to the abnormal condition with a new susceptibility. it reached a maximum of nearly ro times the probable error. now the natural inference at this stage in the experiments would have been that the influence of two previous generations of alcoholic inhalation was beginning to make itself felt. and as the effects were observable before individual treatment began, the inheritance of the generally deteriorative influence of alcohol might have been held as proved. but the remarkable fact is that the fourth gencration showed a marked improvement! “the treated side of this generation for the first hali of its growth curve is back to the fold with the first two generations. later there is some response to the treatment and a consequent dropping off in the curve.”’ this remarkable result suggests that some process of germinal selection may have been at work, an elimination of inferior germ-cells; but it also suggests caution. prof. charles r. stockard’s experiments on alcoholised guinea-pigs, continued for 13 years, showed no deterioration of the treated parents up to seven years, which is a great age for these animals. but the deteriorative influence on the immediate offspring and on later descendants was shown in debility, short life and arrested development. yet there was no evidence of the transmission of any particular character. the probability is that the alcohol, saturating through the body of the parent, poisoned the germ-cells and deteriorated the constitution of the offspring heredity in a general way. but here, again, there was the remarkable phenomenon, that after three generations of treating, there wasa marked improvement. the members of the fourth filial genera- tion of treated “ pigs’”’ were actually superior in vitality to the con- trols. this may have been due to the elimination of the weak- lings and defectives, perhaps also to a sifting out of germ-cells. other striking experiments —dr. bentley and dr. griflith found that some of the progeny of rats rotated for a long time on a2 round-about showed a high degree of diseguilibration and detcrioration, but it is possible, as dr. detlefsen has suggested, that some microbic infection (causing inflammation of the auditory labyrinth) may have complicated the issue. pointing towards a transmission of specific modifications are the intricate experiments of prof. m. f. guyer and dr. e. a. smith on the continuance of artificially induced eyve-defects in rabbits. very suggestive in the same direction are diirken's experiments on the colour of the pupae of the common white butterfly, where there seemed to be a hereditary effect of artificial illumination. to many biologists it seems that there is unques- tionable validity in the numerous experiments of kammerer which point in several cases to the hereditary continuance of a parental modification. thus when the young of the spotted salamander are kept on black backgrounds the black patches on their skin increase in size, while if they be kept on yellow back- grounds the yellow patches increase. this change towards greater blackness or towards greater yellowness was found to be to a considerable extent heritable, for the offspring of the modified parents showed a similar change in a marked degree. indeed they began in a colour phase nearly, though not quite, as advanced as that at which their parents left off. thus it would be possible to continue citing cases first on one side and then on the other, on both sides open to detailed crit- icism. but the moral seems to be that this long-discussed ques- tion cannot even now be regarded as closed. there must be a patient accumulation of more data, more rigorously tested or verified; and the question at issue 1s of such importance as to forbid any hurry to a conclusion. nature and nurture wider than the question of the transmissibility of somatic modifications is that of the relation between hereditary nature and environing nurture. the difference between the two com- plementary factors is referred to in prospero’s description of cal- iban as “ a devil, a born devil, on whose nature nurture will never stick.’’ it is evident, however, that the two factors should not be opposed as if they were antithetic, for while no amount of nurture will make a bad inheritance good, there can be no de- velopment at all without a minimum of nurture, and on the generosity of the nurture the development of the heritable char- acter will in some measure depend. at the beginning of the individual life the implicit organism and the inheritance are one and the same, but by subjecting germ- cells and embryos of the same origin to different ‘ nurture "’ (functional, nutritional and environmental) it can be shown that there are different reactions according to the developmental conditions. the young proteus kept in darkness remains un- pigmented, but its neighbour reared in a well-lighted laboratory becomes dark. a chinese primrose (primula sinensis) reared at 25° c. will have white flowers (var. afba), but its neighbour, or, later on, itself brought under the intluence of higher temperature (30° c.), shade and moisture, will have red flowers (var. rubra). according to diet a tadpole may become large and poorly dif- ferentiated, or small and well-differentiated. there are scores of such cases. eggs, embryos, larvae and so on, of the same genetic origin, may develop very differently according to the conditions of life, and, conversely, differently endowed young organisms may de- velop very differently though reared in nurtural conditions which are precisely the same, as we sce when good seed and poor seed are sown in the same plot. therefore, it is legitimate to dis- tinguish the hereditary factor in development from the func- tional or the environmental factor. as we have said, an 349 antithesis between hereditary ‘“‘ nature”? (galton’s ‘ natural inheritance ’’) and extrinsic “ nurture ” (all manner of environs mental, nutritional and functional iniluences) is illegitimate, since both are necessary components of a resultant, as clav and heat to brick, or water and wind to wave; vet for the reasons given, it is permissible and useful to discriminate between the two aspects. it is sound biology to say of some particular peculiarity in an organism that it is due (a) to the loss of some item in the natural or germ-plasmic inheritance, or (/) to some nurtural defect which inhibited the developmental expression of items that were certainly present in the inheritance, as sub- sequent breeding shows. similarly, on the positive side, it makes a difference if the development organism has received factors for a particular character from both parents; and it makes a difference if the nurture is unusually stimulating as regards the expression of a particular character. ienvironment and inheritance some biologists are so sensitive to the abstractness of all the biological pigeon-holing, that they have seriously proposed to include the normal appropriate environment of the young or- ganism as part of its “ heredity,” for, as they say, what does the inheritance amount to if the appropriate environment is wanting—a bundle of cheques but no bank. perhaps, however, this is unnecessarily pedantic, after it has been agreed that these various “‘ aspects ”’ are devices for scientific analysis. every liv- ing creature must have its surroundings; every embryo must have its nurture; function is only the unending sequence of actions and reactions between organism and the environment. all this may be granted, and yet it is useful and necessary to try to distinguish in development the respective influences of “nature ’ and “ nurture ’’—including in the latter three sets of conditions: environmental, nutritional and functional. up to a certain point the fertilised ovum of a mammal may be induced to develop outside the mother, or an isolated neuron of a chick-embryo will grow in a droplet under the microscope, thus illustrating the hereditary inertia. yet if the larval proteus be reared under red light in the laboratory, the minute primor- dium of the eye, which in the normal cave-environment remains arrested and buried, increases in size and in the differentiation of optic structures. it may actually grow to meet the skin and become a seeing eve, thus illustrating the potency of altered en- vironment as a liberating stimulus. no doubt there are nurtural limits outside which normal development will not occur, but the majority of organisms in natural conditions find this minimum environment at least. this will be agreed to by all. what is more interesting is the question how far changes in the nurture, such as are of frequent occurrence in natural conditions, will serve as inhibitants and stimulants. the same kind of sponge may grow into a dwarf that lives in a hole excavated in an oyster-shell, or in conditions of greater freedom it may grow into a large vase. {f a bonellia farva rests for a while on the proboscis of the adult and absorbs inhibitant nutritive material from the skin, it de- velops into a pygmy male; but if, after the free-swimming stage, it settles down in the mud, and not on a proboscis, it develops into a large and vigorous female. function and uwcredtty-—along with the environmental and nutritional influences, those of active functioning must be in- cluded, though it is of course evident that the activity or inac- tivity, the restlessness or sluggishness of the developing organism is an expression of its particular inheritance. the free-swim- ming tunicate larva has in ordinary cases no alternative to be- coming sedentary; the collapse is an expression of the inheritance. yet in some cases the individuals of a family, clutch or litter, vary demonstrably in their heritable constitutional bias in the direction of greater or less activity—perhaps the commonest of all variations—and thus there arise differences in development which afford raw material for natural selection. especially in relatively less stereotyped forms, e.g., in fishes compared with mammals, the importance of active functioning in the course of development is momentous, for it 1s on the active functioning that the detailed expression of hereditary characters depends. a 359 vicious circle must be avoided, but not so timorously that we thereby miss a great truth. the degrce of development, 7.e., the expression of hereditary characters, depends in part on surroundings and food, but it also depends on the activity of the young creature such as the fish-larva, and on the action of part cn part. the degree of this activity depends largely on the inherited constitution (and partly on food and environment), therefore we are not suggesting that it is a separate entity or anything of that sort. we are only emphasising a commonplace that is often missed: the differen- tiation of characters in development depends in part on the functioning of the young organism, and changes in the intensity of the functioning will result in changes in the evocation of structure. the changes in intensity of functioning may be of the nature of germinal variations, or they may be reactions to environmental stimulus. if the environmental stimulus should become constant, a modificational specific character might arise. it is possible that many constant characters of a species are really of the nature of constantly re-impressed modifications. as dr. harry m. kyle puts it: ‘‘ the constancy of a species de- pends upon the persistence of a normal environment.” from this point of view we get a useful new light on heredity. to some extent, especially in the lower grades of life, the inherited ma- terial may be moulded this way or that way if the nurture is changeful, or it may find a deceptively stereotyped expression when the nurture is very constant from generation to generation. between inheritance and environment comes the activity of the individual. dr. kyle’s biology of fishes (1926) may be cited for its many illustrations of this important thesis. heredity and disease for biological purposes a disease may be defined as a deteri- orative process which tends to disintegrate the unity of the organism. the associated pathological changes cannot be separated off in any hard and fast way from ordinary vital changes, and what is a disease in one animal may be normalised in another type—let us think of the growth and decay of the stag’s antlers. yet disease implies that certain processes of metabolism have got out of place, out of time and out of tune. for biological rather than medical purposes, again, we may distinguish four kinds of disease:—(1) there are environmental diseases, such as debilities due to lack of light or to deficiency in certain constituents of the food. perhaps rickets may serve as an example. (2) there are functional diseases, which are due to overwork, lack of exercise or to some detcriorative factor in the occupation. some kinds of heart strain, certain forms of obesity and lead poisoning may serve as examples. (3) there are the familiar microbic and parasitic diseases, due to the poisonings, lesions, blockings and so forth that are produced by intruding organisms of a hostile character; as in plague, tuberculosis, sleeping-sickness, malaria, and the disturbance brought about by hookworm, bilharzia, and other non-microbic invaders of man’s body. it has to be recognised that part of what is, for practical purposes, called the disease in such cases, 1s the organ- ism’s defensive or even offensive reaction to the intruder, as in the phagocytosis associated with inflammation. (4) on a different plane are organic or constitutional diseases, which are due to some very early germinal or embryonic disturbance or defect. a deteriorative peculiarity in the metabolism associated with excretion may find expression in kidney disease; or some defect in the inheritance may express itself later in one of the forms of epilepsy; or some inborn and at present inexplicable lack of bal- ance in the functioning of the endocrinal glands may lead to one of the forms of diabetes. apart from parasites, there is al- most no disease in wild nature, where it 1s speedily nipped in the bud if it shows itself; in mankind and in his stock, where selection for health is less searching and insistent, where the struggle for existence is rarely with the gloves off, and where the conditions of life are often very artificial, disease is rife. in the case of organic or constitutional diseases, the organism starts with an inherited handicap, to which ill-advised nurture may add. in the heredity other kinds of disease, the immediate cause is in great part extrinsic, though less so in occupational diseases, but the extrinsic influence may have its deteriorative effect increased by some hereditary predisposition on the organism’s part, which has then to fight a battle with two fronts. a few general statements may be made in regard to heredity and disease. there is no proof that modification-diseases (en- vironmental, occupational or habitudinal) can be transmitted from parent to offspring, but they may bring about a general weakening of the germ-plasm, and they may influence the child prejudicially through the mother. mlicrobic diseases are not transmissible, though a susceptibility to them may be, and though very early—ante-natal—infection may bring about a semblance of heritability. as a disease is a process, there are few instances of hereditary disease in the strict sense; but there are many instances of definite heritable taints, that is to say, con- stitutional predispositions or susceptibilities that render the organism peculiarly liable to deteriorative influences in surround- ings, in nutrition and in functioning, or to the assaults of in- truding microbes. ifa hereditary taint is a recessive mendelian character it will be masked by the corresponding dominant character, that is by normality. thus it will not find individual expression, though it remains part of the inheritance. it is pos- sible that a pathological feature, e.g., a nervous disturbance, may find expression earlier and earlier in development, until it be- comes fatal at a very early stage (sir f. w. mott’s “law of anticipation’’). heredity and consanguinity the older view that consanguinity is necessarily of itself de- teriorative has not been confirmed experimentally. leaving man’s case apart, where psychological and social considerations complicate the issue, there is abundant evidence that the in- breeding or endogamy of healthy stock may go far without any deteriorative results. in the early chapters of the establishment of some of the famous stocks of domesticated animals there has been very close inbreeding. if there is a well-defined taint of some sort, it is plain that inbreeding will increase it if it is exhibited by both the parents. if a given character exhibits mendelian inheritance, the result of inbreeding must always be the isolation of homozygous types—pure as regards the character in question. it matters not whether the character is advanta- geous or detrimental, except that in the latter case it may soon cross the limit of viability. if we suppose that a herd includes a percentage of individuals with a recessive taint, this will tend to become less conspicuous in conditions of outbreeding or exog- amy, since the offspring of recessive tainted and dominant normal will appear normal. but in conditions of inbreeding or endogamy, the taint will become more and more conspicuous, since the chances of two tainted parents coming together will be greater, and the offspring will be homozygous recessives. thus there will come about an isolation of a homozygous tainted type (or, in more complex cases, types), and the rapidity of the isolation will be in propor- tion to the intensity of the inbreeding. when the taints interest the breeder practically he fixes his attention on them, and thus, in the past, consanguinity has been blamed for causing what it merely discloses. it should be noted that there may be remark- able combinations of deteriorative recessive characters, previ- ously hidden by their dominant allelomorphs, and that there may be a general reduction in the vigour of the herd as taints diffuse. we cannot wonder, then, that inbreeding has come to have a bad name. but the facts all point to the conclusion that what the inbreeding itsclf does is to expose undesirable charac- ters that already existed, but have been masked by their dom- inants. it follows that inbreeding can be used as a sieve for the radical improvement of a stock, since the exposed abnormalities, deficiencies and undesirabilities can be artificially eliminated. a subsequent outbreeding with good stock will re-invigorate the purified inbred stock, for there will be a pooling of good qual- ities comparable to the previous accentuation of bad ones. moreover, there may be a useful outcrop of fresh variations, for hergesheim er —herriot this often follows the introduction of fresh blood. it may be definitely concluded, then, that inbreeding is not injurious be- cause of the consanguinity, and that if the breeder understands what is happening, it may be made highly beneficial. the experimental evidence will be found conveniently in j#brecding and outbreeding, by e. m. east and d. f. jones (1919). there seems to be no biological reason for objecting to the marriage of two thoroughly healthy cousins; and it would appear that the alternation of periods of inbreeding and outbreeding has counted for much in the history of human stocks and tribes and races. conclusion.—one cannot turn from this survey without referring to the fatalistic impression that the study of heredity is apt to produce: the hand of the past has such a heavy grip. yet ‘the other side of heredity ” must also be emphasised—the persistence of the stable, the conservation of advantageous qual- ities, the continual emergence of the new, the influence of nurture in determining the degree of development to which the hereditary nature attains, and, in man’s case, the dominant importance of the extra-organismal or social heritage. a man cannot alter the number of his separate hereditary “ talents,’’ to use the phrasc- ology of the immortal parable, but he can trade with what he has, and he is thus not only born, but made. brsliography.—e. baur, finfithrung in die experimentelle verer- bungslehre (1911); karl pearson, grammar of science (1911); w. e.cas- tle and others, ieredity and eugenics (1912); r. semon, das problem der vererbung erworbener figenschaften (1912); w. bateson, afendel’s principles of heredity (1913), problems of genetics (1913); w. johann- sen, jlemente der exakien lerblichkettslehre (1913); f. w. mott, nature and nurture in mental development (1914); raymond pearl, afodes of research in genetics (1915); w. e. castle, genetics and [eugenics (1916); e.g. conklin, [heredity and entvtronment in the development of alen (1916); h. f. osborn, the origin and evolution of life (1917); e. b. babcock and r. e. clausen, genetics in relation to agriculture (1918); e. m. east and id. if. jones, inbreeding and outbreeding (1919); h. s. jennings, life and death, heredity and evaluiion, tn unicellular organisms (1919); t. h. morgan, the physical basis of iteredity (1919); v. ilaecker, allgemetne vererbungslehre (1921); r. c. punnett, aendelism (1922); hl. e. walter, genetics (1922); r. goldschmidt, finfiihrung in die vererbungs-wissenschaft (1923); e. v. cowdry and others, general cytology (1924); f. a. e, crew, animal genetics (1925); p. sammerer, juheritance of ac- guired characters (1925); e. w. macbride, zeredity (1925); e. b. wilson, the cell in development and iteredity, revised ed. (1925); j. arthur thomson, heredity, revised ed. (1926). {jaxe t; hergesheimer, joseph (1880- ), american author, was born at philadelphia, pa., feb. 15 1880, and was educated at a quaker school in philadelphia. as a writer of fiction he is distinguished by the warmih and colour of his descriptive pas- sages and by his psychological insight. his publications include: the lay anthony (1914); mountain blood (1915); the three black pennys (1917); gold and iron (1918); java ifead (1919); the happy end (1919); linda condon (1919); sar cristebal de la habana (1920); cytherea (1922); the bright shawl (1922); the presbyterian child (1923); balisand (1924); front an old house (1925); lampico (1926). herkomer, sir hubert von (1849-1914), british painter (see 13.364), died at budleigh salterton, devon, march 31 1914. hermant, abel (1862- ), french author and dramatist, was born in paris feb. 3 1862. a brilliant wit and an exquisite stylist, he consistently devoted his abundant talents to des- cribing the lighter side of life. his most characteristic works are those grouped under the general title, wemzoires pour servir a vhistoire de la societe (1905), wherein, with unfaltering gaiety and a humour saved only by the delicacy of its expression from appearing scabrous, he mocks the aristocracy and wealthy bourgeoisie of france. he excels, too, in long scrics of amusing dialogues. le caravanserail (1917), a study of rich foreigners plunged into the cosmopolitan circles of paris, is perhaps his best-known work, but the series of sceses dela vie des cours ct des ambassades, which includes la carriere (1894) and le sceptre, (1900), no less pungently portrays the complications of diplo- macy in a dignified central european court. among his plays may be noted la mente (1896), a comedy of parasites, and swaeie, ou la curiense @amour (1900), which with infinite grace displays the reactions of a light-headed woman to the successive phases of revolutionary and imperial france. 351 herrick, robert (1868-— ), american author, was born at cambridge, mass., april 26 1868. he was educated at the cambridge latin school and at harvard university where he graduated in 1890. he was appointed instructor in rhetoric at the massachusetts institute of technology in 1890 and three years later accepted a similar position at the university of chi- cago, where he became professor of english in 1905. his novels and short stories deal with the complicated problems of modern life in realistic fashion. they include 7he afan who wins (1895); the gospel of freedom (1898); the web of life (1900); the real world (1901); the common lot (1904); the memoirs of an american citizen (1905); the healer (1911); one woman’s life (1913); the conscript mother (1916); homely lilla (1923); waste (1924); wanderings (1924): and chimes (1926). herriot, edouard (1872- ), french politician, was born at troyes, in champagne, july 5 1872, the son of an officer. he was sent first to the lycee of la roche-sur-yon, and after- wards to that of louis-le-grand, which bore the reputation of being the best school in france. he then entered the ecole nor- male superieure, which included many eminent teachers such as bruneticre and gaston boissier, both of whom were men of authority and unquestioned reputation. here he remained working assiduously for several years, and while delighting in the pursuit of learning thoroughly enjoyed the interchange of ideas with his fellow-students, on whom he left an unforgettable im- pression. in 1894 he graduated with high honours. whilst undergoing his military service at nancy, his favourite relaxa- tion was the study of greek literature. his book philon le juif (1897) was crowned by the academie francaise. having been appointed a professor at the lycee of nantes, he was entrusted the following year first with the chair of rhetoric, and then of higher rhetoric at the lycee of lyon. he imparted to his pupils not merely the principles of knowledge but also the love of it for its own sake; a scholar of great refinement, he pos- sessed the gift of stimulating others, and his discourses were so lucid and attractive that all who heard them were captivated. on relinquishing his chair he became a popular iccturer, as well as journalist and propagandist, and his book, afudame recantier et ses amis (1903), achieved widespread popularity. his prects dc vhistotre des lettres francaiscs (1905) shows that his literary criticism was based on a minute study of the text. a man of m. herriot’s wide sympathy could not fail to be drawn into public life. in may too4 he was made a municipal councillor and deputy mayor of lyons and the following year became mayor. thenceforward, with the exception of three months, he guided the destinies of lyons; for at each successive election of the municipal council he resumed office. in 1910 he became a member of the conseil general and in 1912 senator for the department of the rhene. from dec. 1916 to march 1917 he occupied the post of minister of public works, transport and supplies in the cabinet of m. briand. during this time he inau- gurated a policy of restriction which enabled france to econo- mise her resources, while at the same time lessening the drain on them caused by the world war, and enabling her to gain a more speedy victory. having to a large extent solved the problem of supplies, he proceeded to bring order into the transport service. stations, railway lincs and ports were cleared and an efficient service was maintained. m. herriot now felt that by entering the chamber, he would be better able to carry out his cherished ideas. he therefore re- nounced his office as senator, and was elected in nov. ro1g dep- uty for the rhene department. he was then appointed a member of the finance commission and reporter-general of the budget of public instruction. the radical party now chose him as their leader, and asa defender of the principles of democracy he soon reached the front rank of french statesmen. «as an orator he showed subtlety and versatility, combined with a vivid imagi- nation, while his delivery was pleasing and impressive. at times he was a man of the people, then at other times his eloquence was that of the scholar soaring into metaphysics. both in speak- ing as well as writing m. herriot always approached his subject trom the loftiest standpoint—the result of his wide knowledge, 352 culture and absolute integrity. his chief qualities might be summed up in three words: logic, wisdom and conviction; and it was the combination of these which enabled him to draw up a formula for an experimental policy. even before hostilities had ceased, m. herriot turned his at- tention to post-war problems. by his actions as well as in the press he insisted on the necessity for the reconstruction and economic development of his country. in 1916, at the moment when the victory of jan. seemed imminent, he organised the lyons fair, that magnificent international market which not only promoted the economic intcrests of the town and district, but at the same time contributed in a remarkable degree to national prosperity. this exhibition, though it cost the inhabit- ants of lyons nothing, possessed a great palace to which each successive year new pavilions were added. that it proved a formidable rival to the leipzig fair, and had an ever- increasing success, was a striking testimony to m. herriot’s robust optimism. in 1917 he published agir, a book which at a time when the fate of france was so uncertain, bore the character of an unilinching act of faith; for in it m. herriot maintained that the culture and civilisation of france were too deep-rooted and too strong to be overcome. this gospel of action soon inspired the faint-hearted with fresh hope. after the victory, m. herriot brought out a work in two vol- umes, creer (1919), dedicated to the youth of france. it con- tained his programme of reconstruction, and gave his compatriots a fine example of resolution, fearlessness and patriotism. a similar example emerged from his visits to russia, the u.s.a. and canada. he was soon confronted with an even harder task than before, for as head of the radical party the eyes of all french democrats were turned towards him. it was he who inspired the opposition and acted as its mouthpiece, yet he remained faithful to his original ideals, and even in the heat of conflict never al- lowed himself to forget that one day the responsibility of oflice might fall to him again. after the elections of may 1924 he became premier and minister of foreign affairs and immedi- ately set to work to reform the policy of france. during the london conferences, in the application of the dawes plan and finally over the geneva protocol, he displayed a rare combina- tion of idealism and common sense, and outlined those great aims, in pursuit of which the nations of the world should unite to avoid war. by these efforts he gained the confidence of all men of good will, not only in europe but over the whole world. germany in consequence offered to draw up a security pact des- tined to be signed eight months later at locarno. this admirable achievement, however, by no means disarmed m. herriot’s adversaries. the financial problems which he had to face were the occasion of innumerable attacks upon him and finally a hostile vote of the senate obliged him to resign in april 192s. a few days later, he was elected president of the assem- bly by the deputies who desired to testify to the courage, zeal for work and talents of the leader of the left. the office of president gained an added lustre through the tact, good humour and timely exercise of his authority shown by m. herriot, and everyone cheerfully submitted to his arbitration. during the many critical moments in the history of contemporary i’rench politics, m. herriot, with his idealism, practical wisdom and patriotism, proved a guiding light. he devoted his few leisure hours to writing dawns lu foret normande, a book worthy not only of a great writer, but also of a philosopher. (l. ri.) hertling, georg, count von (1843-1919), german states- man, was born in darmstadt aug. 31 1843. in 1882 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the university of munich. from 1875 to 1890 and again from 1893 to 1912 he was a mem- ber of the reichstag, from 1909 being for a short time the leader of the centre (catholic) party. in 1912 he was appointed presi- dent of the bavarian ministry and minister for foreign affairs, and in r914 was elevated to the rank of count by king ludwig iii. on nov. rt 1917 he accepted the chancellorship of the reich, which he had refused in july of that year; and for 12 months he strove against the encroachments of the military authorities upon the political affairs of the empire. the iailure hertling—hewart of the german offensives in 1918 finally destroyed his hopes of being able to negotiate with the allies on anything like equal terms and feeling at last unequal to the struggle against the introduction of real parliamentary government, he resigned sept. 30 1918, and returned to his home at ruhpolding in upper bavaria, where he died jan. 4 1919. his reminiscences were published in rortg under the title of evrinnerungen aus metnem leben. see also karl hertling, ein jahr in der reichskanslet (1919). hertz, joseph herman (1872- ), chief rabbi of the united hebrew congregations of the british empire, was born ‘in rebrin, czechoslovakia, sept. 25 1872. emigrating to america as a child, he was educated at new york city college, columbia university, where he took the degree of ph.d., and the jewish theological seminary of america. he was a rabbi in johannes- burg, south africa, from 18098 to 1911 and, during the boer war, was expelled by president kruger for pro-british sympathies and for advocating the removal of religious disabilities from jews and catholics in the south african republic. from 1906 to 1908 he was professor of philosophy at transvaal university college. dr. hertz was elected to the chief rabbinate in succession to dr. hermann adler, in 1913. in 1920-1 he undertook an extensive pastoral tour, visiting the jewish communities in south africa, australia, new zealand and canada. he became president of jews’ college, london, in 1914. in 1925 he was made one of the board of governors of the university of jerusalem and chair- man of the administrative board of its institute of jewish studies. he also became vice-president of the anglo-jewish association, the london hospital and the league of nations union. among other jewish writings, he published an anthology a book of jewish thoughts (1917), of which 17 editions had appeared in 1926. he was a member of the original board of translators of the jewish bible version, 1896-1903. hertzog, james barry munnik (1866- ), south african politician, was born at wellington, cape colony, april 3 1866. educated at victoria college, stellenbosch and am- sterdam university, he became a judge in the orange free state in 1895, and served through the south african war of 1899-02. he voted against peace at vereeniging and, frankly hostile to the british connection, he helped to keep alive this anti-british feeling after the war. on the grant of responsible government in 1907, he became attorney general and minister of education in fischer’s ministry, and forthwith began to undo the work of the crown colony administration. he tried to force upon the schools a system of compulsory bi-lingualism—dutch and english—which was crude and impracticable. the director of education resigned, and one of the three inspectors, dismissed without enquiry, won an action for libel against hertzog in a cause celebre. in the first union cabinet, in rg10, hertzog became minister of justice under botha, but his attitude made the position un- tenable. botha resigned in 1912, took office again, reconstructed his cabinet and left hertzog out. the latter then formed an opposition party with complete independence of britain as its goal, and his perfervid nationalism gained htm much influence among the old republican boers. after the world war he con- tinued his separatist policy but finally formed a ‘ pact ” with the labour party. in 1924 this coalition came to power with hertzog as prime minister, whereupon he disclaimed any prac- tical application of his republican policy. in 1925 he brought the native question into the forefront of the political arena, thus rendering a great service to the future of the country owing to the increasing gravity of the problem in its relation to the con- tinued supremacy of a comparatively small white population. (h. gn.) hervieu, paul (1857-1915), french dramatist and novelist (see 13.405), produced his last play, le destin est maitre, in 1914. he died in paris oct. 25 1915. see a. binet, portrait psycho- logique de paul herviex (1914); h. burckhardt, studien su paz hervieu (1987). hewart, gordon hewart, ist baron (1870- is british lawyer, was born jan. 7 1870 at bury, lancashire. hewlett—hill, octavia having graduated as a scholar of university college, oxford, he was called to the bar in 1902 and practised on the northern cir- cuit. after an unsuccessful contest in northwest manchester in 1912, in which year he took silk, he was elected as a liberal for leicester in 1913, and after the rearrangement of constitu- encies in tq1t8 represented the eastern division of that city from 1918 till his retirement from parliament. in dec. 1916 he was appointed solicitor-general in mr. lloyd george’s coalition government. having afforded useful support to the adminis- tration by his talents as a debater, he was made attorney-general in jan. 1919, and was admitted to the cabinet in 1921. he gave material assistance in the conduct of reconstructive legislation, and took an active part in the final phase of the negotiations with the sinn feiners, being one of the signatories of the so-called trish treaty. he acted as president of the war compensation court from 1922. he had been knighted in 1916; on jan. 16 1918 he was sworn of the privy council, and on march 24 1922 was appointed lord chief justice, being at the same time created baron hewart of bury. hewlett, maurice henry (1861-1923), british man of letters (see 13.417). the best of his later works are ars. lance- lot (1912); bendish (1913); and mainwaring (1921). his main interest, however, was directed from fiction to verse. zhe song of the plow (1916) has been recognised as one of the most con- siderable narrative poems of the century; it describes the for- tunes of the english farm labourer from the earliest times to the world war, and though occasionally the imaginative beauty is obscured by necessarily prosaic detail, contains numerous passages of a fine masculine vigour. the villuge wife's lament (1918) is a more uniform and but slightly inferior poem. in lore of proserpine (1913), hewlett attempted, with some success, to hint in delicate prose at the mystical semblances of nature, and his essays, in a green shade (1920), were warmly received. his translations and imitations of the sagas, including thorgils of treadholt (1917), also deserve mention. the popularity of his earlier fiction concealed from many of his contemporaries the strength and originality of his later work. he died at broad- chalke, near salisbury, june 15 1923. heyse, paul johann ludwig (1830-1914), german novelist, dramatist and poct (see 13.438), received the nobel prize for literature in 1910. his later works include /zelldunkles leben (1909); ltulienische volksmarchen (1914) and leizte novel- len (1914). he died at munich april 2 1914. several volumes of his letters have appeared (1916, 1917, 1919). see also h. raff, paul heyse (1910). hibben, john grier (1861- ), american educationist, was born at peoria, ill., april 19 1861. he graduated from princeton university in 1882; was a student at princeton theo- logical seminary from 1883 to 1886; and later studied at berlin. in 1887 he was ordained a minister in the presbyterian church and was a pastor for four years at chambersburg, pennsylvania. in 1891 he returned to princeton, where he taught logic as an instructor (receiving the degree of ph.d. in 1893), assistant pro- fessor, and from 1907 professor. in 1912 he succeeded woodrow wilson as president of the university. his works include inductive logic (1896); the problems of phi- losophy (1898); hegel's leagic (1902); logic deductive and inductive (1905); the philosophy of the enlightenment (1910, contributed to the epochs of philosophy); a defence of prejudice and other essays (1911) and the higher patriotism (1915). higginson, henry lee (1834-1019), american banker, was born in new york city nov. 18 1834. at the age of 17 he entered harvard university, but before finishing his course entered the banking house of s. and e. austin, of boston. he later went to vienna for a year, where he studied music. in the civil war he served as a volunteer officer. in 1863 he was severe- ly wounded at aldie, va., and in the following year was honour- ably discharged. in 1868 he joined the banking firm of lee, higginson and co., of boston, with whom he remained until his death. his interest in music led to his founding the boston symphony orchestra in 1881. a long line of distinguished direc- tors placed this organisation in the first rank. it was a stimu- 393 lating source of musical education in america and won full rec- ognition abroad. in 1891, as a memorial to certain friends who died in the civil war, he presented soldiers’ field to harvard university; and in it the stadium was built. in 1899 he erected the harvard union as a general meeting-place for all under- graduates. for many years a fellow of harvard university, he died in boston, mass., nov. 14 1919. see bliss perry, the life and letters of henry lee higginson (1921). higginson, thomas wentworth (1823-1911), american author (see 13.455), died in cambridge, mass., may 9 1911. see 7. w. higginson: the story of his life (1914), by his wife, mary potter higginson. hildebrandssen, hugo hildebrand (1838-1925), swedish meteorologist, was professor of meteorology and direc- tor of the meterological institute at upsala from 1878 to 1906. ife was an associate member of the comite permanent inter- national meteorologique from 1882 to 1885, ordinary member from 189tr and general secretary from 1900 to 1907. in 1886 he undertook, in conjunction with the hon. ralph abercromby, the classification of cloud forms, and he published in 1896 his ailus international des nuages (with riggenbach and l. teisse- renc de bort), together with les bases dela meteorologie dynamique (1898-1907), in collaboration with teisserenc de bort. lilde- brandssen became an honorary member of the royal meteoro- logical society of london in 1888, which awarded him the symons gold medal in 1921, and also a member of the royal institu- tion of great britain. he died in 1925. hill, david jayne (1850- ), american diplomat, was born at plainfield, n.j., june 10 1850. after graduating in 1874 from the university of lewisburg, pa. (later known as bucknell university), he became instructor in greek and latin there and from 1877 professor of rhetoric. in 1879 he was elected president of bucknell, and in 1888 of the university of rochester. in 1896 he resigned and went abroad to study public law. in 1898 he was appointed assistant secretary of state by president mckinley. while in washington he was also professor of european diplo- macy in the school of comparative jurisprudence and diplomacy. in 1903 he was appointed minister to switzerland, being in 1905 transferred to holland. he was a delegate to the second peace conference at the hlague in 1907. from rogo08 to rort he was ambassador to germany. in 1914 he was proposed as a candi- date for the republican nomination for the u.s. senate from new york to succeed elihu root. hill’s best known work 1s his history of diplomacy in the in- ternational development of europe, embracing a struggle for universal empire (1905); the establishment of territorial sovereignty (1906) and the diplomacy of the age of absolutism (1914). his other writings include world organisation as af- fecied by the nature of the modern state (1911, lectures delivered at columbia university); jmtpressions “of the kaiser (1918); present problems in foreign policy (1919); and american world policies (1920). hill, james jerome (1838-1916), american capitalist (see 13.464), died at st. paul, minn., may 29 1916. he resigned the chairmanship of the board of directors of the great northern railway in 1912. he had long thought that the farmers and millers of the north-west needed a large financial institution near at hand to which they could easily turn for aid. accord- ingly in r9r3 he secured control of the first and second na- tional banks of st. paul and merged them, thereby increasing local facilities for loans. on learning in 1914 that friends had raised $125,000 for establishing as a tribute to him a chair of transportation at harvard he added a like amount. during his later years he gave much attention to the hill reference library, in st. paul, to which he contributed liberally. he was the owner of a remarkable collection of modern french paintings, including fine examples of puvis de chavannes, corot, delacrois, millet and others. he was the author of highways of progress (1910), a work dealing with the subject 1o which he had dedicated his life. . | : hill, octavia (1838-1912), british philanthropist (see 13.465), died in london aug. 13 1912. 7 354 hindenburg, paul von (1847- ), german soldier. paul ludwig hans von beneckendorff und von hindenburg was born in posen oct. 2 1847, the son of a prussian officer. his childhood was spent in his parents’ house, and later in pinne and glogau. in 1858 he entered the cadet school at wahlstatt in silesia, afterwards joining the chief cadet academy in berlin. at an early age the severity of the training in the prussian cadet corps lent a note of inflexibility to his character, and developed in him strength of will, resolution and cool-headedness. intel- lectually, he developed relatively late, owing to early illnesses and to his too rapid physical growth. ambition awoke in him slowly; but as success crowned his efforts it grew unceasingly, and won him the reputation of a particularly gifted pupil. at the age of 18 he entered the 3rd foot guards at danzig as a second-lieutenant in 1866, and soon after made his first appear- ance on the battlefield. at the battle of keniggritz he stormed with his squadron an austrian battery under fire. he took part in the war of 1870-1 as adjutant to a battalion, and after gaining distinction at st. privat, became adjutant to the regiment. after three years at the staff college in berlin, he served with the general staff in 1877, and was soon promoted to the rank of captain. the next years were spent as company commander and chief of battalion and in various posts on the general staff. in 1883 he became an instructor at the staff college in berlin; and later, on the general staff under count schlieffen, he was the spiritual pupil and assistant of that strategist of genius. several years’ labour in the prussian war office developed his talent for organisation. after serving from 1893 to 1896 as commander of the gtst infantry regiment (oldenburg), he was promoted major- general, and for four years served as chief of the general staff of the viii. army corps at coblenz, subsequently commanding the 28th div. at karlsruhe for three years. in 1903 he became general in command of the iv. army corps at magdeburg. in 1911, being 65 years old, he was placed on the retired list. the outbreak of war.—the outbreak of the world war found him leading a life of seclusion in hanover. it was in response to the threatening development of the opening campaign in the east against the russians that on aug. 22 1914 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the viii. german army, and had assigned to him maj.-gen. ludendorff as chief of staff. though hardly acquainted with one another previously, a reciprocal confidence soon resulted, which, despite divergence of character, led to a unity of thought and deed without analogy in history. hinden- burg has given a detailed account of his relations with luden- dorff in his memoirs. when, in germany, after the war, from personal and political motives, attempts were mace to make a scapegoat of ludendorff, the marshal denied these accusations, saving: “‘ we belong to one another till death. gen. ludendorff acted in constant accord with me. he who strikes at him strikes at me.’ general ludendorff, too, in his war memoirs, fully reciprocates this attitucle of complete trust and confidence. it must be recognised that the disposition of ludendorff was the more active, that a demonic spirit resided in htm which was responsible for those decisive acts which changed the course of the world’shistory. his memoirs of the war and his demeanour in german politics after the war are instinct with the vehement passions of one who has been subjected to many attacks, just or unjust. during the war it was only the presence of the marshal's authority that prevented the vivid, sensitive and at times well- nigh fanatical temperament of his colleague from losing self- control. the character of ludendorff was the harder, that of hindenburg the greater. their processes of thought ran upon separate lines, but each tested his own conclusions and com- pleted them by reference to the other. ludendorff bore the whole burden of the technical execution of the decisions, a task which he carried through with titanic strength. hindenburg remained predominantly in the sphere of pure thought, supplying rather the static element in leadership, and leaving the dynamic sicle in the other’s hands. hindenburg possessed a gift of inestimable value, and luden- dorff enabled him to develop it—that of economising his own mental energy and guarding it against strain and premature ex- hindenburg haustion. he was thus enabled to retain his nerve force until the end of the war, when he was then able to assume a heavier and more thankless task, that of saving his fellow-countrymen from the whirlpool of the revolution. in the political sphere, gen. ludendorff's vigorous intervention frequently involved the mar- shal in spite of all his distaste for political activities, in ques- tions which he would probably have otherwise avoided. hinden- burg as a soldier was hampered by mistrust of his own political ability. ludendorff frequently had to convince the chief of the general staff of the necessity for taking political decisions. only the constraint of conscience and the sense of moral responsibility caused hindenburg and ludendorff to intervene at all in political questions. tannenberg.—the battle of tannenberg, which lasted from aug. 26 to 31 1914, found its origin in the dispositions, involving the assembly of strong forces on the southwest flank, adopted by the superseded gen. von prittwitz after breaking off the en- gagement at stallupenen (gumbinnen). hindenburg’s merit lav in converting the possibility thus acquired of a successful de- fence against samsonov’s russian army of the narew into a victory, whereby despite the numerical inferiority of the ger- mans the enemy were twice encircled and practically annihilated. the most brilliant feature of the operations was the concentra- tion of all available forces in order to overwhelm this enemy, despite the threats to hindenburg’s rear, first by rennenkampf in the north and later by new russian forces which were ap- proaching from the south. in the subsequent battle of the ma- surian lakes, sept. 7-12, the niemen army under rennenkampf was so thoroughly dispersed in the wood and marsh lands as to be unfit for further operations for weeks. in the opening of his cam- paign in east prussia hindenburg showed consummate mastery in the employment of interior lines and in using a central position to prevent hostile forces which were advancing from different directions from uniting on the battlefield. his plan was to over- whelm the first of these with lightning swiftness, and then to turn with all his strength upon the others. hindenburg was unable to follow up his victories in east prussia by advancing across the lower narew; the austro- ijungarian allies had suffered a heavy defeat in galicia, and the german commander was compelled to hasten to their immediate aid with the bulk of the german forces available in the east. this led to the combined offensive of the german ix. army through southern poland towards the vistula and of the austri- ans in galicia across the san. the german advance met with little resistance, but the roads were mere morasses. on oct. 8 the vistula was reached between jozefoff and deblin (iwangerod) after an advance along the opatow-radom line. the attempt to cross the river failed, and the austrian allies, too, came to a standstill. finally, the german offensive drew upon itself greatly superior russian forces which, advancing past warsaw, assailed its left flank. in this way the ally was relieved. hindenburg himself succeeded 1n escaping the threatened envelopment from the north by a timely withdrawal upon upper silesia. with the vision of genius he grouped the great bulk of his forces about the railway line running to west prussia, and at the beginning of nov. advanced in a surprise attack from the wrzesnia-thorn line upon the right flank of the main russian forces lying in southern poland. he succeeded at the battle of ledz in bringing the ‘ russian steamroller ”’ to a standstill, and eventually com- pelled the enemy to withdraw behind the bzura and rawka. further operations in the east.—-hindenburg in the meantime had been appointed marshal and commander-in-chief of all the german forces in the east. his next blow was in masuria in feb. 1915 against the northern wing of the russian army on the upper bobr, and led to the annihilation of the x. russian army. but the attempt to advance across the narew to bialy- stok failed, owing to a powerful russian counter-offensive at prazasnysz. the general eastern campaign, directed by gen. von falkenhayn, was now concentrated upon galicia, where on may 8 the break-through at gorlice-tarnow initiated a promis- ing offensive. the front line of the army group of hindenburg, stretching from the upper vistula as far as courland, remained hinduism stationary throughout this period, except for local offensives and a large scale cavalry raid. not until the middle of july was hindenburg's front-line set in motion, in co-operation with the victorious progress of the offensive in galicia and southern poland. but gen. von falkenhayn and the marshal differed fundamentally in their attitude towards the cardinal problem of the war. hindenburg’s conviction, founded on the teaching of clausewitz, was that the salvation of the central powers depend- ed on the destruction of the russian colossus. he believed that a great “ cannae ”’ was attainable in the east, and that with such a victory all political and military considerations which fettered the commander in his power of decision would vanish. falkenhayn, on the other hand, held that it was sufficient by means of a ‘campaign with limited objectives” to keep the russian army at bay and to cripple its offensive power. hinden- burg’s proposal was to take the offensive on his extreme left flank on the niemen northwards past kovno in the direction of wilna and bevond, and thus to sever the northern arteries of the russian army—namely, the railways. this plan was rejected by falkenhayn in favour of the advance across the lower narew, which proved successful, for in conjunction with the successes of mackensen and of the austrians in southern poland it caused the whole russian front line to waver. yet it was only gradually and in consequence of continual front-line engagements that the enemy allowed themselves to be driven back upon their rearguard communications towards the east. several times during the operations hindenburg brought up the question of his original project; he also carried out unaided the attack upon the fortress of kovno, which fell on aug. 18. eventually, early in sept., falkenhayn gave way ostensibly, without, however, placing at hindenburg’s disposal the strength requisite for carrying out his plans. the offensive upon wilna, begun too late, encountered powerful russian forces, and it was only possible to press back the russian front line, no decisive encounter having taken place. from the autumn of ro1g onwards gen. von falkenhayn treated the east as a merely subsidiary seat of war; for while he was striving to wear down the french forces at verdun the ger- man eastern front was condemned to inactivity. this facilitated the great russian successes in june and july against the austro- hungarian front, which was broken through and almost shat- tered at luck. in aug. when the danger was at its greatest, the whole of the eastern front from the gulf of riga to galicia was united under hindenburg. he brought order where chaos had reigned. on the upper sereth, at brody and on the styr a new rampart arose, which, however, proved tenable only where ger- man troops stiffened their allies’ resistance. meanwhile the struggle for verdun continued to rage, and the battle on the somme reached its culminating point. at headquarters —when in aug. rumania joined the entente, the marshal, who was now the national hero, was appointed chief of the general staff in place of falkenhayn, while gen. ludendorff remained with him as quartermaster-general. the new german high command found itself confronted with in- numerable heavy tasks. while the campaign against rumania had to be improvised, it was necessary to stand on the defensive in the west. the offensive against verdun was abandoned, not without the french having gained numerous local successes to- wards the end of the year. hindenburg expressed his final aim in the words: ‘‘ we intend, not to hold out to the end, but to conquer.” an intensive submarine campaign was carried out as a reply to england’s hunger blockade. in the east every nerve had to be strained to force russia to make a separate peace, while in the west the defensive cam- paign continued. the end of 1917 found the quadruple alliance, despite the tremendous demands made upon their strength— nay, despite the fact that they were almost exhaustedi—consider- ably nearer to their objective. the u-boat warfare was slowly but surely producing its effect. the italians had in a brief but powerful offensive been, not indeed annihilated, but decisively defeated. in the east the german hammerblows at tarnopol,riga and osel (saaremma) had broken the fighting spirit of the new russian ruler kerensky, and carried the bolsheviks into power. 509 peace was negotiated with them and with rumania at brest- litovsk and bucharest and, under military pressure, was finally attained in the winter of 1918. there remained the last and hard- est task, the reckoning with france and england in the west, before america should be in a position to intervene as a military factor in the war on land. in the spring of 1918 hindenburg set himself to place the cornerstone upon the structure of his military achievements. all available effectives were utilised for this decisive conflict. the great offensive on both sides of st. quentin was to break through the front line of the french and british on the southern flank of the latter, to roll them up towards the north and drive them towards the coast. from the tactical point of view the first blow in the direction of amiens was a brilliant success. but it led to no practical advantage, and was supplemented by the attack upon the lys front. but, here, too, the operations for a break-through miscarried, resulting only in a second massive concentration on the enemy front. hindenburg, notwithstand- ing, clung to his resolve to deal the british a decisive blow in flanders. it was necessary, however, to effect a diversion in order to draw off the french reserves and to occupy them elsewhere. this led to loss of time, from which the enemy derived advantage. for the intervention of america loomed threateningly near. the first diversion at the chemin des dames gained considerable ground and drew in a large number of the french reserves, but not enough to pave the way for the decisive blow in flanders. a new diverting attack on both sides of rheims failed, where- upon marshal foch seized the initiative and from villers cot- terets attacked the german marne position on the flank with strong forces. the americans now appeared in the capacity of attacking troops. hindenburg abandoned the marne salient and held up the break-through on the vesle. but from henceforth the initiative remained steadily in the hands of the french generalissimo, while the german reserves melted steadily away. from a military standpoint the war was lost with the reverse of aug. 8. yet hindenburg still hoped to cripple the fighting spirit of the enemy by a strategic defensive and to secure a peace compatible with the dignity of the german people. but bul- garia’s defection caused the complete collapse of the macedonian front, and hindenburg realised that an immediate armistice was necessary to give the army breathing space. witha just apprecia- tion of their prospects of victory, the enemy took their time over granting an armistice, and summoning the full strength of their tremendous material superiority proceeded to force the german army to throw in its last reserves. meanwhile turkey and austria abandoned their reles as allies of germany, who found herself flung entirely upon her own resources in the final struggle. hindenburg and ludendorfi wished to rouse the people to a final heroic effort of exertion; but the cabinet of prince max of baden lacked the capacity to check the revolution, and germany was handed over unconditionally to the dictates of the enemy. the marshal, victor in countless battles, had to return home, therefore, not as supreme war-lord but as a beaten general. yet even in misfortune and profound humiliation his spirit re- mained unbroken, and he succeeded in extricating his country from the disorder of the revolution. on apmil 26 1925, the german people clected him president of the reich. hindenburg stands out as the typical german, a personality of classic mould, unbroken by the tragedy of his hfe. he had a profound understanding of all human affairs, and he was thus enabled to pursue a steady line of conduct and to adhere to it during the appalling downfall of his country. brpliograpny.—h. niemann, jfindenburg’s siegeszug gegen russland, etc. (1917); h. schindler, unser hindenburg (1918); e. ludendorff, afetne kriegserinnerungen 1914-8 (1919), trans. as ady war memories 1974-8 (1919); p. von hindenburg, aus meinem leten (1920), trans. by f. a holt, as out of my life (1920\ w. f.