HANDICRAFTS, ARTISTIC

the revival of interest in and the practice of the artistic handicrafts which was organised in the early ’cighties in england by morris, crane, w. a. s. benson, w. r. lethaby and their associates exercised an influence which soon extended to other european countries, the united states and canada. although it must be admitted that the dream of its founders has not been and cannot be realised, that influence is not dead. the quality of production may and must vary from time to time with the varying skill of the worker; but a standard of excellence has now | been promulgated which is—if not yet equal to the hopes of the pioneers of the movement—at least well advanced in that direction. the arts and crafts movement was, and is, a protest against machine-made goods and commercialism, and though these, in the nature of things, must continue, definite results have been achieved. the iniluence of the movement upon the trade side of art-industry has been undeniable. the machine-made article cannoi—or, at all events, does not yet—equal in technical execution the hand-made article. but in colour, in pattern, in form, one has only to compare the shop-window display of the period since toro with that of the earlier period, to see how great has been the advance of taste. and there has never been so great a demand for books, magazines and the written word generally relating to the arts, as there is at present; in itself a fairly convincing evidence of the growth of interest in the sub- ject on the part of the public. il. nwandicrafts in great britain an effort is being made, in great britain, by various societies and with some support from the govt., in the direction of a general revival of village handicrafts. it is too soon to measure its success; but the movement is worthy of record. furniiure—while it is true that the most important of the industrial arts, the making of furniture, is suffering to some extent from a fashion for 18th-century reproductions, steady progress is being made towards what may. turn out to be a veritable 2oth-century style, of which the distinctive features appear to be simple construction based on good joinery rather 312 than on cabinet-making. the use of woods selected for their natural beauty and undefiled with polish or stain is another characteristic. ornament is scantily applied and with in- creasing attention to utility and comfort; and the general tendency is towards rather substantial and even massive forms, although work on more delicate lines is not wanting. un- doubtedly the most distinguished figure in these, and in other, branches of craftsmanship was ernest gimson, whose style seems to be well on its way to becoming a tradition. but dis- tinguished work in england has also been done by e. a. and s. h. barnsley, p..waals, a. romney green, s. gordon russell, c. a. richter and ambrose heal. the wood carving of g. jack and lawrence turner and the carved wood puppets and other figures by william simmonds are especially notable. continental furniture follows much the same principles, with perhaps more reliance on mass than on line; as for instance in the work of louis sognot of paris, hans hloucat of vienna and the productions of the deutsche werkstiitten, munich. silversmiths’ work.—lin silversmiths’ work, progress has hardly been maintained so far as regards a demand on the part of the public for really fine personal craftsmanship, although, again, the design characteristic of the revival is being reflected to some extent in commercial products. most of those who are concerned with presentation plate still seem afraid to entrust their commissions to artists whose names and individuality would enhance values. for church purposes, however, admirable work has been done, especially as altar furniture, pastoral staves, etc., by alwyn carr, henry wilson, omar ramsden, edward spencer and others; and the series of episcopal and other seals engraved by cecil thomas would come into this category. a search for variety has revived, in new form, a combination of shagreen with silver or copper, worked with considerable success by paul cooper. modern jewellery, with its distinctive use of stones en cabochon rather than cut, has per- haps kept its small place, but has not affected the more popular taste to any appreciable extent, and of enamels it can only be said that the art has lost rather than gained ground. the silver- smiths’ work of the scandinavian group shows promise and originality, and french artists still display extraordinary tech- nical skill and ingenuity; but for obvious reasons there is little new movement to record. textiles —textile fabrics generally show a tendency towards - simple and effective colouring, side by side with a revival of the brocade and chintz patterns of the 18th century, and a still powerful oriental influence. patterns directly based on flower and plant form have no longer the vogue of the earlier years of the century; though the renaissance of good needlework, due very largely to the efforts of miss may morris and mrs. a. h. christie, as well as to the effective work done by the dept. of textiles of the victoria and albert museum under mr. a. f. kendrick, seems to be firmly established in great britain. on the continent, peasant design has influenced pattern, and a definite revival of tapestry in sweden is to be noted. in this class reference must be made to the effect of the costume de- signs of leon bakst originating a new movement which has spread far beyond its origina) purpose. design in carpets and rugs, so far as it exists at all, appears to be almost entirely sub- servient to persian and near eastern motives; apart from these, however, public taste seems to prefer unpatterned colours to an increasing extent. glass.—much more attention has recently been given to original design in glass-ware on the continent of europe than in great britain; and while there is perhaps too strained an effort in this direction, it cannot be denied that a fair amount of good work is being done. that of marinot of paris is decidedly in this class, for it keeps well within reasonable limits in appropriate treat- ment of the material and yet achieves a novel and highly decora- tive effect. some excellent glass for table use is being made in sweden and denmark; and the more highly elaborated designs of e. j. margold of darmstadt and of the cut-class made under the direction of prof. g. beckert of czechoslovakia are enter- prising in pattern and by no means without interest. if in this handicrafts, artistic department great britain is behind, in stained glass she has made distinct progress. a gothic tradition is, in this instance, almost essential; but its treatment of subject can be, and is, sufficiently modern for all practical purposes. the designs of christopher whall, p. woodroffe, g. kruger gray, g. parlby and others have continued and developed the new life instilled in this art by william morris and sir p. burne-jones. (e. f.s.) ii. handicrafts in tie united states in the first quarter of the 2zoth century the artistic handi- crafts, or arts and crafts, have made substantial progress in the united states of america. when the revival began with the boston exhibition in 1897, the standards were not particularly high and the amount of work being done throughout the country was insignificant. the boston society of arts and crafts was organised in this year and has maintained its leadership in the movement ever since. its annual sales have increased from $4,000 in gor to over $200,000 in 1925. the arts and crafts were taken up with fervour and a large number of societies were soon organised. the result was that with the showing at the st. louis exposition in 1904 and at the boston exhibition in 1907, fairly good standards were established in all branches of craft work. it must be admitted that craftsmen who were foreign-born and trained contributed largely to this rapid advance. while some of the initial enthusiasm died down after a few years, there has been a decided renewal of interest since the world war. distinguished work is now being done, which has had considerable influence on commercial work and in the improvement of popular taste. probably the most important advance has been made in the field of stained glass, in which it may be said that an outstanding american style has been established, notable for its decorative character and its emotional quality of colour. while it very definitely carries on the traditions of the early stained glass, it is already adding traditions of its own. the fact that the im- portation of fine stained glass from europe has dropped off at least 75% in the last ten years, although there has been an unprece- dented number of fine churches built, is due to the work of such . men as charles j. connick, nicola d’ascenzo, henry wynd young, j. gordon guthrie, lawrence saint and joseph g. reynolds. in metal work, there has been the greatest advance in ironwork and jewellery. samuel yellin is doing some masterly work in iron, as well as frank l. koralewsky, morgan colt and miss marie zimmerman. in quality of design and technique, high standards have been reached by such jeweller-craftsmen as frank gardner hale, edward e. oakes, herbert kelley, miss margaret rogers, mrs. josephine h. shaw, mrs. eda lord dixon — and horace e. potter. the early american silversmiths carried their art to a high point of perfection, and those of the present generation have been content to follow along the colonial lines without attempting much originality or change. american silver is characterised by good lines and plain surfaces, with less decoration than is usual in europe. the marked increase in the demand for handwrought silver is due to the notable work of arthur j. stone, george c. gebelein, james t. woolley, george e. germer (who has done some fine ecclesiastical pieces), douglas donaldson, george j. hunt, porter blanchard, karl f. leinonen, john p. petterson and f. j. r. gylienberg. a growing demand for pewter is recently apparent, stimulated by the work of lester ht, vaughan. the leading american woodcarver is undoubtedly i. kirch- mayer, who has developed a style of his own which he calls american gothic, characterised by the introduction of architec- tural motives in the drapery, but more especially by strength of character, reverence and a mastership of all the best traditions. in furniture, as in silver, there has been a harking back to colonial times, and the standards of public taste have been raised enormously through the great vogue of antique pieces and good modern reproductions. no new styles have been developed. in textiles the advances have been jargely in batik and block hangar-—harbord printing. the names of miss lydia bush-brown, miss helen dryden, charles s$. todd, jean paul slusser, arthur crisp, miss nell witters, gilbert fletcher and mrs. marion maercklein woodbridge stand out prominently. weaving has been restricted jargely to colonial models. creditable work is being done in pottery. the porcelains of mrs. adelaide a. robineau and the tiles of henry c. mercer and mrs. mary perry stratton have a high reputation. other master potters are charles f. binns, arthur e. baggs, edmund de f. curtis, h. varnum poor and r. guy cowan. some excellent illumination has been done by sister olive frances, sister magdalen, miss winifred m. crawford and mrs. gertrude s. bassett. the demand for hand bookbinding must always be limited, but good work was done by miss mary crease sears, mrs. averill cole howland, john f. grabau and miss eleanor i. van sweringen. in the field of fine printing and typography it is generally conceded that such men as bruce rogers, d. berkeley updike, and t. m. cleland are among the leaders. the demand for good commercial printing and binding has stimulated many of the leading publishers to put out books of really artistic merit. american craftwork is holding its own with that of europe and, in comparison, its dominant charac- teristics seem to be its conservatism and restraint. ch ps mi) hangar: see aerodrome. hanihara, masanao (1876- ), japanese statesman, was born in yamanashi-ken. he graduated from waseda uni- versity, toky6, in 1897 and entered the diplomatic service. in 1899 he went to the legation at seoul (korea), as attache, being transferred to washington in the same capacity in 1901. after a year of service there, he was made secrctary, invited specially to study american affairs, and later became chief secretary for foreign affairs. he felt that american-japanese relations were unsatisfactory and wished to impress upon the citizens of the united states the necessity for friendly co-operation with the japanese. he was sent to san francisco as consul-general in 1916, remaining until the end of 1917. returning to tokys he first became director of political affairs and then, in 1919, vice- minister for foreign affairs. as vice-minister he was one of the four delegates to the washington conference 1g21-2. in 1923 he was appointed japanese ambassador to washington, and it is maintained in america that his reference, in a public speech, to the “ regrettable consequences which would follow the passage ”’ of the immigration bill, was responsible for the bill becoming law. the japanese govt., realising that some blunder had been made, recalled hanihara in 1924. hankow, china (see 12.919).—a great commercial entrepet is provided for china by the three large cities, hankow, hanyan and wuchang, at the point where the han flows into the yangtze kiang. the population was given in 1923 as 1,646,800. in sum- mer the surrounding country is flooded, and vessels drawing 29 ft. can get up to hankow, but during the winter the port is accessible only to vessels drawing 12 ft., even at favourable peri- ods, and as the water falls hulks are moved out from the banks, with which they are connected by staging. in 1921, however, a river commission was formed, and the work of levelling the river bed from hankow downstream was begun. the advisability of flood prevention works is also being investigated. hankow, owing to its strategical importance, suffered considerably during the revolution of rg11, and in nov. two-thirds of the city was destroyed by fire, as a result of bombardment by the imperialists. by 1914 80% of the area was again covered with houses on the old pattern. several new roads, however, have since been laid out to the rear of the native city on reclaimed land, and a scheme for housing large numbers of the poorer classes on new areas, to relieve the housing problem, has been promulgated. the industrial development of the district, increasingly active after the world war, is reflected in the building of a number of factories and workshops, and foreign interests are largely in- creased. the british bund has become the banking and com- mercial centre, and a number of imposing banks and offices have been erected, including a customs house, a large chinese hospital 313 in european style in the native quarter, and a church in the french concession. the british concession has been enlarged, and the concessions, each with its own municipal council, now extend for over z m. along the river. those of the germans and russians have been taken over by the chinese authorities. the water supply of the city is good, and there have been no recent outbreaks of cholera. after the world war trade expanded stead- ily, though the black tea trade, hankow’s staple industry in former days, has declined, largely because of the elimination of the russian market. the interruptions to communications and the constant impositions which have resulted from the internal troubles of china, as also the increased competition since the re-entry of german traders, have greatly troubled exporters. hann, julius (1839-1921), austrian meteorologist and climatologist, was born near linz, upper austria, march 23 1839. in 186% he became editor of the zeitschrift der oester- reichischen gesellschaft fiir mcteorologie, and from 1877 was oc- cupied in the central meteorological institute at vienna. in 1873 he was appointed professor of physics at the university of vienna. he acquired a world-wide reputation for his works on atmos- pheric dynamics and thermodynamics, the “‘ atmospheric pulse,” cyclones and climatology. his principal works are die erde als ganzes; die atmosphire und uydresphere (1872), hand- buch der klimatologie, 3 v. (1908); lehrbuch der meteorologie, 3d ed. (1914) and many papers in his own zeitschrift and the reports of the akademie der wissenschaften. he died in vienna oct. 1 1921. hanusch, ferdinand (1866-1923), austrian politician, was born nov. 9 1866 in oberndorf, silesia, the son of a poor silesian weaver. after a childhood of crushing poverty, han- usch became in rgoo secretary of the austrian textile workers’ union. in 1907 he entered parliament as a deputy. he wasa pioneer of the austrian trade union movement, especially in his own branch of industry, and did much to improve condi- tions for this class of labour, which were abnormally bad. in oct. 1918 he became secretary of state in the new ministry of social welfare, and was author of most of the social legislation of the period, including the eight-hour day, the works councils act, the law compelling employers of 14 hands or more to in- crease their stafis by 20% in order to reduce unemployment, and the laws dealing with the unemployment dole. he was univer- sally respected for his personal probity and first-hand knowledge of labour problems and conditions. he died sept. 28 1923. hara, takashi (1856-1921), japanese politician, was born at morioka. after studying law and practising journalism he entered the diplomatic service, and was charge d’affaires in paris in 1886. in 1892 he was appointed director of the commercial bureau at the foreign office, and in 1895 became vice-minister of the department. he acted as minister to korea from 1896-7, when he became chief editor of the osaka matnichi. still deeply interested in politics he became the leading spirit of the selyu- kai (liberal) party. from the end of 1900 to may 1901 he was minister of communications in the ito ministry. he then re- verted to journalism, and became chief editor of the osaka shimpo, and was elected a member of the house of representa- tives for morioka in 1902. definitely abandoning journalism he was appointed minister for home affairs in the first saionzi ministry of 1906, in the second saionzi ministry of 1911 and in the yamamoto ministry of 1913. on sept. 29 1918 mr. hara, as the first commoner to become prime minister of japan, formed a cabinet based, for the first time in the history of japanese politics, on strictly parliamentary principles. he was assassinated by a demented youth in toky6 on nov. 4 1921. harbord, james guthrie (1866- ), american soldier, was born at bloomington, ill., march 21 1866. he graduated from the kansas state agricultural college, manhattan, kan., taking the degree of b.s. in 1886. he joined the 4th infantry in 1889 and was commissioned in the cavalry in 1891. serving in the sth, rith, roth and ist cavalry, he became a major in 1914. from 1903 to 1914 he served in the philippine constabulary. he became brigadier-general in 1917, and was chief of staff of the american expeditionary force in france 1917-8. he com- 314 manded the marine brigade near chateau-thierry, june ro18, being appointed major-general on june 26. he commanded the and div. a.e.f. in the soissons offensive under mangin, july 1918, after which he was placed in command of service of sup- ply. [fle was reappointed chief of staff a.e.f., may 26 rgro, and was head of the american military mission to armenia, aug. 19t9. he served as deputy chief of staff, u.s. army, 1921-2. retiring from the army dec. 29 1922, he became presi-. dent of the radio corporation of america. harcourt, lewis vernon harcourt, rst viscount (1863-1922), british politician, was born in london feb. 1 1863, the elder son of sir william harcourt (sce 12.939). he was educated at eton and afterwards travelled widely, becoming well known for his interest in art. in 1899 he married the only daughter of walter ii. burns, of new york. in ro904 he was elected liberal m.p. for the rossendale division of lancs., retaining the seat until 1916, and on the formation of sir henry campbcell-bannerman’s government (1905) he became first commissioner of works. in rg1o he became secretary of state for the colonics in the asquith cabinet, and on the formation of the coalition government in rors again became first com- missioner of works. in 1917 he was raised to the peerage. he died in london feb. 24 1922, leaving a young son who succeeded to his title. hardie, james keir (1856-1015), british politician, was born on aug. 15 1856 at legbrannock in lanarkshire of very poor parents. ile was a message boy at six, and at 10 a “ trap- per”? inamine. after 13 years underground he became a miners’ agent and helped to form the ayrshire miners’ union which was the first organised body to put forward the demand for a labour party. in 1888 he stood as labour candidate for mid- lanark and in the same year formed the scottish labour party. in 1892 he was elected for west ham as the first independent labour m.p. at the formation of the independent labour party in 1893 he was made chairman, and eventually succeeded, with james ramsay macdonald, in forming the labour party. he lost his seat in 1895, but was returned for merthyr in 1000, 1906 and rogro. in 1894 he founded the labour leader. in 1908 he made a tour of the world. asa begetter of the labour party and on account of his personality and courage he is considered one of the party’s heroes. he died in glasgow on sept. 26 1915. see j. b. glasier, keir hardie; the man and his message (1919); w. stewart, j. keir hardie. a biography (1921); f. johnson, aeir hhardie’s socialism (1922); d. lowe, from pit to parliament; the story of the early life of james keir itardie (1923). hardinge of penshurst, charles hardinge, ist baron (1858- ), british diplomat, was born in london june 20 1858, second son of the 2nd viscount hardinge. he was educated at eton and trinity college, cambridge, and in 1880 entered the diplomatic service. he became secretary of legation at teheran in 1896, and in 1898 went to st. petersburg as secre- tary of embassy. in 1903 he returned to england and became assistant under-secretary for foreign affairs, becoming later (1906-10) permanent under-secretary. in the jatter capacity he accompanied king edward vii. on his foreign visits. he was created k.c.m.g. in 1904, g.c.m.g. in 1905 and k.g. in 1916. from 1904 to 1906 sir charles hardinge was ambassa- dor to russia, and in 1910 was appointed viceroy of india and raised to the peerage. lord hardinge returned to england in 1916 and was reappointed to the post of permanent under- secretary of foreign affairs. in nov. 1920 he succeeded lord derby as ambassador in paris, retiring in 1922. harding, warren gamaliel (1865-1023), 20th president of the united states, was born at corsica (then blooming grove), morrow co., ohio, nov. 2 1865, son of george tyron harding, a farmer and country doctor, and phebe elizabeth dickerson. he studied in the common schools, and from 14 to 17 at the ohio central college at iberia. ife taught in a country school for a year, read law for a short time, worked in a newspaper office and in 1884 became editor and proprietor of the afarion star. on july 8 1891 he married florence kling. having at- tracted the notice of senator joseph b. foraker (see 10.628), he harcourt-—harding was encouraged to enter state politics, and was early recognised as an effective speaker. ie served two terms in the ohio senate (1900-4), and during the second was influential in securing senator foraker’s re-election to the u.s. senate. from roo4 to 1906 he was lieutenant-governor of ohio, but in 1910, when nominated for governor by the republicans, was defeated by a plurality of 100,000. in the campaign of 1912 his paper supported president taft. in ro14 he defeated foraker in the republican primaries cts candidate for the u.s. senate, and was elected with a majority of 100,000 for the term of 1915-21; but his friendship with foraker remained unabated. in 1916 mr. harding was delegate-at-large from ohio to the republican national convention, of which he was chosen per- manent chairman. in the senate he was regarded as a “ safe” man, who could be relied upon to support orthodox republican policies. in 1915 he urged “‘ preparedness ” for naval defence. in 1916 he voted against the confirmation of louis d. brandcis as associate justice of the u.s. supreme court. in 1917 he gave his support to the declaration of war against germany, and also to all the war measures, including the selective draft and espionage bills. he favoured the death penalty for. spies, but after the war advocated amnesty for political prisoners. he opposed the suggested federal control of food and fuel. he favoured the prohibition amendment, and voted for the vol- stead act, enforcing war-time prohibition, over the president’s veto. he favoured the anti-strike clause of the cummins rail- way bill, and voted for return of the lines to their owners within a year after the end of the war. ile was for exempting american shipping from panama canal tolls and also supported woman suffrage. he was opposed to the covenant of the league of nations, holding that ‘ either the covenant involves a surrender of national sovereignty and submits our future destiny to the league, or it is an empty thing, big in name, and will ultimately disappoint all of humanity that hinges its hopes upon it.” he voted for the lodge reservations and also for the reed reserva- tion that the united states alone should judge whether matters of direct interest to it should be brought before the league; and finally he voted against ratification of the treaty as submitted by president wilson. he maintained that americans should show chief concern for america, and opposed all tendencies toward internationalism. he supported the knox resolution declaring that war with germany was ended. at the republican national convention in 1920 mr. harding was not at first among the prominent candidates for president. on the first ballot he received 65} votes (493 being necessary for choice), 39 of these being from his own state. on the cighth ballot he received 1333 votes, on the ninth 3743 votes, and on the tenth he secured the nomination with 6923 votes, the result being due largely to the support of certain influential u.s. sena- tors, delegates to the convention, who hoped that as president he would be amenable to the senate. he did not “ stump” the country, but conducted his campaign from the “ front porch ” of his own home. mr. harding based his campaign chietly upon criticism of the wilson administration, denouncing especially the excessive power that, as he maintained, had been exercised by the executive as a result of war centralisation; he demanded as speedy as possible a return to normal conditions, political and industrial. while opposing the covenant of the league of nations, mr. harding gave to many of his supporters the impression that he desired an “association of nations” which, without the characteristics of a super-state (such as he believed the league to be), might safeguard peace. but he retained the political support of many who were opposed, like senators borah and johnson, to any sort of international association. in the nov. elections he won an overwhelming victory over james m. cox, the democratic nominee, also from ohio; he carried, generally by immense majorities, all the northern states and all but one of the states on the border between north and south, and he cut down materially the democratic majorities in the south. the clectoral vote was 404 for harding against 127 for cox. the popular vote was 16,138,000 for harding against 9,142,000 harding for cox. in ohio the popular vote was 1,182,000 for harding against 780,000 for cox. the sweeping character of his victory was due less to his own personal strength or to the weakness of cox than to the national reaction against the democratic party and the popular feeling against president wilson. mr. uarding resigned from the u.s. senate in dec. 1920, and was inaugurated march 4 1921, the sixth president to come from ohio. the promise frequently made by republican campaign leaders that mr. harding would surround himself with advisers of capacity and experience, scemed to be fuliilled by his choice of cabinet members. ‘the outstanding names were those of charles ef. hughes and herbert c. iioover, who became secretary of state and of commerce respectively. the distinguished career of the former and the widespread confidence in his ability and political integrity had marked him for the most importzant posi- tion in the cabinet; and there had been a general demand that the new administration should utilise the organising ability displayed by hoover in many fields. various elements in the republican party, nevertheless, had stoutly opposed their appointment, so that the president’s choice showed that he was prepared to exert his independence of party managers and to insist upon administrative efliciency. the choice of andrew w. mellon, a wealthy banker and ironmaster of pittsburgh, as secretary of the treasury, was welcomed by men of business; and though that of will h. hays to be postmaster-gencral was in the nature of payment of a political debt to the man who had been the manager of the republican campaign, it was early justified by his administration of the federal postal service. mr. harding’s inaugural address, and his first message to congress, delivered in person on april 12, voiced his desire to return to “normalcy,” as he expressed it. retrenchment in expenditure formed a major item in his programme, together with a prompt and thorough revision of taxation. he advocated the adoption of a national budget system, and the congress hav- ing passed a budget bill similar to that vetoed by mr. wilson in 1920, he approved it on june 10 1921; it provided for a budget bureau in the treasury department and the appointment of a director of the budget, the first being charles g. dawes, formerly general purchasing agent of the american expeditionary force. president harding’s first budget was presented dec. 5§ 1921. the president was insistent upon the need of repealing the excess profits taxes and reducing transportation taxes and income sur- taxes. the need of financial retrenchment led to his opposing the proposal that war veterans should receive a cash bonus. in this matter, as in others, he proved his ability at this early stage to resist political pressure. as regards the tariff he advocated, as a temporary stop-gap, the passing of the emergency tariff, which had been vetoed by president wilson, but which with slight alteration was approved by mr. harding on may 27 1921. he urged the need of adopting a permanent tariff policy, and on dec. 5 1921 suggested a “ flexible tariff’ which might provide for the adjustment of rates to meet unusual and changing con- ditions. such adjustments might be made, in his opinion, by the executive on the advice of the tariff commission. mr. harding’s interest in agricultural problems was keen; in his first message he asked special protection for agricultural interests, and in his second he declared that something more than protection must be given the farmers, advocating warmly the encouragement of co-operative marketing plans. as regards domestic legislation, the president, in general, assumed the rele of moderator. he disclaimed any desire to enlarge the powers and responsibilities of the executive, which, he declared, were already too large; and he aimed at close co-operation with con- gress. in marked contrast to his predecessor, he left adminis- trative responsibility to the members of his cabinet. foreign policy was largely determined by hughes, financial by mellon, and the problem of unemployment was thrown upon hoover. the president, however, frequently played an active rele in the conferences necessary to secure gencral agreement, as on aug. 9 1921 when an accord was reached between the treasury and the representatives on the taxation plan. the foreign policy of the administration at first seemed likely 315 to emphasise independence of action, on contradistinction to that of president wilson; the threatened war between panama an costa rica was prevented by a sharp note from secretary ifughes; the claims of the japanese to a mandate over yap were stoutly dented; the administration refused to follow great britain in resuming trade relations with soviet russia. president hard- ing made plain in his first message that the united states would not enter the league of nations. but he expressed himself warmly in favour of active co-operation with other nations of the world, and by accepting the invitation to participate in inter- alied councils indicated that he would avoid a policy of isolation. in rejecting the league covenant, he said ‘“‘ we make no surren- der of our hope and aim for an association to promote peace, in which we would most heartily join.” the president advocated a declaration of peace with germany by resolution, and the immediate negotiation of a treaty. this policy was adopted by congress, which agreed upon a joint peace resolution, signed by him on july 2. on aug. 25 1021, a treaty with germany was signed, embodying the president’s plan of including most of the stipulations of the versailles treaty, but repudiating adherence by the united states to any clause referring to the league of nations. this treaty and similar pacts with austria and hungary were ratified by the senate, oct. 18 1921. the most important step taken by president harding during the first year of his administration was the calling of an inter- national conference on the limitation of armaments. on may 25 1921 the senate had adopted an amendment of senator borah to the navy bill, authorising and inviting the president to call such a conference. mr. iarding’s preliminary invitations to the principal naval powers (great britain, japan, france and italy) were sent july ro, and formal invitations aug. 11. he made clear his belief that ‘the question was closely connected with the problems of the pacific and far east, and invitations were also sent accordingly to china and to the smaller european powers with far-eastern interests—holland, belgium and portugal. the invitations were accepted, and the conference assembled at washington on nov. 12. president harding avoided the example set by his predecessor, and did not himself participate as a delegate. he displayed his political tact in the choice of the american delegation, which was led by secretary hughes and included, besides elihu root, two members of the senate, lodge and underwood, the republican and democratic leaders re- spectively. the policy drafted by the president and mr. hughes was direct and vigorous. they refused to permit the vital prob- lem of lmitation of armaments to be side-tracked, and sur- prised the conference by proposing a 10-year naval holiday and a drastic scrapping of tonnage by the three chief naval powers. the president made it clear that he regarded the conference merely as a step in securing international understanding and goodwill; he advocated the convening of succeeding conferences as a possible means of securing an international association for the promotion of peace, and he approved the principle of sub- slituting an understanding between the united states, great britain, 'rance and japan regarding far-eastern problems, for the existing anglo-japanese treaty. (see washington con- ference.) the washington conference was the highwater mark of the ifarding administration. thereafter he faced the development of blocs in the republican party which destroyed its solidarity, and the growth of criticism which was manifested by the elections of 1922, as a result of which the republican majority in the jiouse was reduced. mr. harding’s veto of the bonus bill indi- cated his unwillingness to sacrifice principle to expediency. but he found difficulty in explaining the administrative incompe- tency, or worse, of office-holders in washington; resentment was felt against the republican national organisation controlled by the old guard; there was outspoken criticism of the new tariff; keen discontent among the farmers led to the clection to the senate of shipstead and magnus johnson. again the threat of a third party became imminent. in the summer of 1923 mr. harding set forth on a tour across the united states and to alaska, designed to xveassure the 316 farmers and reawaken enthusiasm for the administration. the president, already tired, became ill on the trip back from alaska and was stricken with pneumonia in san francisco, on aug. 2 1923 he died suddenly. (c. sey.) hardy, thomas (1840- ), english novelist (see 12.946); in later years received increasing recognition, not only as a great novelist but also as a poet. his great epic-drama the dynasts (1904-8), a chronicle play of england’s struggle against napoleon, with an accompaniment of philosophic comment chanted by a chorus of “ phantom intelligences,” was in part produced at the kingsway theatre, london, in the early months of the world war, and again at oxford in 1920. several volumes of lyrical poctry followed (selected poems in 1916; collected poems in 1919—but now incomplete). his first wife died in 1012, and in ror4 he married florence emily, daughter of edward dugdale, herself a writer of chil- dren’s books and articles in periodicals. both on his 7oth and on his 8oth birthday he received tributes of respect and admiration throughout the english-speaking world. thomas hardy’s career naturally divides itself into three periods. the first of these contains his work as a novelist, and ends with jude the obscure in 1896 (the weill-beloved, published in book form in 1897, appeared serially in 1892). the second period consists of the dynasts, the three parts of which were issued separately in 1904, 1906, 1908: no doubt the greatest single achievement of his career. the third period may be said to begin with time’s laughing-stocks in 1909, and js wholly devoted to lyrical poetry. it is not often that an artist’s life can be divided so definitely into separate stages, each stage charac- terised by the use of a different form; and, next to its length and plenty, and consistently noble idiosvncrasy, this tripartite division is perhaps the most remarkable feature of mr. hardy’s career as a whole. the lyrical period, however, does not give us an entirely new development of his genius. while he was writing novels, he had occasionally experimented with poetry, and some of the results were published, in wessex poems (1898) and poems of the past and the present (1901), between jude the obscure and the dynasts. the volumes pub- lished since the dynasts also contain a good many more of these earlier poems. but from 1909 onwards mr. hardy wrote nothing but lyrical poetry, and this may therefore truly be called his lyrical period. (a changed man in 1913 merely rescued from the periodicals of former years several stray pieces of minor fiction.) it represents a new concentration of his power, but certainly no diminution of it. devotion to lyrical expression has produced a mastery almost as signal in its kind as his command of the art of fiction; and his 7oth year saw him beginning, with time’s laughing-stocks, the series of volumes—satires of cir- cumstance (1914); afoments of vision (1917), late lyrics and earlier (1922), human shows, far phantastes (1925), which has shown him to be the most original, the most poignant, and also the most copious, of contemporary lyrical poets. the originality of the technique in these volumes does not by any means consist in a mere breach with the accepted conven- tions, but rather in its highly individual—to some, perhaps, rather disconcerting—compound of the conventional and the unconventional. most of these lyrics maintain an exact and even rigid formality of stanza, in which a scheme of rhymes is imposed, as it seems, arbitrarily and at all costs. the eflect is sometimes justified by its music; but more often by the compact force its pressure gives to language almost conversational in its idiom and choice of words. yet the diction which <efies poetic tradition and seems to despise the magic of elaborated verbal suggestion, is oddly blended with stiff literary phrases and even with words that one might expect only lexicographers to think of. the truth seems to be that, in lyrical technique, mr. hardy has no prejudices either for or against the conventions. he is simply concerned with the matter which intense feeling and profound understanding have enabled him to imagine in a way peculiarly his own, and to express this faithfully he has forged a technique peculiarly his own, out of whatever the language of literature or of speech could offer him. readers who are willing hardy—harrison to allow him this liberty can hardly fail to be impressed, as perhaps nowhere else in recent poetry, by the subtlety, depth and variety of his versions of the experiences common to hu- manity: the commonplace becomes in his hands something rich and strange. naturally the habit of thought and outlook on the world, which we find progressively insistent in the series of the wessex novels, and which inspire the turbulent matter and monumental structure of the dynasts, are very evident also in the lyrics; which indeed are often in the nature of marginal com- ments on themes previously used. but something like the quintessence of his tragic power may be found in such ballads as ‘‘ a trampwoman’s tragedy,” or such keen discrimination of pathos as “ near lanivet,” and something too like the quintessence of his irony to be altogether comfortable in satires of circumstance or ‘‘ ah, are you digging on my grave?”’ nor is the rustic humour of his beloved dorset villagers wanting, nor the vivid delight in nature, in the extraor- dinary range of his lyrical art. it is, in fact, the same hardy in the lyrics as in the novels and the dynasts; but a hardy who, if his lyrics were all we had of him, would surely, by virtue of them alone, hold a secure, indeed a unique, position in modern english literature. (l. ab.) hare, sir john (1844~1921), british actor (see 12.948), died in london dec. 28 ro2t. he made his latest appearance on the stage ina revival of grundy’s a pair of spectacles at wyndham’s theatre in 1917. harington, sir charles harington (1872- » british soldier, was born at chichester may 31 1872 and com- missioned in the king’s (liverpool) regiment in 1892. after service in the south african war, he held a series of staff ap- pointments, and on the outbreak of the world war went to france as general staff officer, 2nd grade, of the iii. corps. his ability brought him rapid promotion and in june 1916 he became major-general, gencral staff of the ii. army. tle remained chief of staff to gen. plumer in france for nearly two years, with the exception of a short interval in italy. the combined talents of the two men were such that the ii. army became proverbial forits excellent staff work and for carrying out any operation with the maximum economy of life. messines 1917 was perhaps their most brilliant feat. in april 1918 harington was recalled to the war office to become deputy chief of the imperial general staff. in the following year he was created knight commander of the bath. in sept. 1920, he succeeded gen. milne as com- mander-in-chief of the british forces, and subsequently of the allied forces at constantinople and in the black sea. his tact and diplomacy in a difficult situation, especially during the chanaq incident, helped to avert serious complications, and was fittingly acknowledged in parliament. on his return to england in oct. 1923 he was appointed to the northern command. harlan, john marshall (1833-10911), american jurist (sce 12.954), diced in washington, d.c., oct. 14 rorr. harpignies, henri (1819-1916), french painter (see 13.15), of whose drawings there was an exhibition in london in march roto, died in burgundy aug. 25 1916. harrigan, edward (1845-1911), american actor (see 13.17), dicd in new york city june 6 rort. harrison, frederic (1831-1923), british man of letters (see 13.23). frederic harrison’s death at bath from sudden heart failure at the age of 92, on jan. 14 1923, closed an unusually long and active career devoted to literature and religious service. in his last book de senectute (1923), which he did not live to see published, he re-afiirmed his life-long principle and attachment to the religion of auguste comte, and no estimate can do him justice which does not take into account the essentially religious character of his life, of which all his written works may be said to be a contnbutory expression. though frederic harrison originally came into prominence in the days (1850-80) of fighting agnosticism, he was never himself an “‘ agnostic,” and in fact was severely criticised by the leading agnostics, notably by huxley and herbert spencer, etc.; moreover, as a positivist, he was a republican in spirit and, what was new at that period, a sociolo- gist. it was this positivist sociology which caused him as a young hart—harvard university man to espouse the cause of trade unionism, which he did with such energy and legal skill as adviser to the royal commission on trade unions in 1867, that he was really the inspirer and founder of the trade union law as it existed from 1868 to 1906. none the less, his religion did not permit him to embark upon a public career. he virtually retired from politics (in the party sense) and from legal practice in mid-life, this latter very largely as the enforced consequence of his pioneer fight on behalf of trade unionism, and took to letters. at the age of 80 he published his a eer memoirs, 2 vol. (19011). among the books that flowed almost annually from his pen may be mentioned: afemories and thoughts (1906); national and secial problems (1908); tennyson, ruskin, mill and other literary estimates (1899); george washington, etc. (1901); the creed of a layman (1907); realities and ideals (1908); novissima verba (1920); de senectute (1923). as an historian frederic harrison did not belong to the modern school of specialisation, and ranks as a “ literary-historian ’’; as essay- ist, he excelled, occupying a distinguished place both for the soundness of his judgment and for the vigour and clarity of his style. politically, he stood in the position of an unofficial pro- consul, and for some years before the world war he repeatedly warned his countrymen of the tmpending crisis arising out of the armed system of europe, and of the necessity of british prepara- tion to mect it. an article he wrote in the english review in 1913 proved to be only too prophetic. during the war he stood unfalteringly for victory and for the cause of france. his son, rene, was killed in flanders in rots. frederic harrison can hardly be classified either as a pure man of letters or as politician by virtue of his religious opinions which debarred him from active participation in worldly affairs, and even as a critic the humanist motive was uppermost. his life may be described as an attempt to introduce comte’s human- ist sociology into this country, to which end he devoted all his energies. for 20 years he was the leader of english positivism and regularly lectured at newton hall, being also a co-founder of and contributor to the posttivist review. his political views were zealously put forward in that organ. he was not a radical in the party sense though always a liberal in spirit. internationally, he was a life-long supporter of france, and in 1870 vehemently urged british support of gambetta as against bismarckianism. if he was a “ little englander,” it was because of his champion- ship of the ‘‘ little peoples,” and during the boer war his pro- nounced anti-jingoism led him into acute controversy. publicly, his attitude was often misunderstood for that reason. he may be said to have been a republican in spirit, a humanist by con- viction and a “ meliorist ” as politician. frederic harrison had not originally wished to found a posi- tivist centre or sect, but after the secession of dr. congreve on the crucial issue of allegiance to french comtists, he virtually had no alternative, and it was thus that newton hall came into being. as the head of that body, frederic harrison found copious use for his scholastic knowledge and energies as lecturer and teacher, and though in that position he was “ labelled,” the sincerity and disinterestedness of his opinions were so universally recognised that his public moral authority did not lose through isolation. in this way he occupied a kind of “ chair ” of public morals, such as is hardly conceivable in any other country, hence his unflinching war determinism in 1914 caused him to be more popularly known and appreciated in extreme old age than had been the case during the victorian epoch when, as a human- ist, he found himself neither on the one side nor the other of the great victorian struggle for “ liberty of thought,” the founda- tion of which intellectually had been laid by auguste comte and charles darwin. in this great battle of “ reason,’”’ which started at oxford, har- rison played a conspicuous part, though never as an iconoclast and in interest, spiritually; z.e., outside the intellectual ethicism arising out of the new criticism, for he neither adhered to the utilitarianism of mill nor to the “dry light” of the debaters in the famous metaphysical society of which he was a member. positivism was at that time regarded as a “ heresy ”? both by ot7 orthodoxy and by the agnostics, and in the controversies that en- sued harrison drifted somewhat out of the movements of his time. he was perhaps the last survivor of the “ great ” victo- rians. fle will be remembered as a supreme individualist, a slash- ing controversialist, as a practical idealist and citizen. thus he | consistently advocated the return of the “ elgin marbles ” to greece on the ground that the statuary belonged to the historical religion of the greeks. he was a friend of president roosevelt and twice lectured in the united states. he was at his best as critic of life and art in the relation of the past to the present, which was comte’s “ law ” of continuity, but harrison was alive to the academic weaknesses in comte’s polity and rejected any dogma. in his latter years he resided at bath, of which city he was given the freedom. he refused all titles or “ honours.” his ashes, mingled with those of his wife, repose in an urn placed in the chapel of wadham college, oxford, according to his last wishes. see austin harrison, frederic harrison: thoughts and memories, 1925. (a. hn.*) hart, sir robert (1835-1011), anglo-chinese official (see 13.30), died at great marlow, bucks., sept. 20 1911. hartlepool, england (see 13.34), had a population (1921) of 20,997 and an area of 924 acres. it is connected with west hartlepool by rail and tramway over hartlepool bay. west hartlepool had in 1921 a population of 68,689 and an area of 2,958 acres. the parish church was restored in 1921, and the baptist church, destroyed by bombardment, was rebuilt. an obelisk has been erected in victory square, west hartlepool, as a war memorial. in 1924, 5 ac. of land were levelled for addi- tional timber storage, and a quay was built for the fishing industry in 1910. the total area of docks in the hartlepools is now 200 acres. in dec. 1914 the towns were shelled by german cruisers and a little damage was done. hartley, sir charles augustus (1825-10915), british engineer (see 13.35), died in london feb. 20 1918. hartley, jonathan scott (1845-1012), american sculp- tor (see 13.35), died in new york city dec. 6 1912. among his last exhibits were ‘‘ young hopi stick thrower ” (1911) and “ the cradle of pan ” (1912).