{
    "system": "GoGuides Verified Text",
    "api_version": "verified-text-v1",
    "status": "ok",
    "response_type": "verified_text_record",
    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
    "license_code": "public_domain",
    "attribution": null,
    "license_url": null,
    "chunk_id": "1926:harvard university:3d3e43618c94",
    "title": "HARVARD UNIVERSITY",
    "section": null,
    "hash_alg": "sha256",
    "hash_sha256": "5b21cbbf26e535463aefd9a0df847a7e77583d4b3004d7780c322581417a51af",
    "normalizer": {
        "name": "ggnorm",
        "version": "1.0"
    },
    "verified_text": "the history of har- vard university after 1909, when abbott lawrence lowell suc- ceeded charles william eliot as president, is one of change and growth to meet new needs and opportunities. butldings—three residence halls for freshmen (gore, stan- dish and smith) accommodating about 450 men, built near the charles river at a cost of approximately $2,500,000, were opened in ror4; and in 1919-20 a number of other dormitories, originally erected by private enterprise, were purchased by the university, thus largely increasing the residence halls under its control; in 1924-5 over half the undergraduates of harvard college and a considerable proportion of the students in the graduate schools located in cambridge were housed in buildings owned by the university. in 1925~6 massachusetts hall, which was a residence hall from 1720 to 1870, was again occupied by students, and two new dormitories, lionel and mower halls, became available for seniors; the erection of a third dormitory in the yard was begun, while by the charles river a fourth large dormitory for freshmen was under construction. two new chemical laboratories, the wolcott gibbs and the thomas jefferson coolidge, junior, memorial, were opened i in 1913-4; these facilities for the study of chemistry were, in 1925-6, being increased by large laboratories, which at time were under construction ata cost of approximately $2,000,000. during 1914-5 the university’s museum buildings as originally planned by louis agassiz in 1859 were completed by an addition to the peabody museum. <a building for the music dept. and the cruft iligh-tension laboratory were also opened in 1914-5. inthe same year the widener library, the largest of college li- braries, erected by his mother in memory of harry elkins wide- ner, of the class of 1907, who lost his life in the “ titanic,” was first used. the germanic museum, to exhibit the evidences of ger- manic civilisation in the widest sense, was completed and opened in 1921. the new counting-house, finished in 1925, provides 318 adequate offices for the officials, except the treasurer, who have charge of the university property and accounts. in the same year work was begun on the buildings for the graduate school of business administration, provided through the gift of $5,000,000 by george f. baker; these buildings occupy a large tract on the boston side of the charles river. the erection (1925-6) of a new art muscum at a cost of $1,200,000 to take the place of the fogg museum, long outgrown, was also made possible by friends of the university. improvements have been made in athletic fields, gymnasia, etc. endowments.—the period under consideration was remark- able for the rapid increase of funds. in spite of the world war, graduates and friends gave approximately $17,000,000 in the decade 1909-19. of this about $5,000,000 was for buildings and immediate use; $12,000,000 for permanent endowment. with the close of the world war the alumni revived a project, started before the war but then suspended, to secure additional endow- ment, and organised in 1919 a committee for the purpose. at the close of the fiscal year 1924-83 over $14,000,000 had been subscribed, of which over $12,875,000 had been paid into the treasury. the total productive endowment of harvard univer- sity on the same date was approximately $70,000,000. new plan of admission —in 1910-1 a new plan of admission to harvard college was adopted, which endeavours to test the intellectual condition of the applicant for admission and to estab- lish a closer co-operation with preparatory and high-school au- thorities. i'rom experience the plan is found to secure closer articulation, especially with public schools, and to provide the college with a better grade of student. in its essential features the ‘‘ new plan” has been followed by a number of other im- portant colleges. in 1923 the experiment was begun of admitting without examination students who have completed in regular course in a good secondary school a programme of study which fulfils in all respects the requirements for admission to the privileges of examination under the new plan, provided they have ranked in scholarship in the last two years of their school course among the highest seventh of the boys in the graduating class and are recommended by their school. so far as can be judged, students so admitted are above the average of their class in scholarship. in 1924, 48-4°% of the freshman class entered from public schools. the former free elective system, which furnished little or no direction to a student’s choice of studies, was modified in 1910 by requiring each student to choose enough courses in one field of knowledge to enable him actually to gain considerable knowledge of that subject; and by distributing a certain number of courses among other fundamental subjects to secure 4 more systematic and well-rounded education. at the same time the “ degree with distinction ” was established for high attainment in general, coupled with distinguished success in the subject to which the student has given most attention. beginning with 1916, general final examinations on the student’s field of concentration were introduced in the departments of history, government and economics for all students; the plan was later extended to all other departments except the natural sciences. in the years following 1916 a system of tutors was developed to direct the private reading of the students. the tutor meets his men individually each week and advises as to their private study; he is in no sense a coach. the results thus far show that the tutorial system is of great educational value; it encourages the student to think of his chief subject as a whole, and to read in- dependently in his field; while the general final examination gives an opportunity to test his capacity at the end of his course. the two have resulted in increased interest on the part of the students and in higher scholarship among students of varying abilities. in 1925 out of the 516 students who presented them- selves for the general final examinations in their several fields, iii, or 21°4%, obtained degrees with distinction. the engineering school—in 1915-6, after the massachusetts institute of technology had decided to move from boston to cambridge, all instruction in enginecring was virtually trans- ferred to it under a co-operative agreement entered upon be- harvard university tween the institute and harvard. there being doubt, however, as to whether such co-operation was allowed under the terms of the gordon mckay bequest which was given to harvard univer- sity to further applied science, application was made by the university authorities to the supreme court of massachusetts. the decision of the court in 1917 was adverse, and harvard again established a school of engineering sciences, which, in spite of conditions caused by the world war, made a successful beginning, and in 1924-5 had 36 instructors and 258 students on the register. graduate schools -—the period under review was marked by constant devclopments in the graduate schools of the university. the graduate school of arts and sciences grew steadily in numbers, although in common with other departments it suffered a temporary check by the world war. its students are mostly preparing for careers as teachers and scholars; and, in spite of the economic disadvantages under which the profession of teaching still labours, it is impossible to mect all requests com- ing to the school for teachers and research workers. in 1924-5 the total attendance was 763. the preparation for the scientific management of business given to young men by the graduate school of business administration won wide appreciation, caus- ing large resort to the schoo] (614 in 1924-5) and it became nec- essary to limit the number of students. in the law school a post-graduate year of study was established, leading to the de- gree of s.j.d., intended especially for men wishing to prepare themselves for teaching law and for research in jurisprudence. in 1924-5 the number of teachers was 24 and of students 1,201, representing 175 colleges. in the medical school departments of pharmacology, of tropical medicine and industrial medicine were organised, and a school of public health was established. affiliation with hospitals, many of them grouped near the school, and changes in the faculties secured one of the largest and strong- est organisations for the teaching of medicine and for medical research in the united states. a separate faculty of architecture was established in ro14, having under its charge the graduate schools of architecture and of landscape architecture, which respectively had (1924-5) 48 students from to colleges, and 39 students from 22 colleges. in 1920 the instruction in education, which had previously been given under the faculty of arts and sciences, was organised as the graduate school of education with a separate faculty. to this school women, as well as men, who hold an academic degree ate admitted, this being the only part of the university where co- education is recognised. in the year under review the school had | 37 instructors and 272 students, representing 86 colleges. the ‘theological school was created in 1922 by an affiliation between the harvard divinity school (1816) and andover seminary (1808); but this union was dissolved by a decree of court in 1925. with the divinity school are associated the episcopal theological school (in cambridge), boston university school of theology and newton theological institution. he degrees of master of theological science (s.t.m.) and doctor of theology (th.d.) were established for those wishing to continue their studies after obtaining the ordinary degree, and the ordinary degree itself (s.'t.b.) is now given on the basis of a genera] examination at the end of the student’s three-year course. university extension,—subsequent to 190g harvard univer- sity united with boston university, boston college, the afassachu- setts institute of technology, simmons college, tufts college, wellesley college, the boston museum of tine arts, the mas- sachusetts board of education and the school committee of the city of boston in offering courses in university extension. these courses are given ordinarily in boston to a considerable number of students each winter. hur services —ten thousand harvard graduates and students entered the army or navy of the united states during the con- flict; of these 70° received commissions. no complete records exist of those who engaged in non-military service, but it may safely be said that over half the harvard men of every age took an active part during the world war. the roll of honour con- 1ains 372 names of men who gave their lives. harvly—hawaiti the number of students in 1924~5 was as follows:— college : : : . 3,009 graduate school of arts and sciences , ; : 3 763 special students. ; ; , ; : 32 engineering school ; : ‘ ; ‘ : : . 258 theological school. : : ; , : : : ; 74 law school. : : ? ; : : ». £201 medical school! 2... wk 506 dental school. ; ; : : . . ‘ 204 school of public health 30 graduate school of business administration. : ; 614 architecture . : , ; : 87 graduate school of education ae bussey institution 25 summer schools of 1924 2,686 (446 deducted for duplication) total 9,315 in roo8-9 the corresponding total was 5,250. the number of officers of instruction and administration in 1924-5 was 1,319;1n 1908-0, 743. the total number of volumes and pamphlets in the university library in 1924 was over 2,320,000. radcliffe college (for women), in which instruction is given by harvard teachers, although not part of harvard university, had in 1924-5 908 students. (c. tt. m.) harvey, george brinton mcclellan (1864- j american editor and diplomat, was born at peacham, vt., feb. 16 1864, and was cducated at the peacham academy. at the age of 18 he became a reporter on vhe springfield (mass.) re- publican, and later on the new york world. in 1885 he was appointed by governor green of new jersey as aide-de-camp on his staff, and was reappointed by governor abbett. the latter also made him insurance commissioner of new jersey in 1890. during 1891-4 he was managing editor of the new yerk world. then for several years he was engaged in the construc- tion of electric railways, and in 1898 organised a syndicate which secured possession of the lines in havana, cuba. the following year he purchased the north antericun review, which thereafter he edited for several years. during 1h00o-15 he was president of the publishing house of harper & gros., and during 1902-13 was editor of warper’s weekly. in 1903 he purchased the metropolitan magazine. ilarvey was said to have been the first to suggest (in 1906) woodrow wilson, then president of princeton, as a_presi- dential possibility. in the campaign of 1912 he gave wilson strong support; but after the latter’s nomination an estrange- ment developed, due, as it was generally understood, to the fact that wilson intimated that his cause was being jeopardised by harvey’s officiousness. in 1916 harvey urged the election of charles e. hughes, the republican candidate for president. ile was strongly opposed to the league of nations, on the ground that it involv ed the yielding of rational sovereignty. in r918 he established the north :merican review's war weekly, later called harvey's weekly, which bitterly denounced the wilson administration. in 1921 he was appointed ambassador to leng- land by president harding, a position which he held till nov. 1923. he became editorial director of the washington postin may 1924, resigning may 31 1925. huarvey’s books include women (1908) and the power of tolerance, and other speeches (1911). harwich, england (see\"13.47), with a population of 13,046 in 1921, and an area of 1,541 ac., including halstead, added to the borough in 1917, is the most important naval base on the east coast of england. flotillas operating from the harbour did magnificent work during the world war, particularly in mine sweeping in 1917. the main quay was extended by 1,000 ft. in 1g1r, and there are now berths for nine sicamers, and moor- ings for nine more in the river. a train ferry to zeebrugge was inaugurated in 1924. the parish of dovercourt has been united with that of hlarwich for purposes of local government. <a cemetery was opened at parkeston in rgro. the electricity supply was taken over by the municipality in 1925. hauptmann, gerhart (1862- ), german dramatist (see 13.68), hardly added to his reputation as a dramatist after 1909. he produced aaiser karls getsel (1908); griselda (1909); die raticn (1910), the latter in his earlier realistic manner; oto gabriel schillings flucht (tq12); das bogen des odvsseus (1914); winerballade (1917); ludipohdi (1921) and peter brauer (1921). his novels include der narr in christo emanuel quint (1910); alluntis (1912); der ketser von soana (1918); phantom (1923) and die insel der grossen mutter oder das wunder von ile des dames (1924). in 1921 appeared anna, an epic poem. see c, holl, gerhart haupimann, etc. (1913); w. bonscels, das gun ge deutschland und der grosse krieg, aus clulass des briefwechsels ‘roniain rollands mit g. hauptmann tiber den krieg und die kultur (1914); a. esprey, g. hauptmann und wir deutschen “(1916); va gaude, das odysseusthema bei hauptmann (1916); j. 11, niarschan, das mitleid bei g. hauptmann, with bibliography (1919); paul fechter, gerhart haupimann (1922 havana, cuba (see 13.76).—the population of havana, the capital of cuba, was 360,517, according to the census of roro. since that time it is estimated that there has been a still further increase to perhaps 500.000 inhabitants in 1926, for which immigration, mainly spanish, 1s largely responsible. havana, once rather backward in civic improvements, now compares as favourably with other cities of the world in its attractive, up-to- date appearance as it does in commercial and industrial impor- tance. motor cars swarm the streets, which for the most part are very narrow, but this condition has been relieved by having traffic go one way in all but the wider thoroughfares. in keeping with the wealth of cuba, the capital has an unusual number of splendid private fesienges, excellent hotels, and luxurious club houses. the spanish clubs are astonishingly rich, one of them, the galician club, has 67,712 members, while the asturian club has 60.351. the university of havana, the principal educational institution of cuba, has over 4,000 pupils, of whom some 3,000 are in daily attendance. havana is the econemic, as well as the political, social, and intellectual centre of cuba. nearly all of the larger commercial companies and banks have their main offices there. the volume of trade through the port of ifivana surpasses that of any city in the western itemisphere, except new york. about 75% of ul cuban imports enter at havana, but the proportion of exports 1s considerably less. ‘the customs receipts at this port are some 75°% of the total collected in the island. havana is connected with other parts of the world by means of a number of steamship lines and cables. there is even through freight train service from the united states, making use of a ferry from key west, which is six hours away. (cue. cu.) havre, le (see 13. 82), the second seaport of france, hada pop. of 163,374, including the garrison, in 1921. work has been continued on the last stages of the 1909 programme of port improvement, which includes a large graving dock and wharfage in the tidal basin, a floating dock and pontoons, a basin for large oil tankers and reservoirs in the outer harbour, and a wharf and mole for goods storage in the north part of the port. a petro- leum pipe-line to paris has been built, but ilavre is still only jinked by one line of railway to the capital, and is badly con- nected with other towns in its own district. an escalator is to be built in rue de montmorency, one of the steepest streets. in aug. 1924 a monument was unveiled commemorating the hospitality shown by the town during the war to the belgian government, which was houscd in a hostel at st. adresse to the northwest of havre, after the fall of antwerp. at the same time a golden sword of honour was presented to the king of the belgians on behalf of the french people. during the world war large numbers of british and american troops and vast quantities of ordnance and stores passed through the port, and after the armistice it formed one of the american embarkation points. ‘trade has again reached its highest pre-war point. in 1924, 4,021 vessels of 8,264,615 tons entered and cleared the port, as compared with 4,018 vessels of 5,671,975 tons in 1907, previously the highest figures recorded. hawaii (see 13.83}.—a group of islands in the north pacific ocean, annexed to the united states on aug. 12 1898, and now represented in the american congress by a delegate elected bien- nially. in 1925 the population, including military and naval personnel of 17, o04, was 323,645 (an increase, exclusive of such personnel, of 59°7°%% since 1g10). 320 race must not be confused with nationality. birth in hawaii, as well as elsewhere in the united states, makes one an american citizen, of the above total, 202,165 were americans and 121,480 (including filipinos who are neither citizens nor aliens) were not. immigration of orientals in the earlier stages produced an abnormal ratio not only of aliens to citizens but of adults to children and males to females, but later there was a rapid tendency toward normality. except among americans and filipinos, the increase in population was in 1925 mainly through births. departures have latterly exceeded arrivals, and the departures have been largely of adult aliens. the birth-rate was 41-57 and the death-rate 12-74 per 1,000 in 1925. while there was a growing tendency toward intermarriage among all races, the extremists in preserving ‘racial solidarity are the koreans and japanese. the most noticeable social feature in hawaii is the comparative absence of those racial antagonisms and prej- udices prevailing in asia and europe. immigration has been occasioned by the rapid growth of indus- tries. many latin and oriental unskilled labourers were assisted to reach the country but this is now impossible under the immi- gration laws. many of these with their children under improved conditions become skilled labourers. hence the constant need of replenishing the supply of unskilled labour. the last im- migration assisted by the government (1906-12) comprised 5,288 spanish, 4,962 portuguese and 2,056 russians. since then the only assisted immigration has been of filipinos by the sugar producers. ‘these increased from 2,318 in 1g10 to 49,335 in 1925. chinese immigration, restricted previously, has been prohibited since 1898. the chinese decreased until rgro, but have since increased slowly. the portuguese, porto ricans and koreans are increasing slowly and the spanish are decreasing. the japanese departures have exceeded arrivals since the ‘“ gentlemen’s agreement ” of 1907. the native-born japanese, being american citizens, present the most important problem for the future. they increased from 4,855 in 1900 to 70,860 1n 1925. experience tends to show that the japanese as well as the chinese vote will be intelligent and conservative. not- withstanding the comparatively small percentage of anglo- saxon americans, the atmosphere—political, social and com- mercial—is conspicuously american. industries and commerce-——due mainly to the enterprise of the anglo-saxon element, the application of scientific methods, favourable soil and climatic conditions, location at the cross-roads of the pacific and the american protective tariff, hawaii has enjoyed prosperity for half a century. although prices of the principal products were low in 1925 the gains since 1910 were marked. exports increased from $47,029,631 to $105,599,818; imports from $26,152,435 to $81,802,547; taxable property from $150,268,467 to $360,832,895; bank deposits from $13,324,305 to $60,809,716. trade was chielly with the mainland of the united states —$104,095,273 of exports and $72,145,418 of imports in 1925. the exports comprised sugar, $71,468,150; fruits and nuts, chiefly canned pineapples, $27,943,493; coffee, $1,197,535; sugar machinery, $616,270; and smaller values of molasses, hides, tallow, wool, canned fish, bananas, rice, honey and other products. imports from foreign countries are largely nitrates from chile, bags from india, and food supplies from japan. the sugar crop has increased considerably in recent years, not by increase of acreage, but by scientific discoveries of better methods of cultivation, fertilisation and irrigation, and new varieties of cane. the most striking feature in hawaiian industries is the extent to which science is applied—through such agencies as the sugar planters’ and u.s. experiment stations, the university of hawatt and the territorial bureau of agriculture and forestry. the yield of sugar per acre is larger than in any other country; but the cost 1s greater and 18 months is required for a crop. in 1925 the crop was 776,000 short tons —an average of about 63 tons per acre. a few fields yielded over 18 tons, and one plantation averaged over 12 tons throughout. half the acreage is irrigated by means of conduits from mountain streams, storage reservoirs and pumping from artesian and surface wells, the crops from the irrigated lands, though morc costly, are so much greater as to be more profitable in general than those from the unirrigated lands in the wetter districts. the industry is con- ducted by corporations owning the mills and raising the cane. the capital stock is widely distributed and bought and sold freely on the exchange. the labourers receive house, fuel, water and medical attendance free. day labourers, few in number, receive a minimum of a dollar a day plus a turnout bonus of 10% if they work 23 or hawaii more days a month plus a profit-sharing bonus of 1 % for each ;} of a cent by which the average price of sugar for the month exceeds 4; cents. about 95°. of the labourers take work by contract, as this gives them greater remuneration and more independence. much has been accomplished in improving the living conditions of the em- ployees by replacing tenements with cottages and garden space, providing hospitals, entertainment halls and motion-pictures, play-grounds, kindergartens, social-service workers, instruction in industrial methods and creating an esprit de corps by various means. the canned pineapple industry is entirely a growth of recent years. [ts output in 1925 was 8,728,580 cases of two-pound cans. one factory is the largest fruit cannery in the world. thecrop has been increased matcrially by the use of mulching paper. this is rolled out on the ficlds in long strips, through holes in which the plants are set out. it serves many purposes, such as preventing weeds from growing, conserving moisture, etc. while hawaii exports and imports a larger percentage of what it produces and consumes than most countries, there is nevertheless much subsistence farming, and several industries, such as the livestock and fishing industries, figure largely in local trade. much attention has been given to the importa- tion and raising of thoroughbred stock. the principal food of the hawatians is poz, manufactured from the root of the favo. there are no mineral products except building stone, lime and salt. although hawait is essentially an agricultural country, the industries are such as require much manufacturing, not only directly, as in sugar, rice and coffee mills and fruit and fish canneries, but also indirectly, as in iron and fertiliser works and can factories of large size. manu- factures of other products, such as biscuits, macaroni, starch, shoes, clothing, boats, etc., are on a small scale. strikes of serious extent have occurred only twice, in 1909 and 1920, and unionism has ob- tained little foothold. there is a compulsory workman’s com- pensation law. communications—commerce on the pacific is growing rapidly owing to industrial development on both sides of the ocean and the construction of the panama canal. the fed- eral and territorial govts. and private enterprises have de- veloped shipping facilities in hawaii, located as it is at the com- mercial cross-roads provided facilities at lesser ports for inter- island traffic; and developed the principal port on cach of the four large islands for trans-pacific and inter-island traffic. all the newer wharves are of concrete. at honolulu there are electrical freight-handling apparatus, automatic coal-handling plants, oil storage tanks connected with the wharves by pipe line and floating dry-docks. from 1910-25 the number of deep-sea steamers, exclusive of naval vessels, army transports and coal- bunker vessels, increased from 5.45 to 1,037; while sailing vessels decreased from 232 to 31, and the combined tonnage increased from 2,589,097 to 7,993,137 tons. some of these vessels ply solely between hawaii and ports of the united states, mainly san francisco, los angeles and seattle, but in part atlantic ports; others are trans-pacific, making hawaii a port of call between san francisco and the orient, canada and the antip- odes, the orient and mexico or south america, while others are round-the-world steamers. a fleet of 13 steamers is engaged exclusively in the inter-island trade. there are 350 m. of seven railways on the four principal islands and over 600 m. of private railways on the sugar plantations. hundreds of miles of con- crete and macadam roads have been constructed. besides a cable there are four powerful wireless plants for trans-pacific communication, and smaller stations for communication be- tween the islands and with ships at sea. the five larger islands are well covered with efficient telephone systems. administration.—a direct primary law has been in operation since 1913 and woman suffrage since 1920. racial distribution of voters differs much from that of population, depending in the case of each race partly on eligibility to naturalisation and partly on the percentage born in the united states and the length of time the race has been in hawaii. hawaiians and part- hawaiians are citizens; adult immigrant portuguese, spanish and porto ricans have gencrally been ineligible for naturalisa- tion because of illiteracy; and chinese, japanese and koreans are ineligible under the federal laws. in 1924 the registered voters comprised 21,575 men and 13,164 women, as follows: hawaiian and part-hawaiian, 16,685; latins, 5,203; other caucasians, 9,124; chinese, 2,016; japanese, 1,711. there are two main political parties, republican and democratic, with the former usually in the majority. hawtrey—health, ministry of finance.—the bonded debt of the territory on june 30 1925 was $17,990,000. this has been incurred since 1910 for public improve- ments. much current revenue also is expended on public improve- ments. the only local-government indebtedness consists of $2,080,- 000 public improvement bonds of the city and county of honolulu and $1,280,293 district improvement bonds, the latter payable solely by the property benefited, but $6,776,872 of the territorial debt has been incurred for county improvements, for which the counties reim- burse the territory in interest and sinking funds. the total revenue of the territory and countics for the year ending june 30 1925 was $17,756,070 of which $8,283,262 went to the territory and $9,425,390 to the counties ($47, 418 undistributed) as compared with $2,621,758 and $1,394,695 respectively in 1910. the legislature has recently prov ided for a territorial budget system, a pension system for territorial employees, and a uniform accounting system for the counties. education.—the educational system of hawaii ranks high in efficiency. it includes all grades from kindergarten to uni- versity as well as a normal school and schools for the physically defective and feeble-minded. there is much manual work and industrial training. medical inspection of pupils is regularly made and treatment is furnished free or at moderate prices and attention is given to nutrition. the university, established in 1907, has 1,006 students. it possesses an aquarium and marine biological laboratory, conducts extension work and performs important services in industrial experimental and research work. the number of pupils in the schools increased from 25,537 1n 1910 to 64,916 in 1925, of whom 55,044 were in the public schools and 9,872 in private schools. the cost of the public school system is about $5,000,000 a year. more than half the pupils are japanese. in addition the japanese maintain an extensive system of so-called language schools. in 1920-5 laws were passed subjecting all foreign-language schools, including some chinese and korean, to the supervision of the department of public instruction, limiting the sessions to shorter periods restricted to after public school hours, requiring the teachers to pass satisfactory tests in the english language, american his- tory and institutions and ideals of democracy, and providing for, textbooks of superior pedagogical value and more suitable in subject matter for american pupils. in 1912 a territorial library was opened in honolulu, with numerous stations through- out the territory which it supplies through travelling libraries. churitics —of all the departments of the territorial govern- ment none except that of education is of wider scope or expends more out of current revenues than that of public health. phy- siclans are employed or subsidised so that all, however indigent or remote from population centres, may have proper medical attendance. the principal territorial institution under this department is the leper settlement on the island of molokai, with its auxiliary hospital in honolulu. formerly emphasis was laid on isolation, but since 1909 emphasis has been placed on treatment, with the result that the number of lepers has been greatly reduced. much progress has been made through scientific research and experimentation in effecting cures. charitable and welfare institutions abound in hawat1. history—uawaii’s recent growth in importance has been marked not only in the scientific development of industries and as the commercial cross-roads of the pacific, but as a great tourist resort, as the great western military and naval outpost of the united states, and as the friendly meeting-place of east and west. the tourist business has come to rank third in extent. in roog the chain of small islands extending 1,200 m. to the northwest of the larger islands was created a bird reser- vation—the largest and most numerous bird colony in the world. in 1916 the active volcanoes of kilauea and mauna loa and the extinct crater of haleakala were created a national park. the capital city, honolulu, has grown rapidly. the naval sta- tion and military post in oahu island are the greatest belonging to the united states. honolulu has been the seat of numerous pan-pacific conferences to foster among pacific peoples the spirit of inter-racial brotherhood and promote co-operation among them for their common welfare—scientific, educational, press, commercial and food conferences in 1920-4 under the auspices of; the pan-pacific union, and the institute of pacific relations, patterned after the williamstown institute in 1925 under inde- 231 pendent auspices. these unofficial conferences as well as the off- cial washington conference bear witness to the growing impor- tance of the pacific area in world affairs. in 1920 the centenary of the landing of the missionaries was celebrated. the governors since 1907 have been: w. f. frear, 1907-13; l. e. pinkham, 1913-8; c. j. mccarthy, 1918-21; w. r. farrington, 1921-. bibliography.—consult, besides list in 13.93, reports of u.s. commissioner of labour on ‘hawaii (190i, 1903, 1906, i9ii, 1916); d. s. jordan and b. w. evermann, the aquatic resources of the hawaiian islands (1903-6); c. w. baldwin, geography of the itawat- tan islands (1908); j. f.c. rock, the indigenous trees of the hawai- tan islands (honolulu, i9i3) and the ornamental trees of hawatt (1917); w. a. bryan, natural history of hawaii (with bibliography, 1915); w. r. castle, jr., await past and present (new york, ror?) o. h. and a. e. c. gulick, the pilgrim: ef itawaii (1918); h. gowen, the napoleon of the pacific (1919); the centennial book 1820-102 o (16 authors, 1920); a survey of education in hawaii, made under direction of u.s. commissioner of education (govt. ptg. office, washington, 1920); a. w. palmer, the ituman side of hawaii (1924); the builders of hawait, compiled by ionolulu star-bulletin (192 5); publications of bernice pauahi bishop museum of polynesian [:thnology and natural history; annual reports of the governor; thrum's /lawatian annual. (w.f.f.) hawtrey, sir charles henry (1858-1923), british actor (see 13.104), was knighted in 1922 and dicd in london july 30 1923. hayashi, tadasu, count (1850-1913), japanese states- man (see 13.109), died at tokyo july 10 1913. hayes, patrick joseph (1867— }, american cardinal, was born in new york city nov. 20 1867. graduating from manhattan college in 1888, he continued his studies at st. joseph’s seminary at troy, n.y., and was there ordained priest in r892. after a graduate course at the catholic university of washington, he became curate of st. gabriel’s parish in east 37th st., new york city. in 1903 archbishop farley of new york, who had been his parish priest, appointed him his secre- tary and chancellor. in the same year cathedral college was opened, and he became its first president, an office which he held for 11 years. in 1914 he was consecrated titular bishop of tag- aste and bishop auxiliary of new york. in the following year he was made rector of st. stephen’s church, and on nov. 24 1917 was appointed catholic chaplain bishop for the u.s. army and navy, in which capacity he travelled extensively, appointing chaplains to the various camps. he was made archbishop of new york in rorg. early in 1924 he was summoned to rome by pope pius xi. and was made a cardinal at a consistory held on march 25, being assigned the church of santa maria in via as his titular church. hazlitt, william carew (1834-1913), british bibliogra- pher (see 13.120), died at richmond, surrey, sept. 8 1913. health: see public health. health, ministry of.—the english ministry of health was set up by statute in r9r9. the act had as its principal ob- ject the concentration of the health services of england under a single minister responsible to parliament. these services had grown up under many departments: the local government board, the insurance commissioners, the privy council, the home office and the board of education. the act established a minister of health for england and wales with a parliamen- tary under-secretary. wales was given a board of health sep- arately constituted but responsible directly to the minister. a similar act was passed in the same year setting up a scottish board of health. this last is a separate organisation and its parliamentary chief is the secretary for scotland, who has a parliamentary under-secretary for health for scotland. there are thus two separate national health administrations in great britain whose only link is the association of their parliamentary chiefs in the cabinet. powers of the afinistry—the main organisation in the new ministry of health was the transformed local government board, and this explains many of the functions, remote from its title, which the ministry still exercises, such as, for example, its power over the finance of local authorities. when the ministry came into being (july 1 1919) it assumed from that date the whole of 322 the powers and duties of the local government board, and of the english and welsh insurance commissioners, save for the powers of the latter over the medical research council (then the medical research committee). the powers of the privy council relating to midwives were immediately vested in the new ministry. on oct. 1 it took over, as provided by the act. the powers of the board of education with respect to the health of mothers and young children, and of the home office in rela- tion to infant life protection under the children act 1908. on dec. 1 the ministry further assumed responsibility for the duties of the board of education regarding the medical inspection and treatment of children and young persons. arrangements had, however, to be made to enable certain of these latter duties to be carried out by the board of education on behalf of the min- ister of health. in may 1920 the ministry took over from the home office the administration of the anatomy acts and of certain powers and duties in relation to lunacy and mental deficiency. many powers inherited from the local government board have been similarly transferred to other departments, such as the home office, the board of education, the electricity commissioners and the ministry of transport. an example of this process may be seen in the order in council dated may 27 1921, transferring the powers of the ministry over electoral registration and elec- tions to the home office. activities of the mfinistry—the activities of the ministry are classified in five main sub-divisions: (1) public health, (2) local administration and taxation, (3) housing and town-planning, (4) administration of the poor law and of the old age and widows and orphans, pensions acts, (5) national health insur- ance. of these, housing is the greatest purely post-war develop- ment, and has under the rorg (addison) act and the 1923 (cham- berlain) and 1924 (wheatley) acts expanded so greatly as to form almost a ministry in itself. important matters relating to health services and administration are still under other depart- ments. of these the privy council holds perhaps the greatest share, though the ilome office has duties in relation to the in- spection of factories and workshops, etc., of much importance to national health. the medical research council, as stated above, was not transferred to the ministry with the other branches of the health insurance commissions, but passed under the privy council. (the medical research council origi- nated under the insurance act of 1911 as the medical research committee.) in addition the general medical council, the controlling body of the medical profession, is under the privy council and not the ministry of health. the scottish board.—the scottish board of health performs duties in scotland almost identical with those of the ministry of health in england. it is derived similarly from the scottish local government board and the scottish insurance commis- sion. the only service with no english counterpart is that fi- nanced from the highlands and island medical services fund (instituted by statute in 1913), which provides practically a state medical service in these areas and is subsidized directly from the exchequer. it will be seen that the ministry of health is in no sense a department corresponding, say, to the ministries controlling any of the fighting services, with a unified authority and sole responsibility for one task and one task only, which in this case would be the safeguarding of the nation against disease and the increase of its physical efficiency. the fact that the health services are worked almost entirely through local authorities, themselves popularly elected, would make this in any case im- possible. it is not yet certain, even, whether these ‘“ health ” functions will ever form a major portion of the minister of health’s task. so far, the housing problem, the supervision and overhauling of local government, and, from time to time, the solving of vexed questions in the national insurance schemes have thrown altogether into the background the direct purposes from which, presumably, the ministry originally received its name. it’is indeed more than doubtful whether the health prob- lems of the nation, affected as they are so intimately by finance, health insurance—healy by food supply and by distribution of population, can ever be satisfactorily separated from the other activities with which they interlock. bibliography.— very full information on all the subjects referred to will be found in the annual reperts of the ministry and of the scottish board of health. health questions in particular are ex- haustively dealt with in the separately published annual report of the chief medical officer ‘* on the state of the public health.” | gv de eb) health insurance: see insurance, social. healy, timothy michael (1855- ), was born at bantry on may 17 1855, the son of maurice healy, clerk of the. bantry union. his mother was the daughter of a schoolmaster in this little west cork town. three of her brothers, a. m., t. d. and donal sullivan, became members of parliament, as did three of her sons, thomas, maurice and timothy healy. the eldest married his cousin, a daughter of t. d. sullivan. this group of closely related politicians was the nucleus of the “ bantry band” which included also w. m. murphy, m.p., founder of the irish independent. in the succeeding generation, kevin o'higgins, timothy healy’s nephew by marriage, be- came vice-president of the irish free state when his uncle was made its first governor-general. but the future governor-general inherited nothing but brains and a strong nationalist tradition. he began to earn his living at 13, and his early youth was spent as a shorthand clerk in a railway office at newcastle-ipon-tyne. here he became well known in irish political and literary societies. in 1878 he moved to london and began in his spare time to contribute to the new york nation. in 1879 parnell on his first mission to america found that he needed a secretary and wired for mr. healy, who was already known to him. in 1880, after parnell had been elected chairman of the irish party, a parliamentary vacancy occurred in wexford city, and mr. healy was elected. from the first he slapped the house of commons in the face, but he attended very closely to all its business. in 1881 mr. gladstone’s land bill began the revolution which gave the catholic irish ownership of the land instead of being mere cul- tivators under landlords. mr. gladstone said that with the exception of three irish law officers only mr. healy understood it, and it is doubtful whether anybody but mr. healy under- stood the effect of the famous “ iiealy clause.”* introduced as an amendment, this guaranteed that in future rent should not be chargeable on tenants’ improvements. when the bill became an act, mr. healy, called to the bar in 1884, defended the tenants’ interests in innumerable cases that arose in its appli- cation. in 1883 his audacious tongue secured him the distinction of being sent to gaol. later in the year when a liberal seat became vacant in county monaghan he was selected to make the first nationalist inroad on ulster. he won. at the gencral election of 1885 with the extended franchise monaghan became a safe scat. mr. healy attacked south derry and won the con- stituency—by surprise tactics. in 1886, however, he was defeated, but was returned for north longford. his relations with parnell now became less friendly, and he joined biggar in opposing the candidature of captain o’shea for galway city. the opposition was only overborne by par- nell’s personal intervention. but in 1889, when the divorce petition against parnell was undefended, mr. healy drafted the resolution carried by the party in favour of parnell remaining at his post. ‘ parnell,” he said, “is not a man, but an institu- tion.”” later, however, in face of mr. gladstone’s declaration, he changed his mind, and from the time the “ split ’’ began, no speeches were so envenomed as mr. healy’s. he was twice publicly beaten; but no form of menace had ever the least effect on him. in 1892 he became member for north louth, and, as a member of the anti-parnellite party to which the large majority of irish nationalists belonged, he was specially supported by the catholic clergy. his rivals for leadership, mr. o'brien and mr. dillon, had more following among the laity, but mr. healy was always a priests’ man. at this time he devoted less time to politics, for his practice at the bar was increasing, and in 1899 he became q.c. hearst—heart, on the reunion of parties in 1900 he joined mr. o’brien in urging that mr. redmond, leader of the parnellite minority, rather than mr. dillon, leader of the anti-parnellites, should be chosen as chairman of the united body. but a long indulgence in the savage spirit of faction which followed the parnell “ split ” had rendered mr. healy difficult to work with, and in 1902, on the motion of mr. william o’brien, he was expelled from the united irish league, though he retained the support of the catholic hierarchy and of mr. murphy’s influential newspaper. in 1906 mr. william o’brien, having split away from redmond’s main body with a few followers, made a working alliance with his former adversary and his brother maurice, member for cork city. in 1910, when mr. healy was beaten in north louth, mr. o’brien provided him with a constituency in north-east cork. mr. healy joined the english bar in 1903 and took silk in 1910. he was unceasingly employed on english cases, more especially of a political character, and defended many of the suffragettes. in parliament no speaker was more able to draw a crowded house, and his wit and eloquence were specially popular with the tories, because he said more biting things of the na- tionalist party than englishmen could invent. with mr. o’brien he opposed the budget of rg09 which led to the clash with the house of lords; and on the home rule measure of 1912, while giving it general support, he furiously opposed partition. in ror4 he was a vigorous supporter of britain in the world war, but the course of events from 1916 onwards, culminating in the introduction of conscription, drove him finally to side with sinn fein, and in 1918 he resigned his seat to allow an imprisoned sinn feiner to be returned. little was publicly heard of him during the years of turmoil which followed until, at the close of 1922, the constitution of the irish free state having been made law by the irish parliament, and subsequently by the british, the office of governor-general had to be filled. when mr. healy’s name was first mentioned for the post there was general incredulity, but the appointment soon commended itself to irishmen of all sections. the free state government, speaking through the mouth of mr. healy’s nephew, mr. kevin o'higgins, defended the choice of “ an old man of the people,” while others realised that mr. healy, though an extreme nation- alist, had in many respects a most conservative mind. those who feared the worst from a tongue and a temper which he had never before governed were surprised by the result; for during his continuance in office as the representative of king george mr. healy in no way added to the government’s difficulties, while he did more perhaps than any other person to cultivate the good will of the protestant minority. (s.°g.) hearst, william randolph (863% ), american newspaper proprietor, was born in san francisco, cal., april 29 1863. he ‘entered harvard in 1882, but left after three years without finishing his course. as the only child of george f. hearst, a mining man of great wealth, he had the use of ample capital at the outset of his career. in 1886 he became proprietor of the san francisco examiner, the first of a long chain of pa- pers to come under his control. in 1895 he bought the new york journal and in the following year founded the evening journal, the morning paper being known after 1902 as the new york american. other papers founded by him were the chicago aimerican (1900); the chicago examiner (1902); the los angeles examiner (1902); the boston american (1904); and the atlanta georgian (1906). he also purchased the boston advertiser (1917); the chicago herald (1918), thereafter combined with the examiner as the herald and examiner; the washington times (1919); and the milwaukee wisconsin news (1919). he was likewise proprietor of the cosmopolitan magazine; good housekeeping magazine; harper’s bazaar; hearst's mugazine; motor magazine; and motor-boating magazine. hearst’s papers were sensational in form and contents and had an enormous popular circulation. they upheld the cause of the people against the moneyed interests, but the charge was often brought that they appealed to the baser passions. they were america’s chief representatives of ‘‘ yellow journalism ” (see 19.569). in 1916 they were barred from circulation in canada diseases of the 33 323 “because of garbled dispatches ” concerning the world war. after america’s entrance into the war they were frequently charged with disloyalty, and in many towns attempts were made to suppress them. from 1903 to 1907 mr. hearst was represent- ative in congress from new york, and in 1904 had support as presidential candidate at the national democratic convention. in r905 he was democratic candidate for mayor of new york on the municipal ownership ticket, and four years later on the independence league ticket; in 1906 he was candidate for the governorship of new york on the democratic and independence league tickets, being defeated in every instance. he strongly opposed the league of nations. he became head of the news syndicate known as the international news service. heart, diseases of the (sce 13.132).—the years from 1910 to 1925 have been a brilliant epoch in the history of cardiology. most of the credit for this must be given to british workers, amongst whom the late sir james mackenzie and sir thomas lewis have been pre-eminent. for a long time mackenzie had been carrying out his memorable investigations on the venous pulse, using for this purpose a modification of dudgeon’s sphyg- mograph; but it was not until after hisinvention of the mackenzie ink polygraph in 1908 that the investigation of cardiac arrhyth- mia by graphic records became at all general as a clinical rou- tine. by means of this instrument, or better still by lewis’s modification of it, it is easy to obtain a prolonged simultaneous record of the arterial and venous pulses together with time marks of 1 of a second. the carcful study of such records yields ani valuable information. electrical records.— electrical records of the heart beat have given even more accurate results. a minute electrical current is generated when the heart, or any other muscle, contracts; and in 1887 waller was able to record the electrical current generated by the human heart beats, using for this purpose the capillary electrometer. in 1903 einthoven, of leyden, invented his string galvanometer (see 11.430), an extremely sensitive instrument capable of detecting a current of less than gj millionth of an ampcre; this has the advantage of being practically aperiodic and free from “lag,” grave defects of galvanometers previously used. it consists essentially of a powerful electro-magnet, be- tween the poles of which is stretched a very fine fibre, usually a filament of drawn quartz, silvered to facilitate conduction. ifa minute electrical current passes along this fibre the fibre moves across the magnetic field in one direction or the other according to the direction of the current through it. by putting the human heart in electrical connection with the fibre, either by means of contacts from the chest wall in front of the heart, or, more conveniently, by three electrodes in which the two hands and one foot are immersed, the fibre is found to oscil- late with each heart beat. the movements of the fibre are mag- nified by a projection lantern and photographed on a moving plate; the source of light is interrupted rhythmically at a known rate (usually every 1/25 of a sec.), and thus is obtained a curve of the electrical varialions associated with each heart beat together with appropriate time marks. on such a curve the variations due to auricular and ventricular contraction respec- tively can be very clearly differentiated, the wave representing auricular contraction being designated arbitrarily as ‘‘ p,’”’ and that representing the commencement of ventricular contrac- tion “‘ r.”? the time interval between these two components of each normal heart beat can be measured very accurately. heart block —in health this time interval is between o-18 to 0-20 sec.; if the junctional tissues between auricle and ven- tricle are injured, either by disease or by cardiac poisons, con- duction between auricle and ventricle is delayed and the “ p.r.” interval may become 0-24 sec., or even more. this state of affairs is known as heart block, and in its early stages can be recognised only by means of graphic records. with more severe damage of the junctional tissues, higher grades of auriculo- ventricular block ensue; thus the ventricle may respond only to every alternate auricular beat, or to every third or fourth au- ricular beat; or, finally it may be impossible for any stimuli to reach ventricle from auricle, in which case there is complete 324 dissociation between the upper and lower chambers of the heart, the former beating at their usual rate of 60-80 per min. while the ventricles take on a rhythm of their own, usually at a rate of about 35-40. this condition is known as complete heart block. fhe presence of these more serious grades of heart block can often be surmised on clinical grounds, but graphic records are essential for their certain recognition. heart block is one of the rarer causes of irregular heart action. other features.—there are other causes of cardiac arrhythmia, some of which are benign, others scrious. quite early in the century it was impossible to differentiate with certainty between the benign and the serious types. now, thanks to the knowledge derived from graphic records, this differentiation can be made with confidence, and often without the necessity for taking poly- graphic or electro-cardiographic tracings. for instance, pre- viously “ intermissions ” of the pulse were always considered to be serious. probably many an operation has been unneces- sarily postponed or cancelled on account of what are known as * premature beats ”; these are extra-contractions which arise, either in auricle or in ventricle, independently of the ordered sequence of normal beats, every one of which arises in the upper part of the right auricle (the sinu-auricular node) and spreads thence from auricle to ventricle. these premature beats are now easily recognised and, in itself, this type of arrhythmia is devoid of serious import; no surgeon would now think of postponing an operation merely because of the presence of this type of ar- rhythmia, which is almost invariably present from time to time in most elderly subjects. auricular fibrillation —but there is another common type of cardiac arrhythmia known as auricular fibrillation which is of much more serious prognostic significance. here, as a result of serious pathological changes in the heart muscle, the auricles cease to contract rhythmically as a whole in a series of orderly beats; but the auricular musculature is in a constant state of inco- ordinate and futile twitchings; in consequence, the ventricles, instead of being stimulated from above rhythmically at the rate of about 70 per min., now are overwhelmed by a series of stimuli which pour down on them like an avalanche. they do their best to respond, and contract rapidly and irregularly at a rate of 120- 180 per minute. this condition, sometimes known as “ delirium cordis,” is very constantly associated with cardiac failure, usu- ally ending in dropsy, shortness of breath and eventually, if progressive, in death. it is a dangerous condition, but when recognised—and about its recognition there is now seldom any difficulty—it may be controlled by the administration of digi- talis. this drug depresses the conductivity between auricle and ventricle, and consequently only the more powerful auricular stimuli reach the ventricle after its use; the ventricle now beats, still irregularly, but more slowly, and consequently, having time for a longer rest between each beat, more powerfully. the auri- cles may fibrillate in paroxysms jasting a few minutes, hours or days; but more commonly the condition is a permanent one. it brings about a very considerable degree of disability, but, if properly controlled by the use of digitalis and if the patient is content to live within his limits, it is often compatible with 10, is or even 20 years of very fair health. the circus alovement.—lewis has recently demonstrated by means of the string galvanometer that in auricular fibrillation, as in its sister condition, auricular flutter, instead of each au- ricular beat arising, as described above, in the sinu-auricular node and radiating thence throughout the auricles, a “ circus movement”? takes place in the auricular muscle, often around the mouths of the great veins entering the right auricle. we have to conceive of a wave of contraction whirling around, usu- ally in an irregular circle, and one whose disposition in space varies from beat to beat. from this contractile path are pro- jected into the surrounding auricular muscle countless stimulating impulses, very much as sparks are thrown out from a catherine wheel, and, as a result, the whole of the auricular musculature is thrown into incessant, shimmering contractions. so soon as this explanation of auricular fibrillation was put forward and accepted, it was manifest that, if we could bridge the gap between heart, diseases of the the advancing crest and the retreating wake of the contracting wave in its “‘circus,” the heart might revert to normal rhythm. it has been found that quinine and its allied alkaloids, of which quinidine is the one usually employed, have such an effect. in rather more than 50% of cases of auricular fibrillation it is possible to bring about a reversion to normal rhythm by the use of quinidine. unfortunately the process is not de- void of risk, and there is a tendency for many of the cases to relapse into fibrillation when quinidine is withdrawn, so that cases for quinidine therapy should be carefully selected and its administration should not be attempted by those inexperienced in its use. | paroxysmal tachycardia—this is yet another condition the recognition of which is often possible only with the aid of electro- cardiographic records. here the heart beats with great rapidity (rates of 150-200 per min.), but regularly. there is an abrupt transition from the normal and slow, to the abnormal and rapid rhythm; the attack may last for a few seconds, or for a few days, and ends as abruptly as it began. such attacks may be associ- ated with great respiratory and mental distress, and may lead to cardiac failure. their dificrentiation from a purely nervous form of rapid heart action may be impossible without an electro- cardiogram taken during both normal and abnormal periods. it is very important from the point of view of both outlook and treatment, to be able to decide whether a case of palpitations is a purely nervous phenomenon, or true paroxysmal tachycardia, a more serious and intractable condition. x-rays in curdiology.—of recent years x-rays have been used more and more in the investigation of cardiac disease. by their help alone really accurate information can be obtained as to the size of the heart and aorta. dpercussion of the chest wall, and the location of the apex beat of the heart by the finger, are all we have to rely on, apart from x-rays, in estimating the size of the heart, and the information derived therefrom is vague and often misleading. by means of the x-rays the dimensions of the cardiac silhouette can be determined to a nicety, and much work has been done, particularly by french physicians, in ascertaining the normal standards of measurement of this cardiac sithouctte and in tabulating departures from such standards in various pathological states. vital capacity.—much work has been done with regard to the vital capacity in health and disease. the vital capacity is the maximal amount of air which an individual is able to expire from the lungs after taking the deepest possible inspiration. as a result of vast numbers of observations by many different investi- gators all over the world we now know what the vital capacity of any healthy individual of a given height and weight should be. [disease of either heart or lungs may very materially diminish the vital capacity, and the figure obtained for an indivicdual’s vital capacity increases or diminishes according as the disease in question advances or tends to recovery. ‘this, therefore, is a means of recording numerically a functional disability and its progress. this is a possibility the value of which is greater than is at first apparent. unfortunately, the statement of a patient that he is better or worse is not always a true index as to the progress of his disease; and even when his doctor thinks there 1s an improvement, sometimes the wish is father to the thought. the trend of all this instrumental investigation of the heart’s action has been to stress the importance of the heart’s muscle in cardiac pathology and to minimise the effect of valvular lesions, to which so much attention was formerly paid. possibly the pendulum has swung a little too far in this direction, with the result that there has been a tendency to make light of, or even altogether to ignore, quite definite valvular lesions in the absence of any evidence of muscular defect. such an attitude is deplorable, for it is doubtful if the heart’s valves are ever dis- eased without, at the same time, some defect in the heart’s musculature, and, in any case, it is manifest that a heart of which one of the valves either leaks or is narrowed is not as efficient an organ as one whose valves are healthy. the essential point is that the physician should refrain from diagnosing valvular dis- ease unless he is sure of his grounds. many of the cardiac mur- heart and lung, surgery of murs heard through the stethoscope are not necessarily indica- tive of valvular or of any other disease. the innocuous nature of these “ exo-cardial,” “ cardio-respiratory,”’ or “ haemic ” mur- murs, had long been known to the more experienced physicians, but it required the mass experiment of the world war to teach the lesson to the rank and file of the profession. lessons of the war.—during the early stages of the war thou- sands of healthy men were refused for general service on the grounds of such murmurs, and many thousands more were unnec- essarily invalided out of the army, often with pensions, by reason of the discovery of such murmurs after enlistment. another lesson of the war was that the condition known as soldier’s heart is usually not associated with any disease of the heart it- self. the rapid heart action which is the most striking feature of this condition, though it is, in fact, only one of many symptoms present, is due to a general rather than to a local condition. in dec. 1925 yandel henderson, of yale university, pub- lished some work which may well prove to be of the greatest importance in clinical medicine as well as in physiology. he has succeeded in perfecting a comparatively simple method of detcer- mining in adult or child, healthy or sick, the output of the heart per beat. from this it is easy to calculate the actual work done by the heart, and to recognise with certainty departures from the normal standards of efficiency. thus we now have, at last, a simple method of ascertaining with accuracy whether a heart is functioning normally or not, and of re-examining the patient from time to time, and observing whether a defect of cardiac function previously discovered is stationary, improving or dete- riorating. however valuable may be the information derived from elec- tro-cardiographic and x-ray examination, from analyses of inspired and expired air, or of arterial and venous blood, and from many other modern methods of clinical investigation, no one of these ancillary diagnostic aids as yet surpasses or equals in importance the old-fashioned method of medical history tak- ing. symptoms properly elucidated and interpreted, are to-day, as previously, more important than physical signs and laboratory tests. an ache beneath the breastbone brought on by exertion and passing away with rest, is of more significance than an aberrant electro-cardiogram. it will be a bad day for clinical medicine when physicians devote their time entirely to labora- tory methods of investigation and neglect the less dramatic but equally vital elucidation of the patient’s symptoms. (m. a. c.*)",
    "source_url": "https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-encyclopaedia-britannica.-3-encyclopaedia-britannica-inc.-1926",
    "observed_at": "2026-05-17 12:14:11",
    "integrity": {
        "hash_check": "match",
        "hash_scope": "full_normalized_text",
        "computed_sha256": "5b21cbbf26e535463aefd9a0df847a7e77583d4b3004d7780c322581417a51af"
    },
    "machine_use": {
        "read": true,
        "cite": true,
        "decision": "verified_public_domain_text"
    },
    "goguides_data_license": "https://www.goguides.com/data-license",
    "goguides_data_license_version": "2.0",
    "documentation": {
        "white_paper_url": "https://www.goguides.com/white-paper.php",
        "pdf_url": "https://www.goguides.com/whitepapers/goguides-ai-source-clearance-white-paper.pdf"
    }
}