SURGERY

in the art of surgery, almost every problem is relative. surgical indications depend on many factors, the patient’s age and general condition, and the presence of diseases other than that for which surgical relief is sought. it requires knowledge, judgment based upon experience, and sound common sense to reach a proper decision. there are exceptions to almost every rule and therefore, in the space allotted to this article, it will be impossible to qualify all statements as fully as in strictly professional writings. an endeavour will be made to furnish the lay reader with a brief summary of the present status and outstanding advances of modern surgery, both general and regional. since 1910 the physiological trend of thought has led to great improvements in diagnosis. the x-ray and tests in conjunction with it are perhaps the most outstanding examples. operable conditions are determined earlier and with greater accuracy. operations are conducted with correspondingly greater safety, lower mortality and proportionately better end-results. in other words the earlier that operation is undertaken in the course of a disease requiring surgical intervention, the safer for the patient; complications are less likely and the prospects of com- plete restoration to health more probable. quite opposite is the case of those reaching the surgeon far advanced in their dis- ease, but even for them much can be done. a measure such as transfusion (see transfusion of bloop) prior to operation, may furnish just sufficient vitality to tide the sufferer over a brief but lifesaving operation. in the operating room the improved modern forms of local and general anaesthesia may be used in combination most appropriate to each particular case. visibility in the field of opcration has been greatly improved by better lighting, better retraction of tissues and the employment of suction apparatus for removal of obscuring fluids such as pus, blood and bile. to lessen surgical risk certain operations may be divided into several stages, each stage being performed as the patient’s condition permits. once the operation is passed, a host of measures are available for sustaining life and increasing com- fort. notable examples among these are the semi-reclining position similar to that assumed in a steamer chair, various methods of administering fluids other than by mouth, trans- fusion where much blood has been lost and lastly the use of insulin combined with glucose for those having diabetes. com- petent, intelligent nursing cannot be left out of this list. as convalescence goes on, physiotherapeutic measures, the value of which came into such prominence during and after the world war, are employed to hasten recovery and accelerate restoration of function. the intelligent lay public has come to appreciate the importance of early surgical intervention, an indispensable factor in the success of present-day surgery. the x-rayin relation to surgical diagnosis.—ojiten the results of an x-ray examination can be given thcir correct diagnostic value only when taken in consideration with the history, physical signs and perhaps certain laboratory tests. (see diagnosis.) as a consequence of co-operation between various specialists, e.g., the surgeon, the physician, the pathologist and the rent- genologist, one sees refinements and advances in diagnosis, not attainable in the pre-rentgen era. operable conditions are recognised much earlicr, and the patient often saved months of suffering. unnecessary operations are avoided for those the x-ray shows to be beyond the aid of surgical treatment. lastly, surgery the ubiquitous functional neurotic whose symptoms so closely simulate organic disease is saved a needless operation, and is referred to the neurologist or psychiatrist for the rational care of his disabling condition. furthermore, information obtained by the rentgen ray 1s of the utmost value as a control in the course of surgical treatment and in estimation of end-results. exposures are taken from in front (antero-posteriorly) and from the side (laterally) whenever feasible, particularly in fractures. stereoscopic views are especially valuable for de- picting finer details in regions of the skull, thorax and pelvis; and also for more exact location of foreign bodies such as needles and bullets. (see rontgenology.) the diagnostic and thera- peutic uses of the x-ray are entirely different in matters of wave- length, duration of exposure and so forth. photographic glass plates have been entirely supplanted by celluloid films, because of the obvious physical advantages of the films in being lighter, less bulky and non-breakable. to avoid repetition, special applications of the x-ray and other modern diagnostic methods will be mentioned as occasion requires in the next to follow. surgical aspect of tuberculosis.—in 1o10 the curative value of rest and hygienic measures was well recognised in the treat- ment of this disease. rest of the affected part as well as of the entire body was practised then. tuberculosis of bones and joints was treated by long immobilisation in plaster-of-paris casts, braces and so forth. ankylosis (a stiff joint) in the most favourable (that is, the least disadvantageous) position was the goal sought at that timeasitstillisin far-gone cases. nowadays in early stages, the rollier method of heliotherapy has furnished a great advance. casts holding the affected joint at rest have openings cut in them to permit exposure of the diseased area to direct sunlight. furthermore, the treatment consists of grad- ually increasing the time of exposure and area exposed until the entire body except the head is accustomed to sunlight for long periods of time. this results not only in great improvement in - general health but a regression of the local tubercular process with ultimate return of function. essential factors of the rollier method are: high altitude (about double the number of actinic rays are available at 5,000 to 7,000 ft. than at sea level) and sunlight without wind. the sanitaria lie in a high, sheltered alpine valley where sunshine is very prevalent. the sunlight treatment has also proved a most, efficient means of curing other forms of so-called surgical tuberculosis; for example, tuberculous glands of the neck (tuberculous cervical lymph adenitis) in all stages. nowadays it must be mentioned that this condition is far less common in the united states than formerly, owing to the great regression of tuberculosis in general and to the widely practised removal of discased tonsils and ade- noids in infants and children, the tonsil being the port of entry for the tubercle bacillus (tonsils removed from patients with tuberculous glands of the neck almost invariably show lesions of tuberculosis upon microscopical examination). artificial sun- light in those countries where sunlight is infrequent has proven of great value. it must be emphasised that the improvement in the general health following exposure of the entire body is just as essential to cure as local exposure of the affected region. (see also heliotiierapy.) another regional application of the principle that rest hastens healing in tuberculosis is the employment of artificial pneu- mothorax which allows collapse and inactivity of one lung by filling the pleural cavity of that side with nitrogen gas. where this is not feasible because of pleural adhesions, a plastic opera- tion (extrapleural thoracoplasty) accomplishes the desired pur- pose by diminishing the size of bony thorax. surgical aspect of syphilis —examination of the blood for the wassermann reaction is a routine in every well organised hospital and clinic. when positive in an individual without obviously characteristic lesions, it generally indicates!latent but actively existent syphilis. such knowledge is of the greatest 1 certain diseases like active malaria and leprosy also produce a positive wassermann reaction. sometimes the reaction is also seen during an acute febrile disease and for a day or so after administra- tion of a general anaesthetic. surgery value. the late manifestations of syphilis often simulate cancer or tuberculosis, and while the presence of syphilis does not exclude either of these other diseases, further diagnostic measures and anti-syphilitic treatment are invariably indicated before operation is resorted to. x-ray pictures of bones affected by syphilis show characteristics quite different from the lesions of tuberculosis or cancer in osseous tissue. if after several weeks of anti-syphilitic treatment there is no apparent improvement, it is then time to consider surgical intervention. in surgical emergencies such as strangulated hernia, perforated gastric ulcer or acute appendicitis, operation cannot be deferred, but in the presence of florid syphilis with obvious and active lesions, the greatest care must be exercised by surgeons and attendants to protect themselves against accidental wounds or inadvertent contacts. the mysterious failure to heal, noted in certain clean postoperative wounds in years gone by, is now largely explained by a positive wassermann reaction in an apparently healthy patient. other causes for the failure of clean wounds to unite also exist, but one must exclude syphilis before considering these. long-standing syphilitic lesions of the oral cavity are not infrequently followed by a cancer in old scar tissues, so that one must be on the lookout for this concurrent incidence, the failure to recognise which has often led to diagnosis so late that surgical relief for the cancer was impossible and death almost inevi- tably followed. cancer.—cancer often begins as a painless, hard, slowly growing lump. at first it remains localised, then as time goes on it spreads to the regional lymphatics (for example, cancer of the breast spreads to the lymph-nodes of the armpit) and finally it is found in distant parts of the body far removed from its original site. the surgical treatment consists in wide excision of the tissues around a primary cancer together with removal of the regional lymphatics. to use the same example, in cancer of the breast the lymphatics of the axilla are dissected out in one mass together with the affected breast. likewise in cancer of the tongue, lips or cheek, the lymphatics of the neck are removed en bloc in addition to wide removal of tissues around the original focus of growth ( see cancer research ). ifthereisnorecurrence within five years after removal, a cure is probable; most re- currences come on within three years; after five years they be- come less and less frequent. except for the treatment of a relatively benign type of facial cancer (basal cell carcinoma), radium is better reserved for the palliative treatment of inoperable cancer at least at the present writing. radium is ineffective farther than r cm. from the point of application. x-rays are used with far more accurate control of therapeutic dosage both for preoperative and post- operative irradiation, and for the palliative treatment of in- operable cancers. periodic physical examination at least once a year is the best means of safe-guarding the public, as early discovery and early removal offer the best hope of total eradication. surgical aspect of typhoid fever.—since the era of preven- tive inoculation typhoid fever is no longer the menace it once was. nowadays surgeons rarely see its surgical complications of hemorrhage from the bowel, perforation of the small intestine and metastatic typhoid abscesses. (see typhoip fever.) tetanus or lockjaw.—tetanus is another disease one rarely sees now, thanks to routine injection of tetanus antitoxin in the presence of accidental wounds. comparison of the medical reports on the incidence of tetanus in the world war with similar reports prior to the introduction of routine prophylactic injection will demonstrate the protection we now enjoy. gas bacillus infection —gas gangrene, as this is usually called, is characterised by rapid spread in the tissues, their typical brawny look and the tell-tale subcutaneous crackle felt by the examining fingers. ruthless removal (including even amputation) of all diseased tissue and administration of a spe- cially prepared serum must be carried out as soon as the diagnosis is made if life is to be saved. these cases were all too frequently seen in the world war; fortunately they are less common in civil life. - | 687 surgical aspect of diabctes——operative treatment in the presence of diabetes is practically the same as in patients with- out this disease, except for the increased risk. the preoperative administration of insulin and glucose for the prevention of postoperative acidosis is a well recognised procedure. pro- longed anti-diabetic treatment before operation for conditions such as diabetic gangrene, carbuncle and acute appendicitis has not met with success. the patients have not improved as was hoped and the postponement of the operation has resulted in their being in poorer condition to stand it than if surgical measures had been taken more promptly. while it is true that insulin is a specific for diabetic coma, one often sees comatose diabetics who fail to react to insulin; the explanation of this is that the coma is of uraemic origin or, plainly put, the diseased kidneys have ceased to function adequately. (see also diabetes; insulin.) preventive medicine.-—ypresent-day medicine and surgery are preventive in character. nowhere is this better illustrated than in the modern care of children and infants. by timely and rela- tively simple methods, conditions causing deformity or sys- temic disease are checked in their incipiency; for example, infantile scurvy and rickets are rarely seen nowadays, and, if present, can be cured by simple diatetic and hygienic measures. operations for rachitic deformities such as bow-legs are much rarer than in former years. ‘the removal of diseased tonsils and adenoids has greatly diminished the incidency of quinsy, otitis media (inflammation of the middle ear), mastoiditis, acute articular rheumatism, endocarditis and tuberculous glands of the neck. modern dentistry also has its share in preventing deformity and eliminating focal infection, in children as well as in adults. (see dentistry.) the earlier recognition of such diseases as empyema of the thorax following pneumonia, foreign bodies in the bronchial tree (see bronchoscopy below), intussus- ception (a form of acute intestinal obstruction especially prev- alent in infancy) and acute appendicitis, has greatly reduced the mortality of childhood from these causes. hare-lip and cleft palate are congenital deformities which often occur together. the hare-lip should be repaired, under local anaesthesia within a few weeks after birth. this union of the lip causes the gap in the cleft palate to narrow as time goes on, facilitating surgical closure later. even though the opera- tive repair of cleft palates be successful, speech defects often remain in spite of training to overcome them. congenital pyloric stenosis (a narrowing of the lower or pyloric end of the stomach by muscular overgrowth of the pyloric sphincter) was formerly relieved by the operation of gastro-enterostomy, 7.€., anastomosing stomach with small intestine. this was designed to prevent death from inanition through failure of food to leave the stomach. more recently, the operation devised by rammstedt, which consists in dividing this muscular constriction longitudinally down in the lining mucous membrane of the stomach, has effectively relieved con- striction. the procedure is much shorter and may readily be performed under local anaesthesia upon the new-born; the mor- tality has been greatly decreased. transplantation of tissue——transplantation of tissues is, on the whole, unsatisfactory except when taken from the same individual. the transplants when taken from others, even from blood relatives, may at first heal into place but ultimately disappear, leaving scar tissue behind. taken from the same individual, the less highly organised tissue such as skin, fat, fascia, tendon, cartilage and bone are amenable to successful trans- plantation from one region to another. skin transplantation is an old,well recognised procedure which has undergone considerable refinement of late years. for description of its manifold uses and many ingenious variations of technique now successfully employed, the reader is referred to standard works on plastic and cosmetic surgery. indications for transplantation and choice of other tissues, the most suitable types of procedure, after-care and the criteria of success are so relative and manifold that space is lacking for adequate discussion. by no means has the last word been said upon this subject. (see also burns.) 688 surgical anaesthesia general anaesthesia (see also anaesthetics).—chloroform is practically obsolete, being used only upon the rarest occasions and then by skilled professional] anaesthetists. in less experienced hands it has proved to be highly dangerous. compared with ether, chloroform would represent the sharpest kind of a razor, while ether might represent a relatively harmless butter-knife. in obstetrics chloroform has likewise been supplanted by ether or nitrous oxide and oxygen because it has been proved that chloroform is harmful to the liver. late chloroform poisoning coming on ten days after its administration is identical with hydrochloric acid poisoning. in eclampsia the liver cells are already greatly damaged and chloroform adds insult to injury. the deaths from eclampsia have greatly diminished since ether has been used to control the convulsions. ethyl] chloride may be called a highly volatile chloroform. it is extremely dangereus because of the ease with which an overdose may in- advertently be administered. until 1915 ether was the anaesthetic of choice, but since then nitrous oxide with oxygen has come into deserved popularity; with it ether is used in minimal amounts to afford greater muscular relaxation for a short period whenever this may be required by the operator. in some clinics ethylene has been found entirely satisfactory but has not received general adoption. rectal anaesthesia, that is, the introduction of a certain amount of oil mixed with a given quantity of ether, introduced into the rectum, is employed at certain clinics in operations upon the jaws, tongue, larynx or that part of the gullet lying in the neck. in former years, various types of complicated, cumbersome differential pressure apparatus were used to prevent collapse of the lung and assure sufficient aeration when the pleural cavity was opened. later intratracheal anaesthesia and still later intra- pharyngeal anaesthesia was found to accomplish the same result ina far simpler manner. nowadays the mask of a laugh- ing gas-oxygen-ether apparatus is entirely adequate for this purpose. (see thoracic surgery.) local anaesthesia.—when cocaine was practically the only substance known for this purpose, its field of usefulness was limited because of its high toxicity. since then a host of less toxic substances have been discovered, chief among which 1s novocain, and the field of applicability has greatly widened. a solution of 250 c.c. of $ of 1% of novocain may be used in an adult weighing rso lb. without danger. solutions of even o-1°% are effective. (see gaston labat and w. b. saunders, regional anaesthesia, 1923.) regional anaesthesia.—a local anaesthetic acts by virtue of its power to deaden nerve tissue, either at the sensory endings of nerve fibre (local infiltration), or along nerve trunks. for example, a few drops of solution in the eye renders the surface of the eyeball insen- sitive; or injected into the substance of the skin (raising a wheal) makes the injected area anaesthetic. for rendering greater areas insensitive it is more practical to deaden nerve trunks ata distance from the region to be operated upon (block anaesthesia) or even at their exit from the spinal canal (paravertebral anaes- thesia; caudal or epidural anaesthesia). carrying this principle to its logical conclusion, the anaesthetic solution may be in- jected into the spinal canal, thus rendering sensation of the entire body inactive from the level injected downwards. spinal anaesthesia is applicable for the lower half of the body. it must not reach upwards because of danger from paralysing the vital centres in the medulla oblongata. the addition of adrenalin (epinephrin) to solutions of local anaesthetics is of advantage in that it lessens diffusion by local contraction of capillaries; in other words, keeps the solution at the place it should function and slows the rate of absorption by the tissues. magnesium sulphate is advocated by some authorities as an adjuvant to local anaesthetics. the conscious paticnt’s appre- hension is the only disadvantage of local anaesthesia. this may be largely avoided by exhibition of morphine or codein in max!- mal doses shortly before the operation. scopolamine, a drug in vogue a few years ago, has been gradually discarded. it was the drug employed for inducing ‘‘ twilight sleep ” in labour. surgery the combination of local anaesthesia, general anaesthesia and analgesia induced by such drugs as morphine is being more widely used as time goes on. ‘the surgeon’s experience dictates their indication or limitation in each individual case. for example, if a patient suffers from acute tonsillitis and acute appendicitis the abdominal wall may be opened under local anaesthesia, the appendix actually removed under general anaesthesia, and the abdomen closed under the original estab- lished local anaesthesia. thus the chances of post-operative pneumonia are minimised. operative technique aseptic technique, now universally adopted, has reached a high state of efficiency. operators invariably wear caps and masks, sterilised long-sleeved gowns and rubber gloves. all skin is potenjially infective, no matter how its cleansing be accomplished. in recognition of this principle, the surgeon after scrubbing and disinfecting his hands and forearms to well above the elbows, dons sterilised long-sleeved gowns and rubber gloves. likewise it is often customary to fasten sterilised towels to the wound’s margin, after incising the skin, to prevent possible contamination of the deeper tissues. the steam-pressure steriliser in which gowns, gloves, gauze and drapings are steri- lised, may at times be carelessly operated by unskilled attendants. to make certain of absolute sterility at all times, steriliser con- trols are inserted in- the centre of all packages before being placed in the steam-drum. these controls are sealed glass tubes containing small cylindrical red pellets of material fusible at a temperature somewhat higher than actually necessary for adequate sterilisation. the surgeon can thus determine whether sufficient heat to produce adequate sterilisation has reached all parts of the package. the sterilisation of instruments is easily accomplished by boiling in water to which carbonate of soda has been added. the addition of soda prevents rapid rusting of steel upon exposure to air after being boiled. usually instruments are sterilised for 15 minutes to assure absolute sterility. (the spores of tetanus and anthrax bacilli are capable of withstanding boiling water for at least three minutes.) sterilisation of edged instruments like scalpels is accomplished in some clinics by boiling in paraffine oil, while in others, chemical stcrilisation by means of carbolic acid or one of its derivatives, is customary. keen-edged knives are somewhat dulled by boiling in soda solution. suture materials.—strands of sterile catgut in sealed glass tubes are universally employed throughout, the united states. these are furnished in two varieties: in one, boiling does not weaken tensile strength; in the other it does, and the tubes of this variety must be sterilised by long immersion (storage) in strong antiseptic solutions. absorbable suture material is used for repair of deeper structures, whereas non-absorbable material,! such as silk, siikworm gut and horsehair, is mainly employed for suturing the skin. on the continent of europe, in many clinics, fine silk is still used for ligatures and sutures in the depths. clinical antisepsis (see antiseptics).—alcoholic solution of iodine (tincture of iodine) or alcoholic solution of picric acid is now used for disinfection of the skin of operative fields, having supplanted the cleansing with soap and water followed by benzene, alcohol and ether. some time before operation, how- ever, it is necessary to shave and wash the operative field, thus allowing time for the skin to dry. this is essential to assure adequate penetration by the alcoholic solution of iodine or picric acid, which has been found much less effective when applied to the wet skin. dakin’s solution still holds a pre-eminent position in the antiseptic treatment of infected or potentially infected wounds. a host of other antiseptics, such as acriflavine, rivanol and mercurochrome, have many strong individual adherents, but not one has gained universal adoption. the silver salts (silver nitrate, argyrol, protargol, collene and others) still hold their pre-eminent position in the treatment of infections of the mucous membranes of the eye, nose and throat, 1 also furnished in sealed glass tubes by manufacturers. surgery bladder and urethra and so forth. the greatly prolonged use of silver nitrate, either as a gargle when small quantities often are inadvertently swallowed, or for irrigation of large cavities lined with granulation tissue, may result in considerable ab- sorption; as a consequence there is a general staining of the body tissues naturally most apparent in the skin and whites of the eyes. the staining is absolutely permanent and the condition is termed argyrosis, examples of which are sometimes seen in the “blue man ’’of the circus. bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) is still used in disinfecting solutions for the surgeon’s hands and forearms after thorough and prolonged scrubbing with soap and water. it has been abandoned, however, in solutions for irrigations and local wet dressings. left in contact with the skin, it is apt to give rise to marked irritation, “ bichloride dermatitis,’ and, if left filling large abscessed cavities, its absorption has given rise to systemic mercurial poisoning. carbolic acid likewise has been greatly restricted in its appl- cation. it is still used to disinfect sharp-edged instruments ancl in some clinics for its cauterising effect upon the stump of the appendix. in weak solution, as wet dressing for injured fingers, it js especially dangerous. beneath this wet dressing the skin of the finger becomes insensitive and, if the solution be applied long enough the entire thickness of the skin or even the entire digit dies and eventually sloughs off. this condition is known as carbolic gangrene, pictures of which may be seen in the older text books on surgery. carbolated vaseline may likewise cause carbolic gangrene. absorption of weak carbolic solution by prolonged contact with raw surfaces may lead to absorption and general poisoning. smoky urine, that is urine clouded with disorganised tissue and blood cells from the damaged kidneys, causing a brownish colour, is one of the typical symptoms of this condition. ilydrogen peroxide as an antiseptic in small accidental wounds is probably utterly valueless. tincture of iodine, alco- holic solution of picric acid, acetic acid (even household vinegar which is diluted acetic acid), are far more effective antiseptics for accidental wounds. preparation for operations.—in the presence of acute respira- tory infections, general anaesthesia is contraindicated. during severe influenza epidemics, no operations except those of an emer- gency, life-saving nature should be undertaken. if the operation is not urgent, one waits until the coryza or bronchitis has sub- sided. on the other hand, 1f an operation is imperative, as much as possible is done under local anaesthesia and if general anaes- thesia must be given, the use of nitrous oxide and oxygen would be least likely to be followed by post-operative pneumonia. the stomach and intestines should be empty. if general anaes- thesia is administered to a patient with a full stomach, he is sure to vomit while semi-conscious. some of the vomited material may be drawn into the larynx, leading to immediate suffocation if the inspired material is a bolus of food. if the vomitus is fluid, it reaches the lungs and by infecting them may readily lead to pneumonia. for non-urgent operations, it is easy to have the alimentary tract empty by administering a cathartic and with- holding food for a few hours before operation. before emergent operations, the stomach is emptied by the passage of a stomach tube, followed by gastric lavage, and the intestines may be emptied by an enema. the bladder must be emptied either by the patient’s own act or, if this is not possible, by catheterisation. a full bladder fills the pelvis and hampers proper exposure of the pelvic organs. upon completion of the operation, the patient is swathed in warm blankets to prevent chilling. upon reaching his bed he is laid flat upon his back with head turned to one side to avoid possible aspiration of vomitus until consciousness is regained; only then may a pillow be placed beneath the head. in the presence of shock, the foot of the bed is raised to facilitate circulation to the vital centres in the brain. warmth is maintained by hot-water bags wrapped in flannel, in addition to blankets. particularcare is taken that these bags are not so hot as to burn the unconscious subject. stimulation is administered by a suitable hypodermic injection or by intravenous administration of normal saline 689 solution or 5% solution of glucose. transfusion of blood is also given if needed. the administration of water is of prime importance. usually within a few hours, small amounts may begin to be given... at times, however, the nature of the operation or the condition of the patient forbids administration of water by mouth. the rectal administration of water either by a continuous drip or at the rate of one pint every two hours, slowly given so as to be retained, ts an excellent means of furnishing needed fluid. stillanother method is by hypodermoclysis; that is, under aseptic precautions, either normal saline solution or preferably sterile water contain- ing 0-05 % novocain (25 c.c. of o-5 % novocain in soo c.c. of sterile water) is injected subcutaneously as often as may be needed. dict.—there is no urgent necessity for feeding the average patient for four or five days after operation, provided he gets enough fluid. nourishment is gradually resumed, beginning with the more easily digested fluids and gradually coming to the customary articles of everyday character. treatment of operative wounds.—clean wounds in the usual! course of events are not disturbed until it is time to remove skin sutures. infected wounds are dressed as often as required, at least once every day, semetimes more frequently. under ideal conditions of drainage, all the discharges are to be found in the dressings, in other words there is no welling up of pus from the depths of the wound upon exposure. in short, the age-long rule of adequate drainage in the presence of infection holds to-day as it ever will. the continuous instillation of improved antiseptic solutions is often a distinct aid, but is of no avail unless retention of pus is avoided by the establishment of proper facilities for adequate drainage. the mechanical devices for providing rest and elevation without hindering access to the wound, particularly in surgery of the extremities, cannot be described for lack of space. post-operative accumulation of gas, causing abdominal dis- tention and cramps, may be controlled by applying turpentine stupes, and inserting a rectal tube, and by giving hypodermic injections of pituitrin,? and enemas of varying composition and quantity. under ordinary circumstances, after an abdominal operation, a patient may be allowed out of bed at the end of two to three weeks, depending on his personal condition and the nature of the operation. it is not uncommon for the feet and: ankles to swell for a short time, a day or two after getting up. if warned of this possibility and its spontaneous regression, much unnecessary alarm may be avoided. realising that few persons are physically capable of resuming their ordinary occupation immediately after leaving the hospital, the social welfare depart- ments established in all large clinics arrange for post-convalescent recuperation of from one to several wecks, and thus assist the patient to resume his natural course of life in restored health and strength. neurological surgery with the exception of certain tumours of the cerebellar-pontine angle, the localisation of brain tumours was in an unsatisfactory state until the introduction of ventriculography by dandy of johns hopkins. by means of this method, the ventricles of the brain filled with air may be depicted by rgntgen ray. distortions from the normal, in size, symmetry and so forth, furnish most valuable clues regarding the site of the tumour although the growth itself is not visible. combined with this great diagnostic advance, one sees wider exposure of the operative field and more radical and ex- tensive intervention.2 as material accumulates and experience grows, the classification of brain tumours is undergoing revision. the palliative operation of subtemporal decompression, designed to relieve increased intracranial pressure incident to a brain 1 water or tea as warm as possible, when given by mouth, is far less likely to cause gas pains than the ice-cold drinks which the patient so often requests. *pituitrin is a powerful stimulant of smooth muscle and must not be given in the presence of any mechanical obstruction to the passage of intestinal contents. . ’ large sections of brain have been removed from so-called silent areas without alfecting normal function. 690 tumour, is much less often practised than formerly. several in- genious methods have been devised to reach the rather inaccessi- ble pituitary fossa at the base of the skull. operations for relief of enlargements of the pituitary gland show results which have mostly been palliative. surgical diseases of the spinal cord, in contrast with those of the brain, present fewer diagnostic difficulties and are much more easily approached. the operation of laminectomy consists of re- moval of vertebral spines and laminae in order to open the dural sheath longitudinally, and bring the spinal cordinto view. further operative procedure depends upon the conditions encountered. for relief of intractable facial neuralgia, extirpation of the gasser- ian ganglion has now been supplanted by a simpler, safer, frazier- spiller operation consisting of simple division of the gan- glion’s sensory root. there is practically no mortality, in striking contrast to the method it has supplanted. paralvsis of the facial nerve may be relieved by anastomosis with some other readily accessible motor nerve in the neck. the paralysed half of the face regains its normal appearance in repose, but mimetic control rarely reaches perfection. in surgery of the peripheral nerves (sce also orthopaedic surgery), the repair of damaged motor nerves constitutes the main part of this field. the nerve cells lic in the spinal cord and from there send their prolongations (aggregations of which con- stitute the peripheral nerves) to all parts of the body. if a severed nerve is reunited, the active nerve elements begin to grow from the point of division downwards along the paralysed peripheral trunk until they reach the motor end-plates in the muscles normally supplied. the rate of growth is slow, and meanwhile the paralysed muscles must be kept in a relaxed (not overstretched) state by suitable orthopaedic appliances (splints, braces and so forth). severe injuries to nerve trunks of the extremities often result in considerable loss of substance; conse- quently the nerve ends may lie several inches apart approximation of the separated ends may be facilitated by suit- able changes in posture; for example, flexion in defects of the median or musculo-spiral nerves, or extension for defects of the ulnar nerve, may overcome gaps of one or two inches. position thus favouring approximation must be maintained for several weeks until healing is assured, and only then may there bea gradual relaxation to normal. nerve cabling has been used to bridge longer gaps. results are still inconclusive. a length of purely sensory nerve is excised; this is then divided into shorter lengths just sufficient to bridge the gap. these are laid together to form a cable of diameter equal to the trunk being repaired. if the torn nerve ends are buried in a mass of scar tissuc! dissection 1s begun both above and below this point to expose the uninjured nerve in its normal relations, and from these points both ends are traced to their termination in the scar. they are then laid back and the scar itself is excised. if within the nerve ends them- selves there is much cicatricial tissue, cross sections are progres- sively removed, until normal nerve tissue is exposed; only then should anastomosis be attempted. the recently revived and elaborated operations on the sympathetic system are still in the experimental stage. while the one devised to relieve the pain of angina pectoris accomplishes its purpose, it is to be remem- bered that the basic pathological changes in coronary arterics and heart muscle remain and pursue their course. various types of surgery surgery of the face-——cosmetic and plastic surgery, especially of the face, has undergone considerable improvement following our large experience in the world war. by transplantation of skin, cartilage, bone and fat, results have been accomplished which by ordinary plastic methods would have been impossible. fractures of the jaws are best treated by dentists and oral sur- geons whose mechanical appliances are most effective in main- taining correct alignment and approximation of fragments. 1 is unsafe to re-operate after prolonged suppuration for at least one year after healing. viable pathogenic bacteria persist in the scar, and premature operation releases them with resultant infection and failure of the operation. surgery surgery of the nose and throat.—tonsiilotomy, amputation of the projecting prominence of the enlarged tonsil, is obsolete, because it was found that the remaining deeper portion of the tonsil still acted as a source of infection. tonsillectomy (enucle- ation, that is, shelling out of the entire tonsil from its bed) 1s now universally preferred. general anaesthesia is preferable for this in children. by means of a suction tip used throughout the opera- tion, mucus and blood are constantly removed from the back of the throat and the aspiration of material into the bronchi and lungs prevented. prior to routine use of suction, lung abscess following removal of tonsils and adenoids was not uncommon. adenoids if completely removed in infancy occasionally recur in later childhood.? tonsillectomy in adults is usually performed under local anaesthesia. recovery requires more time than in children. experience has shown that chronic infections of the upper respiratory tract (of the tonsils and adenoids and also of the accessory air sinuses such as the ethmoid and frontal sinuses and antrum of highmore) lead to continual reinfection of the bronchi and lungs. therefore in every case of so-called chronic bronchitis, all foci of infection in the upper respiratory tract should be found and treated. ‘the lungs will then often heal of their own accord. use of the bronchoscope-—the recent development of bron- choscopy marks a great advance in the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary disease. the bronchoscope, a long smooth tube of suitable calibre, illuminated at its dista] end by a small hooded elec- tric lamp, is introduced through the mouth and larynx down the trachea to its bifurcation; deviation of the instrument to either side then permits further introduction and inspection of the bronchus and its smaller branches. by means of bronchoscopy the following may be accomplished: (1) removal of foreign bodics, some of which such as wooden objects are not revealed by the rodntgen ray; (2) recognition of growth, small pieces of which may be secured for miscroscopical examination and diagnosis; and (3) localisatton and treatment of lung abscesses, especially those lying close to the root of the lung. by introduction of a suitable small tube through the bronchoscope into an abscess, its puru- lent contents may be removed by suction, and appropriate anti- septics in either powdered or liquid form may be injected under control of the cye. a certain proportion of lung abscesses heal spontaneously. another group, especially those lying near the hilus, may be cured by the bronchoscopic treatment just de- scribed, while a third group, chiefly those lying in the peripheral lung tissue, finally require surgical drainage for their cure by approach and exposure through the thoracic wall and intervening lung tissue. (see surgery of ihe thorax below.) all lung abscesses should first be given the benefit of bronchoscopic treat- ment and only when this proves ineffective should operation be resorted to. after the world war quite a number of patients presenting symptoms of cough, profuse expectoration, fever and wasting, who were received at sanitaria for pulmonary tubercu- losis, eventually proved to be cases of lung abscess. mistaken diagnosis of this sort is not uncommon to-day. use of the esophagoscope—esophagoscopy is identical with bronchoscopy except that the instrument is introduced into the esophagus instead of the trachea. by means of this the following may be accomplished: (1) removal of impacted foreign bodies, (2) recognition and exact localisation of diverticula (abnormal pouches or sacculations in which food may accumulate and stag- nate) and (3) determination of the benign or malignant char- acter of strictures. intrinsic strictures of the esophagus may arise from one of three causes: (1) cardiospasm, a functional spasm of the cardia where the gullet enters the stomach; (2) cicatricial contraction of a healing or healed ulcer usually caused by acci- dental (or suicidal) swallowing of caustic alkalies or acids; and (3) narrowings from encroachment upon the calibre of the gullet by new growths usually cancerous. extrinsic causes of esopha- geal obstruction, that is, pressure upon this tube from without, may be due to aneurism of the aorta, tumours of the mediastinum 2a child whoisan habitual mouth-breather, especially while asleep, may reasonably be suspected of obstruction of the back of the nose by hypertrophied adenoid tissue. surgery and so forth, in which event the esophagoscope reveals normal conditions within this passage. surgery of the neck—local anaesthesia is much more exten- sively used than in former years for operations in this region. since the introduction of diphtheria antitoxin and intubation, the occasions for tracheotomy have greatly diminished. (up to the early eighties tracheotomy for diphtheritic laryngeal ob- struction was a common emergent procedure.) laryngectomy for intrinsic! carcinoma of the larynx affords an excellent pros- pect for permanent cure in early cases. diverticula of the esophagus lying in the neck are more easily located at operation by co-operation between bronchoscopist and surgeon, the former inserting his lighted instrument into the pouch when the latter has reached deeper laycrs of the neck from without. block dis- section of the fascia and lymph nodes of the neck is practised in conjunction with operations for carcinoma of the face and oral cavity (see cancer above). growths in this region tend to spread locally by way of the lymphatics (necropsy in cases of cancer in this region rarely show extension to distant parts of the body). hence it is logical to exert every means of preventing local recurrence as just indicated. rupture of the brachial plexus (of nerves) is most commonly seen as birth palsy. expleration and exposure of nerves to the arm as they emerge from the spinal column at the root of the neck, reveals one of two conditions: either the nerves have been torn across at some point between the spinal column and where they pass down to the arm under the clavicle, or their roots have been torn out of the spinal cord. in the former event, the torn ends may be united with good hope of ultimate recovery. in the latter case, the injury is irreparable. surgical exposure offers the only means of determining which condition exists. phrenicotomy (division of the phrenic nerve in the neck) is said to paralyse the corresponding half of the diaphragm; it is sometimes practised in conjunction with other means of putting one lung at rest (see thoracic surgery; also surgery of heart and luncs). rentgenograms of structures in the neck may dem- onstrate such conditions as narrowing and distortion of the tra- chea by compression from enlargements of the thyroid gland, diverticula of the esophagus, accessory ribs (occasionally causing neuralgia of the brachial plexus) and fracture or discase of the cervical vertebral structures. (j.c.a.g.) surgery of the thyroid gland.—the mortality of operation on the thyroid gland compares favourably with that of any in major surgery. statistics show that, computing operations, a mortality rate of 0-95°% has been attained, and computing cases, a rate of 1-2%. the diseases of the thyroid gland amenable to surgery may be grouped under six headings: (1) diffuse colloid thyroid, (2) adenoma without hyperthyroidism, (3) adehoma with hyper- thyroidism, (4) exophthalmic goitre, (5) thyroiditis and (6) malignancy. diffuse colloid goitre is a physiologic enlargement of the thyroid gland occurring in adolescence, caused by insufti- ciency of iodin and cured by the administration of iodin or thy- roxin, unless colloid goitre is associated with adenoma, or py its size causes pressure symptoms, operative treatment is not indi- cated. adenoma without hyperthyroidism should be treated surgically, partly for cosmetic purposes when the goitre is un- sightly and for the relief of pressure symptoms, and partly be- cause a certain proportion of patients subsequently develop hy- perthyroidism. the operative risk is less than 0:5%, and the operation results in cure in practically 100% of cases. if adenoma of the thyroid gland 1s complicated by hyperthy- roidism, the onset is usually so insidious that operative treat- ment is not sought until marked degeneration of important organs has taken place; this increases the operative risk and diminishes the chance for complete cure. the operative mortality in this stage has been found to be between 2 and 4%. operation results in cure in about 83% and in marked improvement in another 5%. exophthalmic goitre is a constitutional disease apparently due to an excessive (probably abnormal) secretion of the thyroid 1 intrinsic implies that the growth is still within the larynx, in contradistinction to extrinsic when the laryngeal growth has ex- tended and involved soft parts of the neck as well. 69 i gland, and while its cause is unknown, treatment aims to dimin- ish the activity of the gland. asa result of increased knowledge of the disease and of the dangers incident to operative treatment, and since patients with exophthalmic goitre are coming to opera- tion earlier, before the development of changes in other organs, the surgical mortality has been reduced to practically 1% in terms of operalion and 1-74°% in terms of cases. the natural fluctuating course of the disease makes it difficult to evaluate any form of treatment, unless sufficient time has elapsed to preclude the probability of recurrence. study of the results about five years after operation shows that 90% of the patients were living, 79° considered themselves cured or greatly improved by the operation, 8°% were improved but showed evi- dences of hyperthyroidism or its effect, and 3% were not bene- fited. on analysis, lack of improvement could be traced definitely to three causes: {1) incompleteness of operation, (2) the long duration of hyperthyroidism before operation and (3) failure to climinate foci of infection after operation. thyroiditis is rare, and operative treatment is indicated only in the tuberculous and suppurative types. malignancy occurs as sarcoma, carcinoma, malignant adeno- ma and malignant papilloma, in the ratio of one malignant case in 57, and the prospect of cure by operation and intensive treat- ment with radium and rentgen ray varies with the type of malignant disease. (c.hem:*) surgery of the breast.—cancer of the breast still takes its yearly toll of thousands. statistics indicate that in cases where the axillary lymphatics are not as yet involved, prospects of cure are far more favourable. as said elsewhere, periodic physical exam- ination, annually at least, is our best means of protection. in doubtful cases of tumour of the breast, the surgeon removes a small section of the growth for rapid microscopical examination (by the so-called frozen-section method) and receives a report within a few minutes. local excision or radical amputation is accordingly carried out depending on whether the growth has proved benign or malignant. small benign tumours of the breast may be removed without cosmetic deformity, either through an incision within the vermillion border of the mammilla (the pig- mented area surrounding the nipple) or through a curved incision corresponding to the lower fold of the breast. surgery of the thorax.—rentgen-ray diagnosis of disease in this region has made great advances during the last 15 years. while nearly all the conditions about to be cited could be clini- cally recognised in earlier times, the additional knowledge fur- nished by the rentgen ray is of such great value that it js prac- tically indispensable. lack of space forbids detailed discussion; however, among the more important conditions are: lesions (fractures, chronic inflammations or tumours) of ribs, spinal column, breastbone (sternum) or collar bone (clavicle); pneu- monia, lung abscess, bronchiectasis, empyema (recent or old), tuberculosis, tumours, either originating in the lung or secondary io cancer elsewhere (for example, secondary to sarcoma of a bone or carcinoma of the breast), paralysis of the diaphragm, hernia of the diaphragm permitting partial escape of abdominal viscera into the thoracic cavity, enlargement of the heart, effu- sion in the pericardial sac, aneurism of the aortic arch, stricture and diverticulum of the esophagus, tumour of the mediastinum and, lastly, foreign bodies lodged in gullet or air passages by accidental swallowing or inhalation or introduced into the thorax as the result of external violence following shooting, stabbing, explosions and so forth. safeguards in operations upon the opened chest.—the thorax may be considered a bellows containing two collapsible bags, the lungs, between which lies a flexible partition, the mediastinum. if a sizable opening be made in one wall of this bellows, the ex- posed lung collapses, the to-and-fro action (respiration) goes on, but the amount of air drawn in and blown out of the remaining lung is greatly diminished, because on inspiration the mediasti- num is drawn over toward the uninjured lung, and on expiration it is pushed over toward the opened side of the chest. to afford an adequate exchange of air a slightly increased pressure of air or diluted oxygen in the upper respiratory tract (mouth and nose) 692 prevents entire collapse of the lung and provides adequate aeration. (see also discussion of differential pressure under anaesthesia above.) in emergencies, in the absence of differen- tial pressure apparatus, this mediastinal flutter may be controlled by grasping and steadying the lung of the opened side; this pre- vents excursions of the mediastinum and permits air to be drawn into the lung of the opposite side. (for many years australian surgcons have employed this measure when removing echinococ- cus cysts of the lungs, and more recently in the world war the french also used the same procedure when operating for removal of forcign bodies such as bullets and shell fragments.) tight closure of the chest wall at the end of the operation is all that is requisite. compression pneumothorax may follow a smart compression not quite severe enough to crush the chest. rupture of lung or bronchial tissue permits valvular escape of air into the pleural cavity with each respiration. as air accumulates, it not only compresses the lung on the affected side but also displaces the heart and mediastinum towards the opposite side and this inter- feres with the function of the other lung as well. permanent suc- tion applied by an aspirating needle thrust into the pleural cavity will control this condition (the blood-clots, sealing tears in lung tissue, are found to be especially tenacious). sometimes rupture of bronchi from the same cause (compression of the thorax) re- sults in escape of air into the mediastinal tissues instead of the pleural cavity, and by continued accumulation produces sub- cutaneous pufling of the neck and face. in a case of this sort a wound may be established in the episternal notch and a glass suction-cup arranged to connect it with a vacuum pump (tiegel). in a few hours the condition subsides. empyema of the pleural cavity is a common sequel of pneu- monia. experience with large numbers of cases of empyema among the united states soldiers in the winter of 1917-8, during the great influenza epidemic, established a rule that while cloudy fluid should be removed by aspiration as often as necessary, actual operation should be deferred until pus has become thick and creamy. nothing has been lost by such temporisation. the increased mortality from premature surgical drainage of accu- mulations of infected pleural fluid conclusively demonstrated this point. for the technique of open and closed drainage, vari- ous suction methods, sterilisation of the infected plcural cavity by dakin’s and other antiseptic solutions, and the use of “ blow- ing bottles ’’ to encourage expansion of the lung, the reader is referred to articles on empyema in the surgical literature. most empyema cavities gradually close as the lung expands, finally reaching the chest wall. in some, however, this expansion does not take place and a persistent cavity lined with granula- tions remains. the surgical obliteration of such cavities! con- stitutes a problem im itself. decortication of thickened pleura covering partly collapsed lung (to permit it to expand) is rarely feasible, because dense adhesions with underlying lung tissue obliterate any plane of cleavage. consequently mobilisation of the rigid chest wall 1s the method of choice. removal (re- section) of ribs from that part of the chest wall directly overlying the persistent cavity permits the soft tissues remaining to be brought into easy coaptation with the underlying lung. for details of operative procedure the reader is referred to textbooks and monographs on thoracic surgery. lung abscess.—vf medical and bronchoscopic treatment have not been successful, surgical drainage is effected (usually under local anaesthesia)? through an opening in the chest wall, by re- section of a sufficient number of ribs (in part) to provide proper space for necessary manipulation. if pleural adhesions, that is, adhesions of lung to chest wall are present, the operation pro- ceeds, the abscess is located by a long aspirating needle (upon withdrawal of pus), then, the needle left in place as a guide, the 1 rigid-walled granulating cavities will not heal. one or another of their sides must be mobilised so that coaptation of lining granula- tions is obtained. the same principle applies in the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis with persistent sinuses. 2 this is safer than general anaesthesia which may permit pus from the abscess to enter uninfected regions of the lung instead of being coughed out as usual by the conscious patient. surgery vascular lung tissue is slowly divided with a cautery and the opening is deepened until the abscess is entered. a large drain- age tube is then inserted. if no adhesions are present (between lung and chest wall) and drainage of the abscess is not impera- tive, which is rarely the case, it is safer to wait for several days until adhesions artificially produced by the surgeon are firm, after which drainage of the abscess may be established as just described. for other features of surgery of the lung and such methods of inducing collapse as extrapleural thoracoplasty, phrenicotomy and artificial pneumothorax. operations on the esophagus—the intrathoracic esophagus lies in front of the vertebral column between the lungs and along- side of the aorta. for years, cancer of this structure was con- sidered inoperable. in the light of present experience it can be stated that it is technically feasible to remove the growth, pro- vided it is in an operable stage, but most patients come to the operating table too late: the cancer is found to have broken through the esophageal wall and to have involved adjacent vital structures so that its complete removal is impossible. generally the patient has disregarded his difficulty in swallowing for months and only sought surgical relief when facing actual starvation. thus, through ignorance, precious time has been lost when the growth might have been found removable. improved results may confidently be expected in the cure of this otherwise fatal malady. its palliative treatment consists in establishing a gas- tric fistula (gastrostomy) through which the paticnt is fed by tube, as is customary in cases of benign strictures of the esophagus. surgery of the abdomen.—to no region of the body do the introductory statements regarding advances in surgery apply more pertinently than to the abdominal cavity. intra-abdominal diseases which formerly masqueraded under a number of different names are now recognised to be one and the same thing. in n-ray investigation of the alimentary tract, suspensions of barium sul- phate are administered by mouth in the form of opaque meals which fill the stomach, outlining this organ and then, as time goes on, pass into the small and finally into the large intestine. the large intestine, however, may be more clearly depicted by means of a barium enema, and this method is preferable when chronic intestinal obstruction is suspected; the fluid barium meal taken by mouth loses much of its water as it collects above a point of narrowing, and so is converted into a putty-like mass which may block a narrow opening, thus suddenly changing a chronic into an acute intestinal obstruction.2. the graham meth- od of depicting the gallbladder depends upon the functional ability of this organ to concentrate bile. the sodium salt of phenoltetraiodophthalein administered by mouth is excreted in the bile and concentrated in the gallbladder. aberrations from the normal picture, when considered with the history and clinical findings, in many instances permit the accurate diagnosis of cases in which it was previously impossible. in the urinary tract, so- lutions of sodium iodide enable one to see the outlines of the blad- der, ureters and pelves of the kidneys (see urolocy). free gas in the peritoneal cavity occurring in the course of disease or fol- lowing injury, indicates that an opening is present somewhere in | the walls of stomach or intestines. for example, in cases of acute perforation of a gastric or duodenal ulcer, rentgenograms taken with the patient upright will show a thin crescentic layer of gas beneath the diaphragm and above the liver. such a finding may also occur after non-penetrating injury of the abdomen with rupture of intestine.4 it is a difficult matter at times to decide whether or not to operate in the presence of these abdominal contusions, and such an x-ray finding is of the utmost value. on the other hand, if an exploratory operation be decided upon, under conditions where the rentgenogram is not available, when the peritoneum is exposed, the wound is filled with sterile water so that when the peritoneum is nicked, the escape of gas may be seen immediately, $ such a complication is most undesirable because operations for rclicf of acute intestinal obstruction are always associated with higher mortality and graver complications than those for chronic obstruction. * air anywhere within the body is absorbed within a few hours. surgery in all cases in which the abdominal cavity is opened surgically for relief of non-suppurative disease, it is customary for the sur- geon to introduce his hand into other regions than that imme- diately concerned. this procedure requires but a few moments and is of the utmost value in determining the presence or ab- sence of other intra-abdominal lesions. naturally in the presence of acute or chronic suppuration, manual exploration of other regions is unwise for fear of spreading infection. hernia.—the abdominal wall may be considered to have three layers: (a) a smooth, glistening, internal lining of no intrinsic strength, the peritoneum; (6) a musculo-aponeurotic wall of great strength which has points of potential weakness (in the groins and in the region of the umbilicus, for example); and (c) the overlying elastic skin. a bulging of the distensible peritoneum through such an unduly weak opening in the strong musculo-apo- neurotic wall, permits the protrusion of a peritoneal sac contain- ing structures normaliy lying in the abdomen such as omentum and intestines. the potential danger of a hernia is the possi- bility of strangulation of its contents by the inelastic ring at the neck of the sac. operation for the repair of a hernia consists in exposure of the parts, opening of the sac, replacement of the sac’s contents within the abdominal cavity, closure of the sac at its neck, amputation of its now redundant portion and, last but not least, closure of the opening in the musculo-aponeurotic layer. the principle of overlapping tissue layers of the musculo- urotic wall, ike buttoning a double-breasted coat, is generally accepted at present. in large hernias especially those occurring in scars from pre- vious laparotomy, the use of fascia lata from the outer side of the thigh, either as strips for suture material, when the opening can be closed without undue tension) or in sheets (when the edges of the hernial ring cannot be readily approximated), is gaining general adoption. the reader is cautioned not to consider the subject of hernia as covered by the above elementary remarks, and particularly not to draw conclusions from any single case until he has familiarised himself with all contributory and com- plicating factors of this field by a study of the technical literature. (tc. ag) surgery of the stomach and duodenum (see also appendicitis).— each year the surgical treatment of diseases of the stomach and duodenum shows, in some respects, definite progress. much of the recent advance in the efficient management of gastric and duodenal disorders has been due to: (a) increasing ability to detect existing disease process; (0) better interpretation of the significance of the clinical findings; (¢) better judgment in decid- ing on the management of the complicated cases; (d) quick recog- nition and control of scrious complications, particularly gastro- intestinal stasis, and (e) increasing experience in the operative treatment of surgical lesions. the diagnosis of benign lesions of the stomach and duodenum can be correctly made by a proper correlation of clinical and rent- genologic findings in about 96% of cases, and of gastric carcinoma in about 98%. the indications for operation in cases of uncom- plicated chronic or recurring duodenal ulcer are positive when the symptoms cannot be relieved or controlled by medical means. in cases of gastric ulcer, operation is always indicated unless ade- quate contraindications exist, and in gastric carcinoma, explora- tion is advisable if the disease 1s not obviously irremovable or incurable. there are various methods of treating ulcers because lesions of the duodenum unquestionably heal spontaneously under various forms of medical regimen; others continue into a chronic state which can only be relieved by surgical measures. the most com- monly performed operation is gastro-entcrostomy. this proce- dure insures a permanent cure in between 80 and 90% of the cases, and such a high percentage of cures accounts for such frequent recourse to this operation. there is, however, a certain per- centage of failures, so that other types of operation have been devised. the more important of these are operations at the out- let of the stomach which remove the ulcer and part of the pyloric muscle, and provide for adequate drainage of the stomach. recently the removal of part of the stomach has been advocated 693 to prevent recurrence of ulceration. this operation has gained very little popularity because of its radical character, and because the general principle of removing a considerable part of the stomach for a lesion which is not in the stomach does not seem reasonable. in chronic gastric ulcer prolonged medical treatment is justified only when surgical treatment is absolutely contraindicated by the age or the condition of the patient. as a temporary expedi- ent, however, medical treatment may be not only justifiable but of marked value in improving the general condition when the surgical risk has been aggravated by repeated hemorrhages, extensive subacute local inflammatory changes, or toxemia from gastric retention. the danger of malignant degeneration of gas- tric ulcer should not be minimised, and it becomes imperative, therefore, to make a real effort to remove the lesion. this can be done either by local excision or by partial gastrectomy; and of the various procedures in common use excision of the ulcer com- bined with gastro-enterostomy and resection of a considerable portion of the stomach are the most widely advocated. the results of this form of treatment are excellent. the successful treatment of gastric carcinoma depends on early diagnosis because of the insidious onset of the disease. those which develop at the pyloric end of the stomach are most suitable for removal. they give the best prospects of cure and, fortunately, cause symptoms carly. in almost half of the cases in which operation ts advisable the growth can be removed and a prospect of cure assured. in over 50°%% of the cases in which the growth is removed and tn which the disease is confined to the stomach there is an assurance of at least a three-year cure. in the treatment of acute perforation of duodenal or gastric ulcers the patient’s life may be almost certainly saved if operation is car- ried out in the first few hours after perforation has occurred. closure of the perforation is the only procedure necessary to save the patient’s hfe; but if his condition warrants it at the time, other procedures may be combined with it to protect him against ulceration in the future. operations on the stomach are also carried out for benign tumours, occasionally for foreign bodies (usually swallowed by insane persons), and occasionally for the curious hair-ball tumours which form in the stomachs of persons who are in the habit of biting and swallowing hair. (d.c.b.*) surgery of the colon.—the colon is animportant part of the in- testinal tract,and yet any part orall of it may be sacrificed without scrious consequences and without interfering greatly with the comfort of the patient. when it is removed its physiologic func- tions are compensated for to a certain degree. the many lesions affecting the colon may be grouped according to the nature of the condition, and for convenience of study as follows: (a) con- genital deformities, such as extreme dilation of the colon resulting in hirschsprung’s disease or giant colon, and bands or kinks, which may have resulted from abnormal development; (6) in- flammatory lesions (ulcerative colitis, tuberculosis, diverticulitis and actinomycosis); (¢) benign tumours, either polypi, which occur singly or more often as multiple small tumours and some- times as a diffuse polyposis, or, occasionally, adenoma of the lower colon, both seeming to have a tendency to develop into malignant tumours, and (¢d) malignant tumours, largely cancers. cancer of the colon is common, and in the early stages can be removed satisfactorily. of the different tumours which may occur malignant tumours hold first place in importance because they are by far the most common tumours of the colon; operation affords the only pros- pect of cure, and surgical treatment is frequently difheult. the symptoms are usually manifested sufficiently early and are usually those of obstruction and of anaemia. the anaemia result- ing from cancer in the cecum and ascending colon is frequently very marked, and may be so severe as to give rise to an opinion that the disease is incurable. various methods have been devised for carrying out more extensive operations on the colon for malig- nant disease with the maximum of safety. most of these are based on carrying out the operation in several stages. the pros- pects of cure in cancer of the colon are higher than in cancer in many other situations. about 50° of the cases of cancer of the 694 colon are found in the cecum and ascending portion, about 10% in the hepatic flexure, about 8 % in the splenic tlexure, about 13 % in the descending colon, and about 20% in the transverse colon. other diseases of the colon occasionally require operative treat- ment when they interfere seriously with its function, or resist medical treatment. the operation may consist of the removal of any part or all of the colon. surgery of the rectum and anus.—the skin about the anus is subject to lesions, more painful than serious, varying from slight cracks to fissures. sometimes cleanliness and hot applications will cure them, but the ulcerated forms require excision. fis- tula (fistula-in-ano) usually commences with inflammation of one of the crypts that surround the anus. the infection is trapped by the swelling and burrows along the side of the anal canal. an abscess may form in the loose tissue and may rupture into the rectum further up or externally on the skin near the anus. tuberculosis is not nearly so common a cause as was supposed. the fistula must be opened, curetted and packed so that it heals from within outward. usually this procedure cannot be carried out until the external sphincter has been cut. hemorrhoids may be cither external or internal, or both. the external ones are covered by skin, the internal by mucous mem- brane. they are best treated by excision and ligature. the cau- tery is used for destroying internal hemorrhoids, but the painful after-effects make its use undesirable for external hemorrhoids. in certain cases injections of medicaments directly into the hemorrhoids are effective. stricture results from injury, such as burning or unskilful operations, from infection, syphilis, tuberculosis and from new growths, especially cancer. incision and gradual dilatation may cure, or the constricted zone may have to be resected and the ends anastomosed. of all cancers in the colon, most ocevr in the rectum. early diagnosis and prompt excision afford the only chance of cure. the operation is often performed in two stages. the signs of cancer of the rectum are similar to those of hemorrhoids, and in many cases of cancer the patient has undergone an operation for this apparently innocent manifestation of a serious disease. it is becoming a routine to examine the rectum and sigmoid with a proctoscope in all cases of hemorrhoids. (w.j.m.) surgery of the liver and bile passages symptoms of gall- stones are often mistaken for those of gastric ulcer. commonly, stones first form in the gallbladder and their presence is char- acterised by attacks of pain and vomiting without fever. a stone in any hollow organ of the body predisposes to subsequent infec- tion, and gallstones follow this rule. as time goes on, stones are also found in the common duct (a much more serious condition), and jaundice is frequently observed following attacks of pain. there is a definite association between disease of the bile passages and acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis. the diagnostic value of the graham test in pathologic conditions of the gallbladder has been outlined above in discussing x-ray diagnosis of intra- abdominal lesions. cholecystectomy, that is, removal of the gall- bladder, is the operation of choice when not accompanied by too much risk. cholecystostomy, or opening and drainage of the gallbladder, affords temporary relief. it is an excellent measure under local anaesthesia for desperately sick patients who, how- ever, generally require a secondary cholecystectomy for perma- nent cure. conditions requiring operation on the common duct are of far more serious import than those on the gallbladder, gen- erally speaking. the deep jaundice which so often accompanies obstruction of the common duct may lead to postoperative chole- mic oozing, a most scrious complication. transfusion and the administration of calcium salts often but not invariably control this hemorrhagic condition which if unchecked results fatally. stones may exist in the gallbladder and common duct without causing symptoms and the remarks made above apply only in the majority of instances. surgery of the spleen—the spleen is a very vascular organ. its removal (splenectomy) for control of hemorrhage as the result of traumatic or spontaneous rupture, is an old, recognised pro- cedure. splenectomy is of benefit in the early stage of banti’s disease and in certain cascs of hemolytic jaundice. in pernicious surgery anemia it is of little value as the remissions following splenec- tomy are but little longer than those after transfusion. of recent years a form of purpura has been recognised in which the blood platelet count is low and fragility of the red blood cells is markedly increased. spontaneous oozing of blood from all mucous mem- branes as well as typical subcutaneous hemorrhages whose blue col- our first gave the condition its name, are accompanied by rapidly progressing anemia which soon leads to death. the almost in- stantaneous cessation of oozing immediately following splencc- tomy (occurring even before closure of the abdominal wound) is one of the most dramatic events in modern surgery. tranfusion before and afterwards is employed to sustain life and not to control the disease. gynecologic surgery —refinements in operative technique have kept pace with those in other branches of surgery. acute inflammations of the pelvis are conservatively treated. indeed in many cases, pelvic inflammation may enjoy complete symp- tomatic recovery following sufficiently prolonged rest in bed and appropriate local measures. in the acute stage, if abscesses form they are drained, but otherwise nothing more radical is done. operative removal of carcinoma of the uterine body gives excel- lent results. regarding treatment of carcinoma of the cervix, a fur more deadly form of the disease, there are two schools of thought at the present writing. one still favours operative treat- ment, while the other maintains that radiotherapy (by radium or the x-ray in massive doses) gives equally good late results. regarding carcinoma of the cervix in stages beyond the possi- bility of operative intervention, there can be no question that radium is the means now universally adopted. the foul dis- charge dries up and the local tumour disappears and, although permanent cure is rare, the patient’s existence is made infinitely more tolerable. exposure of the ovaries to x-rays stops men- struation, and is often used in controlling excessive uterine bleed- ing. the rubin test for determining patency of the uterine body and fallopian tubes in cases of sterility is a recent innovation. when this test was introduced, air was injected through the cervic uteri and its presence or absence within the peritoneal cavity determined by the x-ray. later experience showed that with a manometer to gauge the amount of air pressure employed, equally accurate determination could be made and x-ray control could be dispensed with. the use of foreign proteins in the treat- ment of pelvic inilammation is still in the experimental stage. surgery of the extremities —in the treatment of fractures (see ortilopaedic surgery) the time-honoured plaster cast still has its place. however, maintenance of proper alignment of fractures by suspension and traction has come into deserved repute, notably in fractures of the humerus close to the shoulder joint, and in the revived hodgen’s method for fractures of the femur. skeletal traction, a further refinement, consists in metal- lic appliances (such as steinmann pens, sharp-pointed tongs like ice-tongs, or finochietto stirrups) which are attached to the bones at some suitable point below the site of fracture. by this means shortenings may be overcome which could not possibly be corrected by traction upon moleskin adhesive strips applied to the skin. these methods limit indications for open reduction! to those cases with interposition of soft parts between the frag- ments (see also fractures). disuse stiffens joints and tendon sheaths. consequently the manifold physiotherapeutic meas- ures ? which encourage active motion within the limits of pain, have their distinct use in promoting and accelerating return of function (see also orthopaedic surgery). amputation of the lower extremity, if possible, is so devised as to furnish stumps capable of bearing weight directly on their ends instead of on the bony prominences of the joint next above the site of amputation (see descriptions of the hirsch-bunge method in surgical literature). early active mobilisation after 1 an opcration for exposing displaced fragments, correcting their alignment and retaining correction by suture, metal bands, vanadium steel plates held in place by self-tapping screws of the same material, and so forth (see also fractures). 2 warmth by baking whirlpool baths, diathermy (see electro- therapeutics) and, natural or artificial heliotherapy, and so forth. surinam—surveying operations on joints (for example, after operations for removal of the internal semilunar cartilage of the kneejoint} gives excellent immediate functional results and is being more and more widely practised. the willems treatment of acute joint suppurations, if instituted early, preserves function and constitutes a notable advance. in former times, the most that could be hoped for was a stiff joint after weeks and even months of precarious convalescence. with the willems method, generous longitudinal openings are made on either side of the affected joint, but no drainage tubing, gauze or other material is introduced into the joint cavity; there is no irrigation, but simply active motion cvery two hours which permits the free escape of purulent secretions and preserves func- tion. as time goes on, the secretions gradually lose their puru- lent character and finally become clear, and the wounds close of themselves leaving a free healed joint. the method is of no avail when infection has spread beyond the lining synovial membrane and has involved the soft tissues of the joint outside. infections of the hand and fingers comprise an important and relatively neglected field of surgery. the different forms of in- fection should be recognised early, the proper and least disabling drainage incisions should be made, and voluntary motion should be begun at the earliest suitable moment, long before the drainage wounds themselves have begun to close. in no region does the retention of pus more rapidly destroy essential structures than in the hand and fingers. in conclusion the reader is again reminded that a cursory re- view of surgery is all the limitations of this article permit, and that almost no justifiable conclusions regarding any single surgi- cal incident in the reader’s experience can be drawn by him from the contents of this article, because of innumerable, relative, qualifying surgical factors which may exist, unknown to the lay mind. the mutual dissatisfaction of lawyer and medical expert so often seen in the courtroom furnishes an excellent example of this. it requires years to train a surgeon, and one cannot con- dense all the knowledge so acquired into a few minutes’ exposition of the subject. see also heart and lung, surgery of; orthopaedic surgery. uc aga surinam: see guiana, dutch. surveying (sec 26.142).—as a result of the stationary character of the world war on the western front, surveying generally acquired a greatly increased importance from a mili- tary point of view, and the introduction of air photography (see aerial survey) has given the surveyor a new and powerful method for use in official circumstances. in exploratory sur- veying the conditions have been simplified by the introduction of wireless telegraphy, for the determination of longitude, which is now little more difficult than taking a latitude. in the more regular branches of the subject the principal matter demanding attention is the development of accurate methods of levelling, particularly of precise or geodetic levelling. i. surveying in war time topographical surveys have long been well known adjuncts to military operations. all other classes of land surveying, 2. ¢., geodetic triangulation, levelling and large scale surveying, now take their part in modern scientific warfare. the trigonometrical control—the extent of the western front made it necessary to provide a homogeneous and complete system of triangulation upon which to base the maps and the local surveys called for. five separate and distinct triangula- tions already covered this area before the outbreak of war, and many of the stations of the triangulations had been destroyed or built over before the war and many were destroyed during its progress. numbers of new stations had, therefore, to be established. this patched and reconstructed triangulation stood then as a basis for all the military surveys of the western front. provision of maps.—a map of accuracy and adequate scale was required so that administrative arrangements, lines of fire and trench systems could be shown upon it. such a map did not exist except in the belgian area, and elsewhcre had to be made. the earlier british war surveys were made upon the plane- 695 table, on a scale of 1/20,000, and were completed up to the british trench lines. by means of air-photography, and the manuscript sheets of the cadastral communal surveys, reliable maps, of territory in british occupation and of all that portion of northeastern france occupied by the german armies were eventually compiled. the trench zone was mapped on a scale of t/10,000, and forward and back areas at 1/20,000. in all 6,00c sq. m. were surveyed. for the use of large scale maps in trench warfare it must be possible to read off, at sight, the co-ordinates of any desired point from a “ grid” or network of lines printed on the map. for ease and accuracy of reference the ‘ grid”’ should be in squares, the sides of which can be divided decimally by eye. the artillery often desire co-ordinates of the same accuracy as the surveyor—i. e., on the scale of nature. the system adopted should, therefore, be based upon the co-ordinates used by the surveyor, with an easy form of abbreviation to be used by all arms to define map positions. accuracy of bearing from any one position must be maintained together with as near an approach to linear accuracy as possible, whilst the system must allow of extension over the whole area of operations. an orthomorphic projection was therefore desirable, and for the conduct of sur- veys constantly in progress it was equally important. compu- tations must be cut down to the minimum. this can be done by working on a projection in which the position on the ground and the position on the map can be calculated in one process without sensible error. surveys for artillery purposes.—other things being equal, that artillery will dominate its adversary which has the quickest and most accurate knowledge of hostile battery positions and which can open most quickly an accurate and unexpected fire upon them. the accurate survey of the relative positions of gun and target is essential. the positions of british heavy batteries were, therefore, fixed with a theodolite, each battery was supplied with a chart or “ artillery board ’’ on which the map was pasted down, in scc- tions, upon a zinc or three-ply wood surface, and special ‘ bear- ing pickets’ were inserted in numbers in the battery zone. the bearings from these pickets to surrounding objects, suitable as reference objects, were tabulated and distributed. the positions of hostile batteries were also surveyed with as much dispatch and accuracy as possible by one or other, or both, of the following methods:— (cz) intersection of three or more rays observed upon the flash of discharge, the reflection in the sky of this flash, or, upon the smoke puff from the muzzle, an operation, commonly known as flash spot- ting, which, independent of the map, gave very good results but de- pended for success upon good visibility. (b) sound-ranging (g. v.)—a method which is naturally unaffected by bad visibility, but is put out of action by a moderate wind blowing from base to gun and ts interfered with by any high wind. as in the case of flash spotting, a good telephone connection to the artillery headquarters is essential. ii. surveying by air-photography optical principles.—provided that the optical axis of the camera is vertical at the moment of exposure, the resulting photograph of a flat level area will be an accurate plan at a scale determined by the equation. f — ee where f is the focal length, h is the height of the camera above the ground at the moment of exposure, s is the representative fraction of the scale. such photographs will be called vertical photographs. asa rule, however, the photograph is not exactly vertical, but the axis is tilted at an angle to the vertical. the photograph then becomes an inclined perspective view (sce fig. 1.) if the direction and magnitude of the tilt of the axis were recorded at the moment of exposure it is obvious that the photograph could be projected optically or photographically on to the plane of the map, although it would remain unfixed in position and orientation. if the direction and magnitude of tilt are unknown, then the projection on to the required plane, or 696 of four surveyed points on the ground and on the photograph, which is then also fixed in position and orientation. two matters of importance are that (1) straight lines upon a plane remain straight lines upon any perspective view of that plane; (2) at any point, on any incline perspective view, the scale is not the same in directions parallel to and perpendicular to the axis of tilt. construction of the a{ap.—in order to explain how a map is built up, wholly or partly, from air-photographs it is advisable to take some illustrative cases. the simplest case is that in which it is desired to produce a map of an area in which a suffi- cient trigonometrical control already exists and of which there is available a complete collection of cadastral plans, which are, however, much out of date. ground features are low and gently undulating, extreme difference of altitudes being two or three hundred feet only. in such a case topography can be brought up to date from air-photographs taken with the axis as nearly vertical as possible, and fitted upon the cadastral framework by one or other of the methods described below. when this is complete the map is contoured in the field, names are added and the topography examined for omissions or mistakes. the most difficult case arises when the area to be mapped is rugged and mountainous, and the inhabitants hostile: the positions and negative (which shows ground reversed } fic. 1.—diagram showing how an air-photograph becomes an inclined perspective view. heights of a few peaks in it, visible from accessible ground, have been fixed trigonometrically, but no reliable map exists. as a preliminary measure, oblique photographs are taken in the air from a variety of points of view. the positions of the camera in space are calculated, and from measurements on each photograph a number of rays are drawn to noteworthy points in the valleys and on the hills. positions and heights are thus determined for a subsidiary control. with the axis vertical a series of photographs of valleys and of watersheds are taken, pasted together and fitted to the control. when the map has been thus built up, form-lines are added from the oblique photographs, based upon the fixed heights. in most air-photo surveys diffi- culties will be intermediate between the foregoing two cases, applications of atr-photography.—in any particular survey air-photographs may be used, then, for any or all of the fol- lowing processes, viz.: (1) air-photo control, (2) air-photo topography, (3) air-photo contouring. in taking vertical photographs for air-photo control t# fairly flat country, exposures are so regulated as to ensure a substantial overlap, generally amounting to 50° at least. each successive photograph may therefore be fitted to its predecessor, and lines or traverses of photographs may be mounted and sealed between fixed points. any two or more traverses of different and inde- pendent lines may be made to intersect over some topographical object, the position of which may be determined as the simple or weighted mean of the individual positions from each traverse. traverses may also be made to converge and end upon some pre- arranged and hitherto unfixed object. this method has given fairly accurate results in flat country on the scale of 1/40,000, and is dependent upon the ability of the pilot to maintain an even keel and a constant height. - : 7 surveying “ rectification, ’’ is secured by comparing the relative positions in broken and hilly country differences of altitude must be taken into account. the use of each photograph is thus limited to the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles and to fixing the positions of new points by intersections from two or more photographs. where this principle is employed oblique photographs are preferred as covering larger area and allowing greater refinement in the measurement of vertical angles. where the area to be mapped contains a sufficiently close control the filling in of topographical detail is more etsily done from vertical than from oblique photographs, providing that the area in question is not markedly hilly. the scale on which photographs are taken may be larger or smaller than that of the map, but it must be sufficiently large to allow of clear identification of detail. the area to be mapped is photographed from a pre- arranged height in strips allowing for an overlap in all directions. much depends upon the training of the pilot in maintaining his height and his overlap. it is usual to arrange for a mechani- ww d fic, 2.—diagram illustrating the graphic method of transferring detail from photo to map. cal control of exposures regulated according to the ground speed of the aeroplane. detail plotting —the plotting of detail from air photographs would be simple if the axis of the camera could be maintained in a vertical position. it would then be necessary only to bring the photograph to the scale of the map. no means of ensuring this verticality has, as yet, been evolved. it often becomes necessary, therefore, to fit photographs individually upon the control poiats. this can be done graphically or optically by the camera lucida, or by the enlarging camera. (1). the graphic method depends upon the principle that as straight lines on one plane remain straight lines on any perspective of that plane the position of a point which lies upon the intersec- tion of two linescommon to the ground and to the photograph may be readily determined. within narrow limits the proportional compass set to the difference of scale between map and photo- graph at this point may be used to fix additional points. it is more accurate, however, to maintain the straight line principle and to cover the map and photograph with a “ grid ” of corre- sponding lines, as in fig. 2. the photograph is mounted on a sheet of paper; a, b, c, d, and a, b, c, d are four points the positions of which are known and are also identifiable on the photograph. subsidiary common points at oo are established by drawing the diagonals, and four subsidiary quadrilaterals may then be formed by drawing lines through oo from vv and ww—the intersections of the prolonged sides of the quadrilaterals. the same principle may be applied to any polygons formed by joining up any number of points (more than four) which are fixed on the ground and are identifi- able on the photograph. detail to any extent desired may be sketched in by eye. a useful method of plotting, known as the four-point method, is as follows (fig. 3): since the cross ratios of four points which lie upon a straight line are the same upon any perspective view of that line, we can readily plot the positions of a fifth point (s) if we know the positions of four points a, b, c, d. surveying let a, b, c, d, be four known points on the photograph and a, b, c, d their positions on the map, and let s be a point on the photograph, the position of which on the map is to be found. join ab, ac, as and ad, ab, ac and ad. lay a piece of paper with a straight edge, in any position cutting the lines ab in b’, ac ia c’ as in s’ in ad in d’ and mark these cutting pointson the paper. now lay the paper strip on the map and fit it upon the lines ab, ac and ad, so that b’, c’ and d’ lie upon these lines. mark on the map the position of a point s’ opposite the mark s’ on the paper strip. join as’. then s, the position of point s, upon the map, lics upon the line as’. repeat this proceeding from b, c or d, and an- other line bs’, cs’ or ds’, will be secured, the intersection of which with as’ will define the position of s. (2) the camera lucida (see 5.104) has been used extensively for plotting. (3) graphic and optical methods are tedious and lengthy compared with a photo- graphic rectification, the ordinary enlarging camera can be made to answer the purpose with little modification. a coincidence can be obtained between the four control points on the map and on the photograph, and a “ rectified print may be obtained. ground photographic surveying —assuming that a photo- graph is a true perspective view, that the plate was vertical when exposed, and that the horizon line and focal length of the lens are known, it is clearly possible to determine the horizontal and vertical angles, from-the point where the camera was set up, to all objects represented in the photograph, the horizontal angles fic. 3.—four-point method of plotting. being measured from some known represented object. if two such photographs are taken from two points of known lengths at known distance apart, we have the means of determining the distance and height of all points shown on both photographs. it will, therefore, be necessary, in planning a ground photo- graphic survey, to arrange for a triangulation to fix the relative positions at which the camera will be set up, and the first stage in the office work will consist in the plotting of the triangulation. a camera station need not, however, be a trigonometrical point, provided that its trigonometrical position can be measured from the photograph. to use the photograph for plotting the detail from each camera station a draw, at its correct angle, the central line of view. along this line draw ax, equal to the focal length of the lens; through x draw a line at right angles to ax and plot from x the projections of the distant points, as measured on the horizon-line of the photograph. the inter- section of rays from a to the points so obtained, with rays to the same objects from other stations, will give their position. a supplementary order of triangulation is usually added during the course of the field work, both to fix camera positions and to add a few bearings and vertical angles from which the photographic data may be checked. the office work takes two or three times as long as the field work and consists in plotting positions, calculating heights and drawing contours from the data measured on the developed plates. stereo-photo surveving—the most recent development of photographic surveying consists in the employment of the stereoscopic principle. in stereo-photo surveying two stations can be occupied on the same hill-top and their distance apart need only be some 50 to 300 feet. in the simplest case let two vertical photographic plates be exposed from two points, say 100 ft. apart; let the plates be in the same plane and their centres on the same level. then if these plates are put into a stereoscope provided with a system of lenses and prisms such that the eyepieces are brought to a convenient 697 distance for seeing, we shall clearly get a very much magnified stereoscopic effect, as compared with what is obtainable with the unaided eyes. in the diaphragm of each eyepiece ict there be a similar movable mark, or line on glass. on looking through the eyepieces the marks in question will appear as a single mark floating in space, and by vertical and horizontal adjustments this mark can be made to appear to touch any given object in the picture. we have, thus, a means of measuring small paral- laxes and vertical angles, and these can be read off graduated micrometer heads. a stereo-comparator as above described gives angles from the centre of the plate, distances and vertical angles; but the read- ing is laborious and the map has to be constructed point by point. in 1907 and ro1t lieutenant von orel, of vienna, devised a stereo- autograph which permitted the automatic drawing of detail and contours. the latest machine of the class is the sterco- cartograph of mr. henry wild, made at heerbrugg, in switzer- land, in 1925. it promises well, but all these machines are very expensive. generally with stereo-photography we are not limited to a country with marked features, as is the case with normal photo- topography. provided that the view is clear, gently undulating, or flat, country can be as well surveyed and contoured as a mountainous region. the method has some obvious applications, but it is difficult in forest-clad country or in towns and its value largely depends upon good view points. the old photographic surveying has as its chief field of usefulness a well-marked moun- tainous region. the new is not so limited but its rele has not yet been fully determined. sterco-photo surveying, sometimes called sterco-photo gram- metry, is to be seriously reckoned with in the future. companies have been formed for the exploitation of this method in france, germany, spain and elsewhere. it is not only possible to make maps in this way, but also to construct plans and sections of existing buildings, and very successful results of this kind have been obtained, especially in germany. a good account of the progress of the system will be found in “ la estereofotegrametria in 1924’ by j. ms: torroja, madrid. there is a large literature on the subject. wt. levelling since rg10 much progress has been made in the development of a sound system of levelling, especially with regard to precise, or geodetic levelling, which provides the framework on which all national levels depend. the now defunct international geo- detic association laid down some wise rules on the subject. the admirable treatise of m. ch. lallemand, nivellement de haute preciston marked a great advance on previous text-books; and the modern geodetic levelling instruments produced in france, the u.s.a. and switzerland have greatly increased the accuracy of observation. the introduction, by the ordnance survey of the united kingdom, of a specially devised kind of permanent bench-mark did away with a weak element in the old levelling, the instability of the ground marks. new instruments——the prismatic astrolabe of claude and driencourt furnishes an instrument by which the observed local time and latitude can be determined by observations to at least three stars, using a constant altitude of about 60°, this method has been successfully employed in the sudan and elsewhere. an attachment to an ordinary theodolite serving the same purpose, has been devised by mr. e. a. reeves, and has proved satisfactory. this does away with the necessity of taking out a special instru- ment. a very ingenious direct-reading tacheometer has been brought out by mr. h. h. veficott by which the computations required with ordinary tacheometers are avoided. sec archae- ology; geodesy; geography. bibliography.—close and winterbotham, text book of topo- graphical and geographical surveying (h.m. stationery office, london, 1925); a. r. hinks, maps and survey (cambridge univer- sity press, 1923); report of air survey committee (h.m. stationery office, london, 1923); b. m. jones and j. c. griffiths, aerial sur- veying by rapid methods (cambridge university press, 1925); e. deville, photographic surveying (ottawa, 1895); royal geographical 698 society, hints to travellers, vol. t.; bell and knox-shaw, a hand- book of the prismatic astrolabe (government press, cairo, 1919). (cub. ch iv. nautical surveying naval hydrographic surveying has since the cessation of the world war steadily progressed in adopting the latest methods and instruments which have become available to the surveyor both on shore and afloat. it is not generally recognised, although it is a fact, that the hydrographic surveyor has to combine the work of the land surveyor with his own—in fact like the marine he is a “ soldier and sailor too.”’ the world war resulted in various scientific inventions which benefited the surveyors and of which they have and are taking full advantage. instruments.—theodolites in current use (1926) are 4 in., 5 in. and 6 inches. the majority of these are micrometer theodolites read to 10 seconds. the use of the thcodolite for astronomical and tacheometer work is now universal. sextants for observing, with stand and artificial horizon, however, are still supplied, and improvements in this instrument such as an endless tangent screw and electric light for night work, have been adopted. more portable folding stands with slow-motion screws for movement of the sextant in azimuth and altitude are also supplied, and in addition amalgamated troughs, consisting of gold-covered plates on which a thin film of mercury is floated, have superseded the old artificial horizon consisting of a mercury bath; the new pattern is far less sensitive to earth tremors caused by surf, traffic, etc. it is, however, recognised that this instrument for work on shore is now superseded by other more precise and compact instruments. the astrolabe a prisme, a very precise instrument, is one of these. it is used for finding position and enables altitudes of any stars at the altitude of 45° or 60° to be observed. the latest form of astrolabe enables observations of stars to be casily and accurately made as follows with the 60° instrument—one step of 73’ on either side of 60°, that is 3 observations of 59°52’ 60° 60°073’ can be taken of one star. with the 45° instrument—four steps of 5! on either side of 45°, that is 11 observations of 44°40’ 44°45’ 44°50’ 44°55’ 45° 45°08’ 45°10 45°15" 45°20’ can be taken of one star. the great advantage of this instrument is that with one setting up of the instrument and without a number of necessary readjustments as in a theodolite both time and latitude can be determined, provided of course that the best and latest method of obtaining error of the time used (7.e., wireless time signals) is adopted. when it is found necessary to measure bases the hydrographic surveyor uses the soo ft. steel measuring tape and is provided with the kew standardisation certificate. in surveying abroad where no local triangulation exists, the accurate measurement of a base is recognised as a most important step, second only to a satis- factory base extension. tacheometers and tacheometer staves marked according to the admiralty pattern are used for measuring distances up to over 2,000 ft. where extreme accuracy 1s not necessary. one- metre base range-finders are useful in measuring short bases for plans of harbours, etc., when time or circumstances do not permit of a more accurate method. of the various forms of heliostat the galton sun signal has proved a most excellent instrument and fitted to theodolites it allows of the sun’s rays being quickly and accurately directed to and kept on the station desired, whether the latter is visible or not. | taut wire measuring gear is now fitted in all british surveying ships. this method of measuring distances at sea in compara- tively shallow depths had proved most successful and was adopted after having been extensively used in connection with mine-laying during the war. the ship preserves a steady course and at a constant speed over the distance to be measured and at the same time runs out a thin piano wire from a drum which carries many miles of the wire. it is laid taut by means of a special brake device, the amount of wire out being registered ona dial. a correction (always subtractive) must be made for errors. this varies from 1,000 to 3,000 ft. in a distance of 100 m., and is governed by the contours of the sea bed upon which the ! surveying wire has been laid. the dial registers 1,000 rev. for a mile of 6,080 ft., consequently when plotting in sea miles a second correction, for latitude, is necessary. this method of deter- mining distance is specially useful when surveying out of sight of land, and is used in combination with astronomical observa- tions and moored beacons. fixing positions of ships, buoys, eic., by subaguecous sound- ranging.—this new method of accurately fixing the positions of buoys, etc., is carried out by dropping an explosive charge at the position it is required to fix. the sound of the explosion travels through the water to a number of hydrophones suitably placed, and the positions of which are accurately known. the ° differences between the times at which the shock reaches the various hydrophones are recorded photographically by a gal- vanometer on shore, to which the instruments are connected by cables. from these observations it is possible to calculate a position line for each pair of hydrophones. three or four such lines from hydrophones suitably placed will give a cut, which is the position of the explosion. as in all surveying problems, the accurate fixing of a point from two others depends on the length of the base, that is, the distance between two known points, so does the accurate fixing by sound through the water depend on the hydrophones, or groups of hydrophones being such a dis- tance apart, commensurate with the distance at which it is required to fix the buoy, etc. chronomcters.—surveying ships are now supplied with from 8 to 12 chronometers of the box type (pocket chronometers being used outside the chronometer room) selected instruments which have successfully passed most exhaustive tests at the royal observatory, greenwich. for astronomical work on shore, the portable “‘ lindqvist chronograph ” is employed. in this instrument, a chronometer fitted with special contact pieces automatically sends an electric current every two seconds through an electro-magnetic coil, and thus, by suitable mechan- ism records every alternate second as a perforation on a paper tape, which is kept moving at a uniform rate by means of clockwork. the closing of a switch by the observer operates a second coil, which records the instant of observation in a similar manner by making an additional perforation in the tape. wireless telegraphy for accurate time and obtaining meridian distances has been adopted. amongst minor improvements in surveying appliances may be mentioned the standardisation of the markings of leadlines, improved buoys for beacon work, light filters for fitting to the eyepieces of sextant and theodolite telescopes. in 1926 electrical lighting arrangements to sextants and theo- dolites had greatly improved. the arcless sextant which enables angles to be taken and read off (on a drum) without the necessity of removing the eye from the telescope; wireless telegraphy outfits for use of detached parties and the gyro compass (sce gyroscopes), were all in use. for the measure- ment of velocity of tidal streams and current the ekman cur- rent meter was generally in use. in calculating triangulations considerable time is saved in correcting for false station by use of the station corrector diagram, by which the correction can be obtained very quickly to any accuracy required (generally about 5 sec. of arc) and the tedious trigorometrical calculation avoided. the slide rule has come far more into prominence for small rough calcula- tions. as the result of modern inventions, special charts for the use of submarines and for other purposes in addition to the ordinary navigational chart have been produced. charts for submarines indicate graphically the nature of the sea bottom, so as to indicate where vessels can rest with safety. the introduction of wireless direction-finding stations as an aid to navigation has necessitated the production of charts drawn on the gnomonic projection, by the use of which positions can be more accurately determined. additional charts are also required for testing range-finders and compass adjusting. physical charts indicate the direction of prevailing winds and ocean surface currents at different periods of the year, localities and time where ice may be fallen in with, and the direction and survival—swaziland force of the stream and drift currents of the oceans. consider- able gain in accuracy and prevention of distortion has been obtained by printing charts by lithography, although the original charts are generally speaking engraved on copper. no more marked advance has been made in hydrographic surveying than in that most important work of all, viz.: ship and boat sounding, and reference should be made to the article on that subject (see ‘ sounding). (see john ball and h. knox shaw, a handbook of the pris- matic astrolabe, egyptian govt., cairo government press (1919); c. f. close, text book of topographical surveying (1925). (h. p. do.) survival: see psychical research. suttner, bertha, baroness von (1843-1914), austrian writer (see 26.171), died at vienna june 21 1914. see h. v. der mandere, bertha sutiner (1909). svabinsky, max (1873- ), czech painter, was born at krome?izz in moravia. he studied at the academy of fine arts in prague, where he eventually became a professor; and in paris, germany, holland and belgium. his first works were made to suit the poetical and symbolic mood prevalent at the time, but he soon turned his attention to realistic subjects, from which he derived the sources of an art intoxicated with the manifestations of life and nature. there is hardly any branch of painting which svabinsky did not practice with success. of his large-sized can- vases, special reference should be made to “‘ the sun bath ” (1908), ‘‘ summer” (rgo09), and “ the family in the mountains,”’ which provide typical examples of the vivid manner in which the artist seizes upon colour and form. asa portrait painter and etcher, svabinsky was remarkably active, his subjects including such prominent representatives of czech public life as manes, smetana and president masaryk, while by his portrait of maeterlinck he gained much appreciation abroad. among his numerous other works should be mentioned the cycle of wood- cuts entitled “‘ the sonata of paradise ”’ (1918-20). svehla, antonin (1873- ), czech statesman, was born at hostivar, near prague. from his youth he devoted himself to the movement for the emancipation of the czech agricultural classes, rendering considerable services in founding and develop- ing the czech agrarian party, of which in 1909 he became chair- man, and which from 1908 he represented in the provincial diet of bohemia. during the world war he played a most important part in czech political life, bringing about the unity of all classes of the population and maintaining an undivided national front at the period of the greatest persecution. contact with professor masaryk and those who worked with him abroad on behalf of czechoslovak independence enabled him to complete the prepara- tions for the final coup against austria on oct. 28 1918, when in his capacity as vice-president of the prague national committcc, together with dr. soukup and j. stfibrny, he took over the gov- ernment of the czechoslovak state on behalf of the czecho- slovak national council, which in the summer of 1918 had been recognised as the czechoslovak provisional government. he became a member of the first national assembly and was minister for the interior until oct. 1922, when he undertook the formation of a new czechoslovak coalition govt. which he reconstituted after the oct. 1925 elections. during his period of premiership he displayed admirable political and diplomatic abilities, notably by his skilful handling of the differences between the political parties. svendsen, johann severin (1840-1911), norwegian composer (sce 26.175), died at copenhagen june 14 rg1t. swan, sir joseph wilson (1828-1914), british physicist (see 26.179), died at warlingham, surrey, may 28 ror4. swansea, wales (see 26.181), the most important port of shipment in great britain for tin plates, patent fuel, etc., and the chief centre of the anthracite, spelter and copper trades, had a population of 157,554 in 1921, and an area of 21,600 acres. oystermouth and a large part of the swansea rural district were included in the borough in 1918. there are many manufactures, especially those concerned with metal working. a new dry dock was opened in 1924 in the harbour, which has 281 ac. of deep 699 water in the docks, and over 6 m. of quays. among the newer buildings are the glynn vivian art gallery in alexandra road (1915); the large dockers’ hall in high street (1913); the y.m.c.a. centre in st. helen’s road (1913) and the chamber of commerce buildings (1915). in 1920 the technical college was made a constituent college of the university of wales. singleton house, with a park of 300 ac., presented to the municipality, is occupied by the college, pending the completion of new buildings in the park, of which the foundation stone was laid in 1920. since the world war swansea has become a centre for the dis- tribution of oil, and extensive facilities for its storage and refining have been provided, tanks, refineries, pipe lines, etc. having been erected. | swaziland, a british protectorate in south africa (see 26.184). the population in 1921 was 133,563, of whom 2,203 were whites. the native population had increased by 5:34% since torr. the state of chaos into which swaziland had fallen owing to the indiscriminate grant of concessions was ended by r9or4. out of a total area of 4,275,000 ac., 1,635,000 ac. became swazi reserves; in addition the swazis bought 77,000 acres. a law suit arising out of these concessions led to a decision being given by the judicial committee of the privy council, in april 1926, that the crown had acquired sovereign rights in the dis- posal of the land of the protectorate—a right which the swazis had challenged. the swazis own large herds of cattle and grow maize and other crops. some 7,000 to 8,o00 swazis find employment in the rand gold mines. the whites are mainly farmers. gold mining has been practically abandoned. the maximum output was 14,781 oz.in 191 1—-2;in 1924 the output was 376 ounces. thecoal deposits have not been worked. tin (cassiterite) is found on the western border; the export varies from 200 to 400 tons a year; the total value of tin produced in 1915-24 was £510,000. from 1921 on- ward cotton growing was developed; in 1924 the value of cotton exported was over £10,000. the chief exports are slaughter oxen and tin. revenue and expenditure balance closely. revenue rose from £49,000 in rg11~2 to £89,000 in 1924-5, and expendi- ture in the same period from £45,000 to £87,000. the administration is under the charge of a resident commis- sioner, with headquarters at mbabane, a small, picturesquely situated hill village (altitude 4,000 ft.) overlooking the middle veld. the paramount chief and other chiefs exercise jurisdic- tion in all civil cases in which natives only are concerned. labot- sibeni, otherwise naba tsibeni, the ‘‘ queen regent,” a well- known figure in swazi history, acted for many years as para- mount chief, first after the death of her husband mbandini in 1889, and later after the death of her son, bhunu; her grandson, sobhuza ii., was installed as paramount chief in 1921. labotsi- beni died in dec. 1925. education is mainly in the hands of mis- sionaries; sobhuza was educated at a government school at labotsibeni’s kraal, and afterwards at the missionary establish- ment at lovedale. like many other swaztis he adopted european clothing. mr. de s. m. g. honey, who had served in swaziland since 1904, became in 1917 resident commissioner, and still held that office in 1926. in 1921 he set up an elected european ad- visory council to deal with purely european affairs. the development of swaziland, favourably situated midway between delagoa bay and the principal markets of the trans- vaal, and itself potentially a very rich country, was greatly re- tarded by the lack of railways and good roads, for the building of which funds were not forthcoming. a railway built by the portu- guese from delagoa bay stopped at a dead end at the swazi border. continued through swaziland, it would afford the short- est route to the rand. swaziland being under direct british administration, the south african govt. gave no facilities for the building of the railway. its construction was regarded as de- pendent upon swaziland joining the union. when the question of incorporation was raised definitely in 1924, it appeared that the white settlers were not willing to become part of the transvaal province, but that if swaziland were incorporated in the union, it should be as a separate entity. the chief event in the protec- torate in 1925 was the visit of the prince of wales. 700 see official year book of the union of south africa (pretoria, 1925), the annual report on the protectorate issued by the colonial office, london, and the times, april 16 1926, sonne ht. v. milter oe council judgment). (fk. ©) sweden (see 26.188), a kingdom of northern europe and a member of the league of nations. its area is 173,105 sq. m. and the population (1924) 6,036,118. i. political history on the death of king oscar, dec. 8 1907, his son became king of sweden with the title gustav v. after the dissolution of the union with norway, sweeping reforms were introduced by the liberal ministry under karl staaff (1905-6) and the conserva- tive ministry under lindman (1906-11). the main problems were the extension of the political and municipal franchise and the adjustment of national defence. the franchise was re- formed (1907-9), and the first elections for the second chamber under the new conditions took place in sept. 1911. in 1905, the electorate numbered 402,000; in 1911, 1,066,000. the result of the election favoured the left wing, and karl staaff formed his second liberal ministry, which in 1913, with the help of the other political parties, passed a law for national pensions in- surance. ‘the international unrest necessitated a complete overhauling of the national defence. the staaff ministry in- stituted a thorough investigation, and intended introducing a government measure during the 1914 riksdag. at that time public opinion was much exercised over the mili- tary activities of russia in finland, which it was thought con- stituted a menace to sweden. staaff outlined his policy at the end of 1913 in a public speech, from which it appeared that the main question—the increase of the training period for the infantry—would be deferred until after elections to the second chamber in the autumn of 1914; the other items, however, were to be submitted to the r9r4 riksdag. these delays aroused much public feeling and in feb. 1914, 30,000 peasants assembled in stockholm to request the king that the whole question of national defence should be handled simultaneously. the king’s answer was favourable, and this led to a conflict between himself and the liberal ministry, which resigned. the king commanded the landshevding herr hjalmar hammarskjold (qg.v.) to form a new ministry. herr karl a. wallenberg became minister of foreign affairs. the second chamber was dis- solved and the riksdag reassembled after the election of may 1 1914. the supporters of the new government won some seats but had no majority in the second chamber. in the first chamber, however, they had a friendly majority. national defence-—before the question of national defence could be handled the world war broke out. with the help of the liberal party, the problem was solved by increasing the training period for recruits (in the infantry to 340 days followed by the usual annual training courses; for the other arms the increases were in some cases rather less, in others rather more). the system of maritime fortifications was strengthened and large grants were made for the fleet and for the provision of war materials. to meet the extraordinary expenditure a war tax was levied on all incomes above a certain amount. it was widely, but quite erroneously, believed that sweden had entered into a treaty with germany. sweden immediately issued a dec- laration of complete neutrality, which she maintained strictly. military patrols were stationed at all the more important points of communication and at certain points along the coast. the fleet endeavoured to prevent any military operations within swedish territorial waters. breaches of neutrality occurred, however, entailing complaints and sometimes apologies and compensation. the difficulty of neutrality.—the difficulties of western trade over the north sea increased. many swedish vessels were destroyed, with great loss of life, by german submarines and by mines laid by both belligerent groups. as the blockade against germany was intensified, an increasing amount of swedish goods were detained in england. ‘the black lists of the bellig- erents, trade espionage and the attempt to force extensive sweden undertakings from importers in neutral countries induced the swedish govt. to put a proposal for a war trade law before the 1916 riksdag, under which no undertakings with belligerent powers could be made without the sanction of the oficial swedish authority (trade commission). if this officially recognised undertaking were broken the culprit was severely punished. special arrangements were made with the belligerent countries regarding compensation for permission to transport ~ goods. britain desired to transport over sweden goods neces- sary to russia, and sweden granted a transport licence in return for permission from britain to import certain foodstuffs from the west. in jan. 1915 the government forbade the transport over sweden of arms and other war material. dpourparlers between the swedish and british governments with the object of improving trade communications between the two countries led to no result. disputes arose over the british postal censor- ship and the closing by sweden of a channel in oresund. these difficulties brought the three scandinavian countries into closer touch. in dec. 1914, king gustav invited the kings of norway and denmark to a conference in malme which inaugurated a period of greater friendship between the three countries. special war legislation.—many legal and administrative in- novations were made. in 1914 a moratorium for debts was introduced, but was soon abolished. special laws empowered the government to fix a maximum price for food and other necessities and if necessary to commandeer them. the govern- ment also exercised a certain control over the merchant service. a war insurance commission was set up to give state-aided insurance against loss at sea, a food commission to take over the import of grain, etc., an industry commission to report on industry and later to ration raw materials, etc., an unemploy- ment commission, and a trade commission to carry out the war trade laws. in nov. ro15 the first maximum prices were fixed (for grain). a bad fodder harvest and the difficulty of importing maize and other foodstuffs necessitated a great slaughter and export of cattle. the war caused a lull in internal party strife during rors, but in the following year lively dis- cussions took place as to how sweden could best maintain her policy of neutrality. some circles sympathised with britain, others with germany, but most desired neutrality. a little group of “activists”? urged intervention on the side of ger- many, but all political parties held aloof from them. pressure of the blockade.—on july 7 1916 britain and france ceased to apply the regulations of the declaration of london regarding neutral trade. the difficulties already attending neutral trade were now multiplied. the german u-boat war- fare was intensified; the closed areas in the north sea and the blockade of the central powers by the allies created a situation little in accord with the pre-war regulations concerning inter- national law. the premier, herr hammarskjeld, championed the preservation of international rights in the name of the swedish government. hemet with small success, even although the three scandinavian kingdoms combined in the protest. during the war 280 swedish merchant vessels were sunk, chief- ly by german submarines, but also by mines and from other causes. the english ports were crowded with confiscated goods. after the russian revolution in 1917, britain no longer needed to transport goods over sweden to russia, so this means of exchange fell away. negotiations with britain for import licences led in the spring of 1917 to a temporary agreement whereby sweden was guaranteed certain imports (including grain) in return for the release from the baltic of a number of imprisoned vessels be- longing to the entente. the tonnage question played an important rele in entente policy, and swedish vessels were requisitioned or were only allowed to sail in swedish interests on condition that they were replaced by other vessels when required. finally a commercial agreement was concluded in the spring of 1918, which enabled sweden to import large consignments of goods in return for handing over merchant vessels up to 400,000 tons dead weight; a certain proportion of the swedish iron ore export; longer credit for goods purchased in sweden, and stricter sweden regulations regarding exports to germany. the increasing difficulties of navigation in the north sea and the insignificant export from britain to sweden, led to an expansion of trade with germany. before the war sweden obtained 91% of her coal from england but during 1916-7 only 27-26%. the remainder was almost entirely supplied by germany. the dis- location of trade thus largely influenced sweden’s policy, as in all her undertakings and agreements with the entente powers she had to reserve a considerable amount of commodities for exchange with germany. import difficulties necessitated still more stringent state meas- ures. in oct. 1916 sugar was rationed. in 1917 bread cards were introduced together with state control of the whole grain trade. before the war an average of 183 kilogrammes of wheat and rye were consumed per head. the harvest of 1917~8 produced only 84.4 kilogrammes per head. finally, potatoes and many other commodities were rationed. there was a great shortage of meat and bacon, and milk was reserved for children and in- valids. the price of food rose rapidly and large sums of money were set aside to provide the poorer classes with goods at cheap rates. as the import of coal decreased, special arrangements were made for procuring wood from the forests. all kinds of raw materials, especially lubricants, were scarce. the ham- marskjild ministry was formed against the wishes of the liberals and the social democrats, and these parties commanded a majority in the second chamber of the riksdag. changes of government.—the government only remained in power so long thanks to its firm neutral policy. criticism of its trade policy increased, however, and in spite of a huge vote of confidence from 750,000 people, it was unable to co-operate further with the parties of the left and resigned at the end of march 1917. a new conservative ministry carried on up to the new elections to the second chamber in the autumn. herr karl swartz, a manufacturer, was prime minister and adml. arvid lindman, a former prime minister, was minister of foreign affairs. the food shortage caused considerable unrest and led to a demand for a constitutional reform of a democratic nature. at the autumn elections the conservatives suffered several losses and herr swartz resigned. in view of the abnormal! conditions, the king endeavoured to bring about a coalition government of all parties, but he was not successful and the liberal leader, prof. nils eden, formed a ministry. he himself became prime minister and lord justice johannes helinier, minister of foreign affairs. the ministry included five other liberals and four social democrats. among them were herr hjalmar branting as- minister of finance, and baron e. palmstierna, afterwards swedish minister to london, as minister of marine. branting soon resigned on account of illness. the main items in the programme of the new ministry were a great constitutional reform and a trade agreement with the allies (sec above}. the government motion on the question of constitutional reform was thrown out by the first chamber during the 1918 riksdag; but a law was passed instituting great educational and poor law reforms. finland and the aaland is.—in jan. 1918, sweden recognised finland as an independent state. the civil war in finland created a critical situation. there was a demand for military support of the lawful finnish govt.; yet sweden feared she might be drawn into the war if she assisted the finns against the russians and appeared to side with the germans, to whom the finnish govt. had appealed for assistance. the govern- ment acted with a circumspection which was rather resented by the finnish middle classes. when the conflict was transferred to aaland and its inhabitants voted for adherence to sweden, sweden sent a warship to the islands, and a small body of troops to maintain peace. these were, however, recalled when the germans made the islands their centre for sending assist- ance to the ‘“‘ whites ” in finland (see aaland islands). swedish relief work in belligerent countries —the swedish red cross was active in the adjacent belligerent countries, and prince carl, a brother of the king, took a prominent part in the work. swedish delegates inspected the prison camps of russia, 701 germany and austria and distributed numerous gifts to the prisoners from their respective countries. arrangements were made for the exchange of invalided prisoners and their trans- port over sweden. after the war large numbers of german and austrian children spent some time in sweden renewing their health and strength, and swedish help was given to the impov- erished countries. when the great famine broke out in russia a swedish relief expedition was sent to samara. the sum total of relief given by sweden to the various countries amounted to 36,500,000 kroner. internal conditions after the war—the repercussions of the revolution in central europe reached sweden. the riksdag was sitting when the war ended and in order to keep in power, the government hastened to put forward a programme embodying a far-reaching constitutional reform, which was carried, thanks to the close co-operation of the government parties. the graduated scale at the communal elections was abolished and equal and universal suffrage introduced. as the first chamber is based on the communal vote, it became auto- matically more democratic. women received full political franchise. the social democratic party consequently acquired a relative but not an absolute majority in each chamber. dissensions among the middle-class parties—the conservative, liberal and the new bondeferbund (i'armers’ league)— further increased the power of the social democrats; but lacking an absolute majority, they were obliged to act rather as a radical middle-class party. the eden ministry remained in office until march 1920. the liquidation of war-time restrictions and the work of reform continued. <a provisional law adopting an eight-hour day in industry and certain other branches of labour, not including agriculture, was passed. the liberal and social democratic members of the government disagreed on the reform of communal taxation, and the ministry resigned after it had first laid before the riksdag a proposal for sweden’s entry into the league of nations. branting now formed his first purely social democratic minis- try with palmstierna as minister of foreign affairs. ‘this ministry set on foot investigations into projects of socialisation, industrial democracy and control over trusts and cartels. at the second chamber elections the conservatives and the bandeferbund gained several seats; branting therefore dissolved his ministry on oct. 22 1920. baron louis de geer. formed a moderate conservative ministry, at the head of which herr oscar von sydow replaced him in feb. 1921. the government granted large sums for relicf work and the support of the un- employed. to carry out the new constitutional reforms fresh elections for both chambers took place in the autumn. unemployment.—the result favoured the socialists, especially in the first chamber and in oct. branting formed his second purely social democrat ministry, in which he himself was both premier and minister of foreign affairs. the economic crisis and the problem of unemployment were the vital questions at the moment, and at the instance of the government the 1922 riksdag granted what were, according to swedish ideas, enor- mous sums of money for the relief of the unemployed. the government finally fell over this question of uncmployment. swedish policy was to provide relief work whenever possible, otherwise to give monetary assistance. wages for relief work were to be less than ordinary wages and assistance still less. iielp was not to be given to workers involved in any conilict (strike or lock-out). the government and the riksdag inter- preted this last clause differently, and branting resigned in april 1923. during 1922 a referendum on the total prohibition of all alcoholic drinks was defeated. controversy on defence -—lord justice ernest trygger, the old conservative leader, now formed a new ministry, whose special task was the solution of the national defence question. the 1914 army regulations had not been entirely carried out when the war ended and the socialists, especially, felt strongly that the creation of the league of nations and the fall of the tsardom justified a reduction of armaments. during the 1924 riksdag the government had brought in a bill for this purpose, 702 but it was not sufficiently drastic for the social democrats and the folkfrisinnade (the radical half of the old liberal party; the rest still called themselves liberals). the riksdag threw out the bill, but the government remained in office until after the second chamber elections in september. as the result did not strengthen the government, it went out, and branting formed his third ministry on oct. 18 1924, with prof. osten unden as minister of foreign affairs. the government and the social democratic party suffered a severe loss in the death of branting (qg.uv.) on feb. 24 1925. rickard sandler, minister of commerce, succeeded him as prime minister. a government measure, introducing shorter military service and a reduction of the army, was passed by the 1925 riksdag. foreign :affairs~—when the question of the entry of sweden into the league of nations was broached there was considerable opposition, one reason being the non-entry of the united states. the decision to join was, however, carried by a large majority and in march 1920 her entry into the league was officially announced. among the swedish representatives at the league assemblies were branting, trygger and unden. in sept. 1922 sweden was given a seat on the council.! the aaland question (q.z.) was decided by the league in favour of finland {june 1921) but the islands received guarantees for the preser- vation of their swedish culture. an international convention prohibited any fortification of the islands. the co-operation established between the three scandinavian states during the war was not continued in any definite form. there was much talk of a scandinavian alliance, but norway was disinclined to join it. from time to time the foreign ministers of norway, sweden, denmark and sometimes fin- land, met to discuss foreign policy. sweden concluded a trade agreement with russia on march 16 1924. on march 5 1924, at sweden’s invitation, delegates of the swedish, norwegian, danish and finnish governments met and unanimously adopteda draft for setting up permanent conciliation councils for com- pulsory arbitration of differences not previously settled by diplomatic action or through the permanent court of inter- national justice. on june 27 six bilateral conventions based on this draft were signed between the states concerned. on jan. 25 1925 sweden signed a treaty with norway making all differ- ences of all kinds subject to arbitration. bis_trocrapuy.—e. hildebrande, sveriges historia tll vdra dagar (1919, etc.); eric, duke of sedermanland, erikskrontkan enligt cod. ifolm. d. 2. jemte avetkande ldsarter ur andra handskrifter utgiven av. r, pipping (1921); h. lindeberg, prinsen av wasa—-itans levnad ach samtid. minnesteckning (1921); j. paul, engelbrecht engelbrechts- son und sein kampf gegen die kalmarer union (1921); 1. dahlgren and j. svedelius, afargareta, sveriges kronprinsessa minnesteckning (1921); l. v. a. stavenow, ur konung gustav [11.: soch statssekre- teraren freferre erik ruuths brev-vadxling-bidrag till historien om det svensk-ryska krigets (1788—go) finansiering (1921); w. c. weibull, sverige och dess nordiska grannmeakter under den tidigare medeltiden (1921); e. bergelin, aarls des zwolften krieger in russischer gefan- genschaft, etc. (1922); e. forssberg, sverige och preussen 1810-5 (1922); l. kihlberg, den svenska ministderen under standsriksdag och toakamnarsysiem intill 1905 ars totala ministerskifte (1922); o. sjogren, sveriges iistoria fran aldsta tider till vera dagar for svenska folket (1923, etc.); l. v. a. stavenow, det adertonde arhundradets parlamentarism 4 sverige (1923); 1. oman, kari staafs forsta ministar (1923). el) il, economic and financial history population.—the population of sweden at the end of 1910 con- sisted of 5,522,403 persons. by the end of 1925 it had risen to 6,053,562, representing a yearly increase of 6-12 per 1,000. the birthrate has steadily declined from 24-66 per 1,000 in 1910 to 17°53 in 1925, the lowest return for any european country. the death-rate has, however, also declined, viz.: from 14-04 per 1,000 in igi0 to 1 at the extraordinary session of the council of the league called in march 1926, to consider the german application for the admission of the reich, m. unden, under instructions from his government, declared, in face of the claims put forward by other countries for permanent seats on the council, that sweden would not consent to any immediate additions to the council other than that of germany. in the dispute which followed sweden and czcchoslovakia offered, in the interests of peace, to resign their seats to allow of the election of two other powers to non-permanent seats. this offer failed in con- sequence of the attitude of brazil towards the admission of germany. sweden 11:72 in 1925. during the five years 1909-13 emigration rose to 2-44 per 1,000 per annum, but sank to an insignificant figure during the war. between 1921 and 1925 it again rose to 1:36 per 1,000 per annum. in ig10, 24:8°%, of the whole population were town dwellers. in 1924 the number had increased to 30-6%. the division of labour, according to the census of 1920, was as follows: agriculture 38-5 “9, industry 31°3°%, trade and communications 12-9°%, public services and professions (fria yoken) 4:6°5, domestic service, retired workers, clg. -ctg,,- 1297. pre-\var period.—the period preceding the world war was characterised by greatly increased production and trade turn-over and by a marked growth of capital. from r9009, when trade depression reached its lowest level, to 1913 the industrial workers increased, according 10 statistics, from 320,000 to 360,000. the estimated value of the harvest rose from 778,000,000 kr. to 857,000,000, the total value of foreign trade from 1,087,000,000 kr. to 1,664,000,000, equivalent to 53 % (imports by 38 % and exports by 73°). deposits in banks and savings banks increased from 2,207,000,000 kr. to 2,800,000,000. effects of the world war although sweden took no active part in the war, it had, nevertheless, in many respects, a profound bearing upon the economic conditions of the country. the cost of living increased enormously. the swedish index number for wholesale prices, reckoned at roo for the period july 1 ror3 to june 30 1914, reached, on an average, 339 in 1918. the number of bank- notes in circulation increased from 234,000,000 kr. at the end of 1913 to 814,000,000 kr. at the end of 1918. this was made pos- sible by relieving the riksbank from the liability to meet notes with gold. incomes and property were naturally affected by the sudden inflation. many new fortunes were made, but, at the same time, large numbers of well-to-do people—small investors and wage-earners were reduced to poverty. wer scarcity —the rupture of communications with foreign countries, as a result of the war, was of great import, especially as regards the maintenance of food supplies. the import of grain, which averaged 284,000 tons in tg11-3 was reduced to only 89,oco tons in 1917-8. the supplies of fodder and arti- ficial manures almost entirely ceased, likewise the supply of fats and colonial goods. in order to exercise the greatest economy with the inadequate resources, maximum prices for agricultural produce were fixed. from the end of 1916 state rationing of sugar and wheat was introduced. later on certain other foodstuffs, and even clothing, were rationed. the great reduction in the sup- plies of coal rendered necessary vigorous measures to provide home-grown wood for coal fuel, while the lack of lamp and fuel oils was supplied partly by the use of acetylene and partly by en- forced development of electric power. strenuous efforts were also made to utilise the native resources in order to replace imported raw materials necessary for industry. notwithstanding this, many industries, the textile in particu- lar, were forced to limit their output owing to lack of raw materials. on the other hand, the war caused a boom in certain trades, expecially in the metal industries which had access to good raw materials in the country and whose manufactures were of great use in warfare. for example, production of pig-iron rose from 640,000 tons in ig14 to 829,000 in 1917 or by nearly 30%. the shipping trade flourished exceedingly and reaped immense profits. deflation war conditions and the inflation of the currency led to unprecedented speculation, the extent of which may be gauged from the figures of the transactions on the stockholm bourse (in 1913, 638,000,000; in 1918, 5,726,000 kr. on an average per exchange day}. the boom came to a hasty end with the termination of the war. rationing ceased, and foreign goods began to pour into the country. during the years 1914-8 there was a continuous excess of exports over imports. this was now changed to a considerable excess of imports over exports. from the year 1921 a violent deflation took place. the index number of wholesale prices fell successively from 366in june 1920 to 150 in dec. 1923, that is to say, by nearly 60%. the consequences of this were secn in the great increase in unemployment, which swedish literature reached its maximum figure in jan. 1922 when 163,000 unem- ployed were registered. at the same time the statistics of the trade unions showed that over 30% of their members were out of work. the wise and energetic unemployment policy pursued by the state soon succeeded in surmounting the evil and by the end of 1923 the abnormal conditions were, in the main, overcome. the swedish exchange during the years 1916-8 rose on occasions to over 20% above par in relation to the dollar, but, during 1919~20 fell considerably below; from 1921 onwards a gradual improvement took place and by the end of 1922 the krona was brought up to par and on april 1 1924 sweden returned definitely to the gold standard, the first european nation to do so. post-war conditions a griculture.—the extent of cultivated land has changed but little since iqii (in iqii, 3,600,000 and in 1924, 3,800,000 hectares). on the other hand a certain displacement has taken place in the relation between the various crops. the harvest of different staple products for the years i9i1i-3 and 1923-5, reckoned in 1,000 metric tons, averaged: wheat 230 and 287 respectively, rye 596 and 527 respec- tively, barley and oats 1,922 and 1,899 respectively, potatoes 1,587 and 1,748 respectively, sugar beet 890 and 1,093 respectively, root fodder crops 2,693 and 2,924 respectively. the number of cattle in 1913 was 3,069,000, in 1920, 2,736,000; of sheep for the same years 1,205,000 and 1,568,000 respectively; of pigs 1,023,000 and 1,011,000 respectively. the import of wheat and rye during 1911-3 averaged 284,000 tons per annum (including flour), during 1923-5 374,000 tons. the export of butter which in 1913 amounted to about 20,000 tons (of which 16,000 were sent to england) ceased completely during the war, but in 1925 it amounted to 9,000 tons. industry.—the development of industry is best indicated by the number of workers employed; it had risen from about 360,000 in 1913 to 417,000 in 1920. the number fell to 326,000 during the trade depression of 1922 but rose again the following year to 358,000, about the same number as in 1913. a great change-over also took place in industrial production with the result that the iron industry, one of the oldest staple industries of sweden, became less important, while the wood trades, especially the wood pulp and paper tndustries, have come very much to the fore. during the years 1911-3 foreign trade showed a slight excess of imports over exports a average of 26,000,000 kr. per annum); during 1914-8 inclusive a total excess of exports over imports for the five years of 1,345 million kr., zc. 269 million per annum; from 1919 onwards, again an excess of imports. the most important ex- ports were in 1925, timber (291,000,000 kr.), wood pulp (230,000,000 kr.), machines (138,000,000 kr.), paper (135,000,000 kr.), iron ore (122,000,000 kr.), iron and steel (69,000,000 kr.). communications.—t he mercantile marine has been much increased; at the end of 1910 it comprised 1,047,000 tons gross weight, at the end of 1925 1,420,000, an increase of 35°4. steamship and motor- boat tonnage increased by 466,000 tons, sailing vessel tonnage de- creased by 93,000 tons. the system of communications has also been much improved, the total length of the railways in 1910 was 13,829 km., in 1924, 15,710 kilometres. the number of telephones for the same years was 187,000 and 418,000 respectively, and the number of automobiles in i919 was 8500, in 1924, 62,000. banking.—a very noteworthy process of amalgamation had taken place in the banking world. in 1910 there were 80 banks whose unit- ed capital amounted to 543,000,000 kroner. in 1925 the number had fallen to 32 witha capital of 804,000,000 kroner. the largest banks are skandinaviska kredit a.-b. (capital 182,000,000 kroner). svenska handelsbanken (capital 105,000,000 kr.), stockho!m’s enskilde bank (capital 85,000,000 kr.), and a.-b. gdteborgs bank (capital 79,000,000 kroner). finance.—in igtt the state budget amounted to 243,000,000 kr., the budget year 1924-5 to 707,000,000 kroner. if the latter sum is reduced to the same money value as the former it will represent a rise of about 60% during the period and give an idea of the extent to which state activities increased during those years. the income and property taxes during the first mentioned year amounted to 14% of the whole revenue, during the latter year to 20%. the revenue derived from the customs and excise remained pretty uni- form, namely 44 and 43 °o respectively. on the other hand that derived from state undertakings (railways, postal services, telegraphs, forests, landed property, waterfalls and the state bank ‘' riksbank ’’) was reduced from 18 to 13%. the consolidated national debt at the end of 1910 amounted to 537,000,000 kr., at the end of 1925 to 1,717,000,000 kroner. a material change in its investment took place, however during the war. until then 90°, of the whole debt was placed abroad. by 1925 outstanding obligations had been re- deemed, and new loans issued on the home market with the result that 80° of the total debt was in swedish hands. social conditions.—since 1914 many important reforms have been carried out in all matters of soctal usage and legislation. at present sweden must be acknowledged to stand on an equality with the fore- most nations of the world. in 1912 an accident insurance law was 703 passed giving a very wide interpretation to the workmen’s compensa- tion act. an efficient factory inspection organisation was also set up. later on (1919) a law was passed limiting the hours of work in in- * dustry and allied callings to 48 per week. in 1913 a law was passed instituting compulsory old age and disablement insurance and in 1916 an extended insurance law against accident during work. leg- islation on intervention in labour disputes has been revised in 1920 and a law passed setting up a central arbitration court to pronounce judgment in judicial disputes concerning collective labour agreements. the employers central organisation “‘ svenska arbetsgivare foren- ingen '’ comprised at the end of 1924, 2,112 undertakings employ- ing 231,000 workpeople. about 450,000 of these workers seem to have belonged at the same time to trades unions, and about 300,000 of these to the workers’ unions which were branches of the central ‘* lands organisation.” bibliograpity.— swedish year book (statistik arsbok fer sverige), official statistics for sweden (sveriges officiella statistik). stockholm; e, hildebrand the swedish state administration during the war (de svenska statsmakterna och krigstidens folkhushdllning). vol. i-v. (stockholm 1916-20); the state administration and swedish industry during the war (statsmakterna och dea svenska industrien under krigstiden) vol. i-ii. (stockholm 1920-21); economic review, published quarterly by the board of trade (ekonomuisk eversiki, kvar- talsskrift utgiven av kommerskollegium). (stockholm 1921, 25); the swedish economic review, 1ssucd quarterly in english. (stock- holm 1922-25); social handbook (social handbok), ed. by g. h. von koch. (stockholm 1925). ck. a.) swedish literature (sce 26.214).—the years 1910-25 are not marked by the appearance of any writer of such indivi- dual prominence as freding, strindberg or almquist; nor did any very definite tendency declare itself which can be applied to the period as a whole. but several writers came to the front whose work deserves attention, and whose names, in two or three instances, were also known beyond the borders of sweden. apart from much ephemeral pamphleteering, the world war affected the literature of sweden perhaps less than that of any other european country, its chief result being to turn the atten- tion of thoughtful swedish writers away from the present and back to the social life of their country during the roth century. we shall find that many of the best books produced during this period are retrospective in subject. gustaf freding died in 1911 and august strindberg in 1912. the deaths of a. u. baath (ig12) and sophie elkan (1921) have also to be recorded. not much need be added regarding the later production of authors already well established before 1911. they were either silent or worked on lines already familiar. per hallstrem began what will probably become the standard swedish translation of shakespeare. selma lagerlef supplemented her romances with a volume of reminiscences centred round the old home of her family, mdrbacka (eng. trans., 1924), in which the reader will find again much of the atmosphere of gesta berlings saga (1891). though the work itself does not fall within this period, perhaps the outstanding literary event was the publication (1908-11) of the afemoirs, 1782-1861 in four vol. of malla montgomery- silfvelstolpe. the circumstances of her life brought malla mont- gomery into contact with the most significant figures in the so- cial and intellectual sweden of her time, in particular with the eminent writer erik gustaf geijer and his upsala circle, and she was personally well qualified to be the intimate chronicler of the age. the charm and freshness of her writing make the book one of the most delightful in memoir literature, and as a docu- ment it is indispensable. | among the more notable novelists we find on the whole more originality among the women than among the men, some of whom still reflect the influence of strindberg in certain aspects of their work. hildur dixelius-brettner in her trilogy of three generations, prestdottern (1920), prdstdotterns son, sonsonen (1922) achieved an admirable unity of feeling, essentially tragic, but tempered by the humour of real life. elin wagner came to the fore with penn- skaftet, a bright and witty novel of feminist stockholm; she later es- tablished a more permanent reputation with asa-hanna (1918) and den namnl esa (1922) which show a deep human sympathy and some tragic power. the novels of sigfrid siwertz are studies in degeneration, marked by sure psychological insight. the most remarkable of them, selambs (1920), eng. trans. downstream (1922), is a fami- ly history of the now classical rougon-macquart type, but 704 concentrated in a single generation; the workmanship is of high _ order, but the picture suffers somewhat from lack of relief. his later novel, hem frdu babylon, by drawing on the bizarre and fantastic, gives the impression of a paucity cf human material. among retrospective novels of swedish life erik fahlman’s firman a bergson (1914) stands out as the work of a true artist. the hero is a self-made provincial of the mid-roth century with all the virtues and limitations of his race and time. the texture of the book is extraordinarily light, and the subtlety with which the author has created his atmosphere is altogether admirable. k. g. ossiannilsson, who began (in a way that is almost a tradi- tion with swedish writers) as a lyricist, later published a number of novels of contemporary life. he is a writer of originality who has the courage of his opinions and has not shrunk from exposing himself to attack and political isolation by his frankness. his bondlandet (1919), a novel of country life, is a good character study, clearly treated. in ferfrollningen (1924) he deals with modern hysteria with some force. less clear in his method, but full of vivacity, is ludvig nord- strem, most of whose work bears the general title skildringar ur svenska nationens lif. he is most successful in landsorts-bo- heme (1912), a thoroughly amusing satire on provincial bohe- mians, with the editor of the local paper for its central figure. a later work, deda varldar + samhdilsrymden (1920), is an ambi- tious attempt to deal in a fantastically satirical vein with the industrial evolution of sweden and the effect of new economic conditions on the life of the country. nordstrem is tempted by great problems, but seems to lack the balance for carrying them out; his doctrine of ‘ totalism,” as he calls the solidarity of the intellectual and the economic life of the nation, appears to have fallen on stony soil, and he is at his best when restricting him- self to a smaller scene. it may be said generally that swedish humour has a tendency to run to irresponsible lengths and to substitute burlesque for satire. though not entirely free from this propensity, hjalmar bergman in his best work, afarkurells i wadkeping (1919), eng. trans. god’s orchid (1924), succeeded in blending together trag- edy, high comedy and farce while never outraging our sense of fitness and psychological probability. this book, the action of which is concentrated into a single day in the life of a provincial town, is something of a tour de force, but at the same time a remarkably trenchant study of character. henning berger (1872-1925) was a realist of pessimistic outlook, whose strength lay in the delineation of the life of great cities. his best work ts the dreamland trilogy, in which he depicts with great variety of treatment the loss of illusions suffered by swedes of the educated class in america and the brutalising effect of standardisation on the mental and moral character of the individual. returning to stockholm in fate morgana (1911), his banker hero has renounced his ideals and settled down to a comfortable epicurean view of life. berger’s later work, in the more confined atmosphere of the scandinavian capitals, lapsed into the novel of scandal, which considerably limits its interest. a lyricist of serious out- look and melodious quality arose in anders osterling. to sum up: while contemporary literature affords an admir- able retrospect of roth century life and manners, the future historian will only find in it fragmentary and distorted material for a picture of the 2zoth. writers in their dread of the common- place have exaggerated the exceptional and fantastic, thereby detracting from the documentary value of their work. but this is a fault which is not peculiar to the literature of sweden. bibliography.—fredrik beik, sveriges moderna litteratur (1921); gunnar jorn, svenska diktarportraett (uppsala, 1924). cy swimming (see 26.231), a sport in which many changes have been witnessed since 1910. in 1910 f. e. beaurepaire of australia scored a series of remarkable victories 1n english championships, winning every event from roo yd. to one mile inclusive. the following year an hawaiian, pau kahanamoku, h. hebner of chicago and george hodgson of canada, set up world’s records at the stockholm olympiad. apart from the prowess of the foregoing, the stockholm fixture was noteworthy for the advent of women into olympic swimming swimming contests. miss fannie durack of australia won the sprint in record time, while a quartette of british ladies secured the team event. a year later j. g. hatfield of england came to the front, and proved supreme in all distance events. naturally, international swimming fixtures were completely suspended during the war period, yet marked progress was recorded in the united states and to a lesser degree in european countries. improvements in method —tvhe american coaches, l. de b. handley, new york, f. j. sulivan, princeton and chicago, and w. bachrach, chicago, evolved a new variety of the crawl stroke which proved so effective over distances up to one mile that the trudgeon stroke has been rendered obsolete. handley’s experi- mental work was restricted to the members of the women’s swimming assn., new york, and within five successive years he was solely responsible for the development of five world cham- pions, claire calligan, ethelda bleibtrey, charlotte boyle, helen wainwright and gertrude ederle. in the middle west, sullivan and bachrach brought to light notabilities of the calibre of perry mcgillivray, harry hebner and norman ross. sweden also discovered arne borg and ovar trolle prior to the cessation of hostilities, whilst the appearance of the american- belgian, martial van schelle, in international contests against france, sv.eden and holland in 1919, proved a factor of progres- sive import. olympic games.—the governing swimming associations in great britain ceased operations during the war; but in certain areas commendable efforts were made to keep the flag flying by intensive work among juniors, and the reward exceeded all expectations. britain’s only olympic success at the paris games was scored by miss lucy morton, who first came into prominence in rgrs. apart from miss morton the junior coaching propa- ganda was directly responsible for the rise to fame of miss c. m. jeans, miss h. m. james, miss i. gilbert, miss g. carson, miss m. spencer, miss d. b. hart, a. rawlinson, r. flint and w. stoney, all of whom won national titles in the post-war period. the olympic games at antwerp in 1920 supplied convincing proof of american supremacy, for the stars and stripes were carried to success in the free back stroke and team events in record time, but the breast swimming fell to scandinavian con- icstants. new records were established with clockwork regu- larity. the hawaiian-americans, kahanomoku, in the 100 metres (1 min. 1 2—5 sec.), kealoha, in the back stroke 100 metres (x min. 15 1-5 sec.), being the outstanding performers among the men, whilst miss bleibtrey set up new world’s figures for 100 metres (1 min. 13 3-5 sec.), and 300 metres (4 min. 34 sec.). the antwerp olympiad was noteworthy for the advent of mere school children into the olympic games. nils skeglund, a 14 year old swedish boy, took second honours in the men’s high diving event, and miss aileen riggin, a 13 year old ameri- can, earned world fame by annexing the fancy diving contest against all comers, with her 14 year old countrywoman, miss helen wainwright taking second place. swedish nominees took the high diving for men and women, but the fancy diving fell an easy prey to america’s representatives. the americans’ speed, style and form, made a tremendous impression and their strokes were immediately copied through- out the world. arne borg, in sweden, andrew charlton, in australia and miss hilda james, in england, made noticeable improvement, whilst new zealand developed a quartette of women who held forth the promise of rivalling the americans. in 1922 miss james visited america, but although she showed world record pace she was defeated by miss ederle and miss wainwright, the english girl’s only important success being her victory in the national medley championship at indianapolis. arne borg made a world tour in 1923 when he met the 16 year old australian, andrew charlton, the latter proving successiul in three contests, when new records were tabulated. borg, however, eclipsed charlton’s figures later, when he had become accli- matised. under the mentorship of w. bachrach of chicago, the ilhnois athletic club produced john weissmuller, a well-set-up youth of austrian descent. weissmuller created world’s figures for swinton—switzerland every distance from so yd. up to and including 500 metres; he also proved equally skilful when swimming on the back, estab- lishing world’s record for 100 metres and 150 yards. weiss- muller won the 100 and 400 metres events at the olympic games at paris in 1924, his respective times being 59 sec. and 5 min. 4 1-5 seconds. in the goo metres weissmuller was forced to his utmost to defeat arne borg and charlton, as only 2 2-5 sec. separated the first three. charlton, however, won the 1,500 metres in 20 min. 6 2-5 sec., breaking the olympic and world’s record of 22 min. flat created by the canadian george hodgson at stockholm in 1920. america almost swept the board at paris, but it was noticeable that other countries including sweden, australia, england and japan were rapidly closing up to the americans. takaishi, a tiny japanese, returned 1 min. 1 2-5 sec. in the roo metres, and in the 1,500 metres semi-final he returned 21 min. 58 3-5 sec. japan took fourth place behind america, australia and sweden in the 800 metres team race, finishing 14 1-5 sec. ahead of the british team. bin_tographuy.—j. wolffe, the textbook of swimming (1922); g. barnes, swimming and diving (1923); f. sachs, the com plete swimmer (1923); m. and j. racster cobbett, swimming (192.4); a. and h. w. sinclair, swimming (1924); a. sinclair, swimming (1924). olympic games, antwerp, 1920 (1924), containing records of all olympic games to 1924 and world records. (w. j. ho.) swinton, sir ernest dunlop (1868- ), british soldier, was born oct. 21 1868 and commissioned in the royal engineers in 1888. in the south african war he was first adjutant and then commander of the 1st railway pioneer regiment. in 1904 swin- ton produced the defence of duffer’s drift, a tactical study which became an unofficial textbook in the british and indian army, and an official one in the u.s. army. in rgo9, when an instructor at woolwich, he wrote, under the pseudonym of ole-luk-oie, a book of short stories entitled the green curve, which, by its combination of literary power and military imagi- nation, gained a wide reputation. appointed secretary of the historical section, committee of imperial defence, in 1g10, he compiled the official history of the russo-japanese war. this work, which led him to grasp the dominating role of the machine gun in future warfare, was to prove, in conjunction with his active interest in the early caterpillar tractors, a vital factor in the causation of the tank. soon after the outbreak of war in 1914 he was sent out to france by lord kitchener as the official mili- tary correspondent (‘‘ eyewitness’). in this capacity he was able to appreciate the complete paralysis of the offensive brought about by the defensive power of serried machine guns and aggra- vated by wire entanglements. swinton was the first to diagnose and suggest the antidote to this tactical disease, and his pro- posals to sir maurice hankey, secretary of the committee of imperial defence, in oct. 1914 became the first link in the causa- tion of the machine gun and wire destroyer, afterwards chris- tened the tank (q.v.). in 1915 he returned to england to become secretary tothe war committee of the cabinet. in this capacity he had much to do with the preparation of the first tanks and commanded the first units of these weapons before they were sent to france. he was created k.b.e. in 1923 and in 1925 was appointed chichele professor of military history at oxford. switzerland (see 26.238), a republic of central europe, bounded n. by germany, e. by austria and liechtenstein, 5s. by italy and w. by france. its area is 15,975 sq. m. and the population (1920) 3,880,320. i. political history constitutional changes —the uncompromising nature of the treaty of confederation, 1815, actually caused the civil war of 1847, but the constitution of 1848, amplified in 1874, has never been entirely reorganised. in 1891, however, the right of demand- ing partial reorganisation was conceded to any body of 50,000 swiss citizens. this democratic measure, proposed some years earlier, had met with little opposition, and it soon proved of great value. proportional representation, on the soutiay: though put 795 forward at the same time, had a long and bitter struggle before it. owing to the peculiar opportunities afforded them by the federal system the cantons, individually, were able to demon- strate the advantages of the new method of representation by adopting it for the cantonal council elections. between 1891 and 1905, therefore, proportional representation was adopted in several cantons, but the promoters of the whole movement were almost exclusively the minority parties—socialists, conserva- tives and liberal democrats—whereas many of the independent radicals (in power since 1848) seemed more and more in favour of increased centralisation and extension of the powers of the federal assembly. these were inclined to oppose the adoption of the new method for the election of the national council, and the struggle continued with more or less heat, until the reaction against the over-centralisation due to the temporary exigencies of war-time gave added strength to the movement, and pro- portional representation was adopted in 1og19. during this time direct popular election of the local executive authorities had been introduced in a good many cantons, but suggestions that the same method should be applied in the case of the federal executive met with no encouragement. as switzerland has no so-called “‘ parliamentary system,” her central government is very firmly established, and she is there- fore able to carry out great public enterprises with the utmost thoroughness and consistency. social legislation.—a striking exampuie of this was the build- ing up of the system of social legislation. a proposal for insur- ance against sickness and accident was rejected by referendum in 1900, but a clause in the same bill dealing with military insurance came into force in 1901. in 1911 the rejected clauses were submitted to the people on a new basis and this time accepted. ‘the opening of the swiss accident insurance insti- tute in lucerne in 1918 was, however, mercly a compromise; compulsory insurance against old age and sickness, and insur- ance in favour of surviving dependents were not secured until 1925, when, in order to forestall an extreme measure on the part of the socialists, the other parties voted for the insertion of a suitable paragraph in the constitution. another example of social legislation was the introduction of the eight-hour day or forty-eight-hour week (in certain exceptional cases fifty-two hours being allowed), by means of the hours of work act of 1921, an extension of the factory act of 1914. although this measure struck a decided blow at economic liberalism, it was not a sign of state socialism; the swiss nation has never favoured a tendency in that direction. thus a motion for the introduction of a direct federal tax was defeated by a large majority in 1917, as was also a property tax proposed by the left in 1922. the feeling against extreme centralisation was so strong that the confederation never even succeeded in getting complete control over military affairs, and to this day the cantons still retain certain powers. it was, however, otherwise with regard to the consolidation of the icgal system, though that also, had been opposed in the past. after long and careful preparation, the swiss civil code came into force on jan. 1 1912, and, though the task of establishing a uniform penal code has not yet been brought to a successful close, a firm foundation has been laid for this also. the draft has been actively opposed in certain cases—for instance, the existing penal code of the catholic canton of fribourg was revised a short time ago—so that there seems little likelihood of it being accepted in the near future. extension of federal powers.—owing to this extension of their powers and the continual development of the administra- tion, the strength of the central authoritics steadily increased. the confederation was endowed with more and more power in matters calling for uniform treatment, such as the control of waters and forest throughout the country. by the year 1906 the scheme for the state purchase of the railways had already been suggested, and, when the canton of ticino proposed selling part of its water-power to a foreign country, the federal assembly decided to make the export of electric power, if ob- taincd from the national waters, subject to the approval of the 706 federal council. the national waters act came into force on dec. 22 1916, but its importance was not generally recognised until the federal railways were electrified. railway purchase—the state purchase of the railways, however, and the establishment of a bank of issue—the national bank of switzerland—tended more than anything else to strengthen the authority of the confederation. the dislike of the people to any very great concentration of economic power in private enterprise had manifested itself more particularly in connection with these questions, but, on weighty economic grounds, the development of the railways during the latter half of the roth century was only feasible by means of private capital. in the first decade of the new century conditions were very different, the various railway lines had already justified their existence and there was much less reason to fear rash and expensive undertakings. notwithstanding all this, there was a good deal of opposition to the proposal of state purchase, but it was due less to economic considerations than to apprehensions of the ever-growing power of the central authorities, which was felt in some quarters to be not altogether in accordance with liberalism and federalism. indeed, in face of the deficit accu- mulated during the war years, the question of handing the rail- ways back to private enterprise was mooted from time to time in the country. public opinion was excited most of all, however, by the st. gothard convention, concluded with italy and germany in april 1923, after three years of controversy. an agreement of some sort was inevitable, as these countries had subsidised the construction of the swiss railways, but the terms of this con- vention, which gave them most favoured nation treatment on all the railways throughout switzerland, and restricted federal rights in the matter of fares, was regarded by many as a serious limitation of the sovereignty of the state and of economic freedom. so strong was this feeling that the people demanded that, in future, no convention should be concluded by the state for a period exceeding 15 years, without being first subjected to a referendum. this proposal was adopted by plebiscite and consequently became law. neutrality—when the world war broke out in aug. 1914, switzerland was confronted with new and difficult problems. the army was at once mobilised as a protective measure and on aug. 4 the federal council issued a formal declaration of neutrality to those states which had guaranteed her inviolabil- ity and neutrality in 1815, and to some others, among them italy. this declaration expressly stated that switzerland would maintain the neutrality and inviolability of her territory with all the means at her disposal, the federal council, endowed with plenipotentiary powers in this respect also, took the necessary measures for securing the national credit and solv- ing the serious economic problem. agreements were made with the belligerents on either side with the object of ensuring a constant supply of foodstuffs, and, as a result, the “ societe suisse de surveillance economique ” (s.s.s.) was established on the one hand, and a “ central office ”’ (treuhandstelle) for trade with germany and austria on the other. the newly founded “ agence des prisonniers de guerre ” opened a fresh field of activity to the committee of the inter- national red cross and rendered very great service to all the belligerent countries, switzerland also acted as intermediary for the exchange of seriously wounded prisoners, and for the repatriation of interned civilians, while many of the sick and wounded, both prisoners of war and civilians, regained health and strength when transferred to the internment camps in switzerland. (see rep cross.) during the war, too, the swiss legations in many countries took over the representation of the interests of foreign powers, and this work assumed such proportions that a special department was created to deal with it. the diplomatic representation of liechtenstein was handed over to switzerland permanently, a customs union was arranged between the two states in 1923, and the confederation after- wards took over the postal, telegraph and telephone services of the principality. ee switze rland relations with russia.—a soviet delegation visited switzer- land in 1918, but it acted mainly as an organ of propaganda and espionage, and the revolutionary tendencies of the general strike in that year were undoubtedly aggravated by its influence. the difficulties of the military in counteracting these tendencies, together with the suffering caused by a widespread epidemic of influenza, roused public feeling, and the delegation was requested to leave the country. the assassination of vorovsky, the soviet minister to rome, on swiss territory in 1923 widened the breach and no diplomatic relations had been established between the two governments up to 1926. the savoy free zones——under art. 435, the treaty of versailles guarantees the perpetual neutrality of switzerland but deprives her of the right of occupying savoy, a right she had been unable to exercise since it was conferred in 1815, as the conditions of occupation had never been defined. considering the political situation in europe, the possible exercise of this right, or even its continued existence, would have been a menace rather than a safeguard, and might have involved switzerland in international complications inconsistent with her neutrality. under the same article, the treaty provides for a re-adjustment of the (free trade) zones question by an agreement between france and switzerland. france has since declared herself ready to accept the decision of an international court of arbi- tration, but the question still (1925) remained unsettled, nor has the neutrality clause yet been ratified. entry into the league.—the principle of neutrality played a great part in determining the entry of switzerland into the league of nations, and its influence was two-fold. on the one hand, it seemed to bind the country to steer clear of all inter- national conflicts and thereby to debar her from joining the league, while, on the other, the interests of the confederation, as a neutral state, were centred in the very objects which the league was called into being to attain. the federal council took keen interest in the new organisation from the outset, and tried by every possible means to ensure the entry of switzerland. more- over, geneva had been selected for the headquarters of the league, and it would have appeared somewhat ungracious had switzerland refused to join, and thus increased the difficulty of establishing the league. as the question was, of course, sub- jected to a referendum, the decision of the people in this instance became a matter of international importance. the taking of the referendum was delayed, for, in a reply to an “‘ aide-memoire ”’ sent by the federal council in dec. ro1o9, the great powers stated that “a declaration of entry which was subject to the result of a referendum could not be regarded as an entry at all.” still greater uneasiness was caused, however, by another passage in the reply. this stated that the conference of ambassadors in paris, under the presidency of m. millerand, were deliberating as to whether the entry of switzerland into the league would be consistent with the maintenance of her neutrality. after drawing up a memorandum and sending a special mission to london, the federal council received a note stating that the allied and associated powers were bound by article 435 with regard to the perpetual neutrality of switzer- land, and that all other questions had been referred to the council of the league. a delegation from the swiss con- federation obtained an audience of the conference in feb. 1920 and in the same month all difficulties were overcome by the decision that switzerland should be required to co-operate in the case of economic sanctions only. the fact that the independent existence of little nations side by side with great and powerful states is recognised, not as a mere matter of expediency but as their just due, is in itself a splendid tribute to the liberal and humanitarian tendencies of modern political thought. it behooves these little nations to participate in any international movement serving the interests of humanity, and the large majority, when the referendum was taken in may 1920,showed that switzerland was ready and willing to take her proper place and enter upon the new phase of her history which began with her enrolment as a member of the league of nations. switzerland the swiss delegation to the league maintained an attitude of extreme reserve with regard to all questions connected with the application of the peace treaties, with the exception of three which had a special interest for switzerland. these were the armenian question, on humanitarian grounds; the question of minorities, which switzerland was peculiarly fitted to deal with, and the reconstruction of austria and hungary, which naturally aroused her warm sympathy. ‘the league appointed a swiss to presideover the league council at danzig, and two swiss acted for the league in the saar basin. from the outset, however, switzerland regarded the maintenance of peace as the primary object of the league and she therefore was a keen advocate of the permanent court of international justice as the best means of attaining it. m. max hubcr, whose appoint- ment had been moved by switzerland and austria, was made judge of the permanent court in sept. 1921, and in sept. 1924 he was elected president. bris_iography.—f. fleiner, “‘ die fortbildung der schweizerischen bundesverfassung, seit dem jahre 1874,” in jahrbuch des effentlichen rechts der gegenwart, vol. t (1907); “‘ die partialrevisionen der schwei- zerischen bundesverfassung in dlen jahren 1906-13,” zb7d. vol. 8 (1914); z. giacomette, “‘ das verfassungsrechtsleben der schweizerischen eidgenossenschaft in den jahren 1914-21,” zbid. vol. 11 (1922); f. fleiner, schwetserisches bundesstaatsrecht (vitibingen, 1923); m. huber, die schweizerische neutralitdt und der v6lkerbund (1926); c. g. picavet, “la democratie suisse d’apres guerre. problemes interieurs. referendum et centralisation,” in revue des sciences politiques, vol. 47 (1924); w. e. rappard, l’entree de la suisse dans la socvete des nations (1924); e. v. waldkirch, art. 435 des versailler vertrages in seiner rechtlichen bedeniung fiir die dauernde neutralitat der schweiz die neutralisation nordsavoyens, der fretzonen itochsa- voyens und der landschaft ger. (1924); e. gagliardi, zistozre de la suisse, vol. 2 (lausanne, 1925). (c. br.) il. defence the swiss army is a national militia. its only permanent forces with the colours are the corps of instructors and the fortress guards. the federal council is the supreme head of the military administra- tion and the federal govt. is in charge of all larger military ques- tions, although the cantonal authorities exercise part of the adminis- tration and promote officers up to the rank of captain. service is compulsory and universal, liability to serve extends from the 20th to the 48th year, the first 12 years being passed in the ‘‘ auszug ”’ or ‘‘ elite,’’ the second eight in the landwehr, and the last eight in the landsturm (cavalry, 11 years in the auszug, eight in the land- wehr). the recruits’ courses last 90 days for cavalry; 75 for artillery, air force and fortress troops; 65 for infantry and engineers and 60 days for other arms. troops in the auszug then do annual “ repeti- tion courses ’”’ lasting 11 days (14 days for artillery and fortress troops). in the landwehr there is only one course every four years. switzerland is divided into six divisional districts. the strength of the first line troops is six divisions and certain army troops. the ist, 3rd, 5th and 6th divisions consist of two brigades each of two regiments of three battalions, one brigade of mountain infantry, two cyclist companies, one machine-gun group, 12 batteries of field artillery, two field howitzer batteries, two squadrons of dragoons and one battalion of engineers. the 2nd and 4th divisions have three infantry brigades and no mountain brigade. a cavalry brigade consists of two regiments. a mountain brigade consists of two regi- ments of three battalions of mountain infantry, two mountain batteries and one company of engineers. altogether there are i10 battalions of infantry, 72 field batteries, 12 howitzer batteries, nine mountain batteries and six cavalry regiments (each of three squad- rons), besides 12 squadrons of divisional cavalry (guides). there is a staff organisation for three army corps. the peace establish- ment under training in 1924 was 46,200. the fortress troops, mostly landwehr, amount to about 21,000 men. the landwehr is organised in 37 battalions and 36 squadrons. altogether switzerland can mobilise nearly 200,000 men (combatants), while the landsturm - amounts to about another 60,000, the air force consists of a flying group, composed of staff, five flights (first line), the pilot’s corps, corps of observers, one company photographers and one air park company. the aircraft (including reserve, but excluding training, machines) consisted in 1924 of 60 fighting planes, 150 reconnaissance and nine captive balloons. (x) iii. economic and financial history the last years before the world war were perhaps the most prosperous in the annals of the swiss confederation. foreign trade had by 10913 reached a per capita figure of 850 francs, which is more than 25% higher than the figure for the united kingdom. the import and export figures clearly reflect the peculiarities of her economic structure. the imports were in 707 igtr1 to 1913 divided almost equally between foodstuffs, raw materials and manufactured products. switzerland, which is after great britain the least self-sustaining country of europe, imported grain from russia, the united states, argentina, rumania and germany, in the order named; meat, chiefly from france and italy; sugar from germany; malt and hops from austria-hungary and wine from spain and italy. for her raw materials, which made up about one-third of her imports, switz- erland was dependent mainly upon germany (coal and iron), france (silk and iron), united states and egypt (cotton about in equal proportions), great britain (iron) and japan (silk). swiss exports, although they also had advanced rapidly and had reached their highest figure in 1913, had been relatively losing ground when compared to the imports. nearly 75° of the export trade was in manufactured goods, raw materials rep- resenting little more than 10% % and foodstuffs less than 15% of the total exports. the german empire was before the war switzerland’s most important customer and by far her most important supplier. great britain, which before 1914 usually occupied the fifth place among the exporters to switzerland, coming immediately after her four continental neighbours, was second as a customer and the only important customer whose purchases regularly exceeded her sales. public finance.—the public finances were on the whole on a sound basis, and public indebtedness was not high. the revenue of the federal government was derived in the disquicting pro- portion of 85°% from the customs, whereas the cantons and the municipalities relied mainly for their revenue on property and income taxes. this general division of indirect and direct taxa- tion between the national government and the local adminis- trations was well adapted to the needs of peace, but proved untenable in time of war. the war period switzerland was peculiarly exposed to the repercussions of the war, not only on account of her geographical position, but also by reason of the composition of hcr population, the nature of her foreign trade and her system of public finance. the main demographical results of the war are apparent if we compare the results of the census of 1910 with those of 1920. the annual rate of increase which had been 12-5 per tooo inhab- itants between 1900 and 1910, fell to 3-3 per 1000 in the succeed- ing decennial period. the number of foreigners decreased by about 150,000 and dropped from nearly 15% to about 10%» of the total population. the position of switzerland from 1914 to 1918 may be defined as that of a state politically neutral and economically dependent upon the goodwill of her warring neighbours. the allics, from whom alone switzerland could receive the raw materials and the foodstuffs without which her population would have been con- demned to unemployment and starvation, consented to their entrance only on condition that they should not in any shape be re-exported to the central powers. germany on the other hand, whose coal and iron switzerland could no more forego than the allies’ grain and cotton, was not prepared to supply these com- modities except in exchange for those she needed most, which were foodstuffs. under pressure of these circumstances switzer- land sought to increase her production of wheat and fuel, while limiting to the utmost her internal consumption. from 1914 to 1918 switzerland’s imports of raw materials fell from 4,600,000 metric tons to 2,800,c00 and of foodstuffs from 1,300,000 to 700,000. the following figures relating to the two fundamental commodities of grain and coal show both the decline in quantity and the increase in value of swiss imports during the war:— iqiz/iqi4|iqis/iqig 1917/1918 9} 7| 7] 8) 4) 3 163 | 248 | 404] 257 | 202 grain (millions of metric quintals) value (millions of francs) coal (in millions of metric quin- tals) value (mi io ame (ic 0) ee 100 | 125/151 lions of fi rancs) 708 while switzerland’s imports were then declining very appre- ciably her exports were on the whole rather increasing. the commodities, the export of which was most stimulated by the war, were embroideries, machinery, chemicals, silk yarn, wrought copper, iron forgings and aluminium. the revenues of the federal state, derived mainly from the customs and from the postal, telegraphic and telephone monop- olies, declined pari passu with the volume of trade. its expen- diture was enormously increased by the cost of the mobilisation ~and by the measures taken to counteract the rise in prices. the figures relating to the budget, given below, tell only a minor part of the tale of increasing financial distress because the cost of mobilisation, as also certain exceptional receipts, were not included in the budget, but were charged toa special capital account. with the outbreak of hostilities the army was mobilised for the defence of the neutrality and territorial integrity of the country and was partially maintained under arms throughout the war. the total cost of mobilisation, from aug. 1914 up to the end of 1918, amounted to 1,076,000,000 francs. in order to mect this and other extraordinary expenditure and the rapidly increasing deficits due to secondary causes, new taxes were introduced, existing rates were raised, and loans were floated at home and in the united states. the new taxes were: (1) a general property and earned income tax levied in 1915; (2) a war excess profits tax, introduced in 1916 and (3) a federal stamp tax, which be- came payable from april 1918 onwards. by the end of 1918 these three sources had yielded about 345,000,000 francs. the surplus of expenditure was covered by 11 public loans, amounting to nearly 1,000,000,000 fr., all of which except 15,000,000 fr. were raised on the domestic market, at rates hitle exceed- ing 5%. the main effect of the war on the public finances of switzerland was that, in spite of very heavy taxation, the debt of the federal state had increased about tenfold from 1913 to 1918, and that the total indebtedness of the cantons had nearly doubled. the surplus of births over deaths, although somewhat less than it had been before 1914, is still (1926) between 6 and 7 per 1,000 inhabitants. as the population did not increase after the war in proportion, there must have been an excess of emi- gration over immigration. an unemployment crisis which followed was for a time rela- tively more severe than the british, and similarly entailed state assistance to the unemployed. fortunately for switzerland it proved less persistent. by the end of 1923 the worst scemed to be over, and statistics for 1924 and 1925 showed a marked increase in almost all branches of manufactures and a corresponding decrease of unemployment. but the great menace to the economic prosperity of switzer- land, which is so clearly dependent upon its export trade, is the recrudescence of protectionism all over the world, not least in switzerland herself. no country can suffer more than switzer- land from the spread of economic nationalism and none should more warmly welcome a wholesome return to a spirit of real international co-operation in the economic field. when the war was over, the general expectation in switzer- land was that public revenue would automatically increase with the return of economic prosperity and that public expenditure would no less automatically shrink with the decline in the cost of living and the diminution of state activities. in order to redeem the public debt the people, by means of a constitutional referendum, had, on may 4 1919, authorised the introduction of a renewed direct federal war tax on property and earned income. this tax was to be levied yearly until its yield, added to that of the already existing excess war profits tax, would have suthiced to pay off the mobilisation expenses. these expectations were not fulfilled. the ordinary annual revenue increased, it is true, from ror million francs in 1918 to 283 million in 1924. but the or- dinary expenditure increased at a faster rate than the ordinary revenue and the mobilisation cost, which disappeared from the so-called annual capital account, was almost equalled in amount by the extraordinary expenditure. the public debt actually rose from 1,507,000,000 francs at the sydenham—sydney end of 1918 to 2,304,000,000 by the end of 1924. the increased general expenditure was due to the increased debt charges, which to-day far exceed the total pre-war budget, as well as to increased expenditure in all government departments, due to a larger number of state officials with more pay, and in general to higher administrative standards. in the federal budget for 1926, the ordinary revenue and expenditure at last almost balanced. a sinking fund was to be set up which should assure complete repayment of the public debt within 40 years. foreign trade (in millions of francs) 1913 | ig14] 1916) 1920] 1922 | 1923 | 1924 total imports . 1920 |1478 |2379 14243 [1914 |2243 [2504 total exports 1376 |1187 |2448 |3277 |1762 [1760 |2070 imports from: (sermany 631 | 472 | 620 | 809 | 366 | 417 | 486 france 348 | 236 | 280 | 603 | 303 | 395 | 454 dey te ue see gs 207 | 390 | 222 | 325 | 200 | 224 | 289 austria hungary 108 | 45 {| 61 72'| 25'] art! 34 risa: 0s 2. g12. lh, “gi ze a4 8 9 7 10 great britain 113} 160 | 248 | 466 | 174 | 182 | 184 united states 118 | 565 | 354 | 865 | i90 | 17 207 exports to: germany . .| 306 | 709 | 445 | 252 | 193 | 123 | 328 great britain . .| 236 | 424 | 268 | 646 | 348 | 363 | 3905 france . . «| t41 | gor | 466 | 522 | 240 | 214 | 206 united states 136:.| 33 g8 | 283 | 215 | 209 | 206 italy. . . . . . .| 89] 150 97 | 166 74 | or o4 austria hungary .| 78 | 195 ] tor | 106'| 48 65'| go! russia. . . . . .| 59 61 5 i i 2 2 1 austria alone. revenue and expenditure (in millions of francs) cantonal federal revenue | expenditure | revenue | expenditure 1925 not available 288.7 305.2! 1924 450.2 487.3° 2506.9 285.2! 1923 505.0 528.2 253.4 298.9 ' budget. bretrograpny.—this study is based mainly on public documents which can be readily obtained from the official sources. a complete, thorough and recent work of the economic life and institutions of switzerland is the following: volkswirtschaft, arbeitsrecht und sasialversicherung der schweiz, im auftrag des schweizerischen bun- desrates ilerausgegeben vom eidgenessischen volkswirtschafts-depart- ment, 2 vol. (einsiedeln 1925.) cw. e.r.) sydenham, george sydenham clarke, ist baron (1848- ), british soldier and administrator, was born in lincolnshire july 4 1848. educated at haileybury and wim- bledon, and afterwards at the royal military academy, in 1868 he entered the royal engineers. having served in various expeditions abroad, he returned to england in 1885, and was employed at the war office until 1892. from 1894 to roor he was superintendent of the royal carriage factory at woolwich. sir george, who was created k.c.m.g. in 1893, earned a great reputation as an authority on military questions, particularly fortification. on his retirement from woolwich he was made a member of the committee on war office reorganisation. in root he was appointed governor of victoria (australia), and on his retirement in 1904 he became secretary to the committee of imperial defence. from 1907 to 1913 he was governor of bombay. he had been created g.c.m.g. in 1905, and in 1913 was raised to the peerage. in addition to his classic work on fortification (1890; 2nd ed. 1907), his publications include the navy and the nation (1897) and imperial defence (1808). sydney, australia (see 26.278), the capital of new south wales and the chief port of australia, had in 1922 a population of 109,970 in the city proper, and 981,400 in the metropolitan area in 1923 (over a million in 1925). the city has an area of 3,327 ac., and the metropolitan area, which includes 40 neighbour- ing municipalities, kuringgai, and the islands in port jackson, covers 185 square miles. the population increased by 42% between 1911—21, and the proportion borne by that of the met- ropolitan area to that of the whole state had risen to 44% in 1923. the death-rate is low, 8.9 per 1,000 in 1922 and 9.6 per sykes—synthetic resins 1,000 in 1923, and in 1922 the infant mortality rate fell to 56 per 1,000. since the world war many buildings have been divided into tenements and flats, owing to the scarcity of houses. to guard against the growth of slum conditions much has been done recently in town planning and the destruction of insanitary areas, and several model suburbs have been built. a large number (11.321) of new buildings were authorised in 1923-4. there are 647 ac. of parks and open spaces in the city and 3,700 ac. in suburban areas. zoological gardens were opened in taronga park, to the north of the harbour, in 1916. work on the city and suburban electric railway, begun in 1916, was stopped in the following year, and was not resumed until 1922. there were 292 m. of tramway track in 1923. two large storage dams were in course of construction in 1925 and another was sanctioned. in 1923 sydney possessed 4,173 industrial establishments, 62% of the total for new south wales, manufacturing mostly clothes and machinery. about half the wool export of australia 1s dealt with in the wool sales. in 1913 a commonwealth bank was inaugurated and a mint for bronze and silver coinage in 1916. a state conservatorium of music was opened in 1915. since the foundation in r901 of the port trust, which now controls 57.950 ft. of wharfage, a large reconstruction scheme has been carried out in the harbour. it includes the demolition of old buildings on the water front in order to widen streets and erect houses for harbour workers, and a new road too ft. wide along part of the front; also wharves, jetties and sheds and much work on dredging. there are now 136 berths (91 of them in darling harbour), equipment for wheat shipment on a spit called glebe island, an explosive store on spectacle island, fire-fighting apparatus on goat island, a coal and oil depdet at ball’s head, and ‘a naval depet on garden island (sydney being a first class naval station). fort denison is now a light- house. of the 14,284 ac. of water in the harbour about 3,000 have a depth of 35 ft. and over. a contract was signed in 1924 for the construction of a bridge with an overall length of 3,370 ft. across the harbour from dawes point to milson’s point, for rail and vehicular traffic. the foundation stone was laid in 1925 and the work was estimated to take six years. sydney claims the largest tonnage in the british empire after london, liverpool and cardiff. trade had almost reached the pre-war level in 1923. sykes, sir mark (1879-1019), british traveller and politi- cian, was born march 16 1879, the only child of sir tatton sykes, 5th bart., of sledmere, yorks. he was educated at beau- mont college, windsor, and afterwards at the ecole des jesuites, monaco, and jesus college, cambridge. he served in the south african war (1902), in 1904 became secretary to mr. george wyndham in ireland and in 1905 went to constantinople as honorary attache to the british embassy, remaining there until 1907. before this, however, he had begun a series of travels and explorations, especially in turkey and the near kast, and pub- lished through five turkish provinces (1900); dar-ul-[stam (1904); and five mansions of the house of othman (1909). he also prepared maps of the northwestern region of mesopo- tamia and of the southern districts of palestine, and his knowledge of these regions proved invaluable during the world war. in ro11 he was elected to parliament for central hull asa conservative, and in 1913 he succeeded his father as 6th baronet. on the outbreak of war in 1914, sir mark sykes raised a battalion of the yorkshire regiment, but did not proceed with it to france. he was sent on important special missions to russia, mesopo- tamia and syria, and published in 1915 the caliphs’ last heritage. he died suddenly in paris feb. 16 1919. symbolism: see painting. synge, john millington (1871-10909), irish dramatist, was born at rathfarnham near dublin april 16 1871. educated at trinity college, dublin, he travelled for some years on the continent, returning in 1898 to the aran isles. here he wrote a number of sketches dealing with the life of the islanders, which were later collected in the aran islands (1907). when, in 1904, he became a director of the newly opened abbey theatre, dub- 709 lin, he had already produced two one-act plays, the shadow of the glen (1903) and riders to the sea (1904), published in one volume (1905). the well of the saints, a three-act play produced in 1905, was regarded by some as an affront to irish morals, and ‘when the playboy of the western world appeared in jan. 1907, it was interrupted every night for a week by an organised disturb- ‘ance. when the real merits of the play became known, it contrib- uted largely to the fame of the abbey theatre. synge’s latest volumes were a collection of his poetical works entitled poems and translations (1909), and another play, deirdre of the sorrows (1910) which he all but completed before his death. synge’s greatest work is probably the playboy, though some critics give pride of place to deirdre. synge died in dublin march 24 1909. brs_iograriy.—w. b. yeats, synge and the ireland of tis time (1911); f. l. bickley, j. af. synge and the irish dramatic movement (1912): p. p. howe, j. af. synge. a critical study (1912); j. mase- field, john af, synge: a few personal recollections, with biographical notes (1915); j. thorning, j. af. synge: etc. (1921). synthetic resins.—the nature of synthetic resins may best be realised from a consideration of the character, both chemical and physical, of natural resins (see 23.183). comparison with natural resins.—synthetic resins possess all or most of the physical characteristics of the natural resins, and in some cases have in addition the distinctive property of hardening under the action of heat. definite chemical resem- blance is perhaps only clearly discernible between synthetic resins of phenolic origin and certain natural resins in respect to the presence of phenolic hydroxyl groups, e.g., acaroid resin and japan lac are natural resins containing phenolic groups. syn- thetic resins are such resins as are artificially produced by the chemical interaction of substances of definite composition. the resins produced in this way are usually of complicated and indeterminate composition. their importance lies in their industrial use, as substitutes for natural resins in the varnish industry, as insulating material in the electrical industry, and as the basis for the production of moulded articles for ornamental and decorative use, such as umbrella handles, buttons, beads, brush backs, doorplates and knobs, etc. formaldehyde-phenolic resins. —the growing interest in syn- thetic resins may be said to date its rise from the activities, about the year 1910, of dr. l. h. baekeland in america, and the successful commercial development of a resin from phenol and formaldehyde known as bakelite (q.v.). this resin is represent- ative of one main class of synthetic resin prepared to-day, in most countries, in one form or another, by the interaction of phenolic substances, such as phenol and cresol from coal-tar, and aldehydes, such as, particularly, formaldehyde, a deriva- tive of methyl alcohol obtained either synthetically or by wood- distillation. a recent estimate of the world’s production of this type of resin divides the monthly output thus: america, 500 tons; germany, 300 tons; france, 100 tons; great britain not less than 1o tons. 3 process of manufacture—the process of manufacture is one of condensation which involves chemical combination with elimination of water. it is usually facilitated by the use of a small addition of acid or alkali. the simplest condensation product of phenol and formaldehyde is saligenin or o-hydroxybenzy! alcohol. this is capable of further condensation giving syrupy products which polymerise to a resin somewhat akin to bakelite. no definite conclusions have yet been made as to chemical con- stitution, owing to the small reactivity of these resins. the fully polymerised formaldehyde-phenolic resin is insoluble in all the usual solvents except nitric acid and caustic alkali. it can only be analysed by combustion which determines merely the proportions of the elementary constituents, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. moreover concordant results with these resins are not easy to obtain. values given by baekeland for bakelite resin vary as much as from 75-6% to 77-9 % for carbon and §-4% to 6-0% for hydrogen. it is more than probable that the final fully polymerised resin prepared industrially consists, in addition to a polymerised molecule of high molecular weight, of a mixture of small amounts of other substances, which are retained by the 710 resin during hardening, such as, free phenols and formaldehyde and intermediates formed during the condensation reaction. coumarone resins—the industrial application of resinifying actions of other types has also been developed during the past io or 12 years. coumarone resins, for instance, are prepared from certain fractions distilled from coal-tar naphtha and are used in varnishes. their method of production involves no preliminary condensation but consists in direct polymerisation of coumarone, indene and cyclic compounds of this class, by means of strong sulphuric acid. polymerisation is the process by which molecules of relatively simple type become complicated by mutual chemical combination. resins having physical prop- erties similar to those of the coumarone type can also be obtained by interaction of naphthalene and other aromatic hydrocar- bons with formaldehyde in the presence of strong sulphuric acid. afiscellaneous resins.—formaldehyde may also be condensed with urea to give transparent colourless resins. these resins have at present limited use in the production of ornamental articles. colourless transparent resins from thiourea and for- maldehyde are being commercially developed in great britain. the cheap production of furfural in america from corn cobs is leading to the use of this material as a source of synthetic resin. it condenses with phenol to give a dark and sometimes even black resin. general classification.—resins may be grouped according to physical properties, such as solubility. synthetic resins may be of the class which always remains soluble or of the class which is initially soluble but becomes finally insoluble under the action of heat. formaldehyde-phenolic resins belong to the latter class of heat-hardening resins. resins in the soluble class may be further grouped into (a) alcohol or spirit soluble resins, and (b) benzene and oil soluble resins. it is usually found that solu- bility in alcohol precludes solubility in hydrocarbons like ben- zene, turpentine and the fatty drying oils. varnish resins.—the resins used for varnishes may be spirit soluble (chiefly the formaldehyde-phenolic type), forming sub- stitutes for shellac and the softer varnish resins, such as elem); or oil soluble (chiefly the coumarone type), forming substitutes for the hard resins like copal. the spirit soluble resins may some- times be converted into the oil soluble type by a process of melt- ing or ‘‘ sweating ” with a natural resin which acts as a solvent or flux in which further reaction can take place, e.g., albertol resins are prepared in this way from formaldchyde-phenolic resin and common resin. moulding compositions —the artificial resins used in mould- ing compositions may be of the heat-hardecning or non-heat- hardening type. moulding resins may be used as pure unmixed resin, when transparent mouldings are usually obtained, or in- corporated with some inert ‘ filling’’ material, such as, saw- dust, asbestos or clay, or used for impregnating textile fabrics, particularly paper. in the two latter applications the resin acts as a binding agent for the “ filler” or fabric and a particularly durable material can be made in this way when the heat-hard- ening type of resin is used. such material has important use for insulators in the electrical industry, having high dielectric strength, of the order of glass or mica. | chemical classification.—two main classes may be distin- guished (a) condensation resins, such as those of the formalcle- hyde-phenolic type, and (b) polymerisation resins, such as those of the coumarone type. the term polwmerisation resin is used to distinguish a resin which is formed directly by the polymeri- sation of a chemical compound, without passing through a pre- liminary stage of condensation. polvmerisation is usually initi- ated by the action of light, heat, strong acicls or alkalis. principles of resinification.—resins appeared to require for their formation the presence of unsaturated atomic groups in the resinifying substance. the well-known drying of linseed oil and other similar unsaturated fatty acid derivatives is a case of resinification due to unsaturation. chemically speaking, the simplest resinifying group may be considered to be the vinyl- group, which forms monosubstituted cthylene compounds— syracuse—syria cii1=ch:, and examples of resinifying substances containing this group are styrol or vinylbenzene, isosafrol, tseeugenol, etc. acrolein resin.—acrolein, ch2,=ch-cho, is readily resini- fied and has been proposed in france as a source of synthetic resin for industrial use. glycerol and phthalic acid react to give a commercially used resin, this reaction being one in which acro- fein may be considered to be the intermediate product. vinyl acetate is being suggested by german workers as a basis for useful resins. artificial rubber is a product of the resinification of a vinyl hydrocarbon, isoprene, ch.2=c(ch=ch)ch3. unsaturation is not alone responsible for resinification; for instance safrol does not resinify in light, whereas zsosafrol does, although the con- stitutions are identical except for the position in the molecule of the unsaturated carbon atoms, zsesafrol containing the vinyl group attached to the benzene nucleus. coumarone resin results from the polymerisation of the pentamethylene derivative, cou- marone, which may be looked upon as derived from a compound containing the vinyl grouping. it is possible also to consider fully polymerised formaldehyde-phenolic resins as products derived from the polymerisation of compounds containing vinyl groups, attached to the benzene nucleus, and introduced into the phenolic molecule by means of formaldehyde. bibliography.—general: c. ellis, synthetic resins and their plastics (1923); clement and riviere, afatieres plastiques (1925); manufacture and application: e. hemming, plastics and moulded electrical insulation (1923); c. h. bryson, the industrial chemist (feb, march, april 1925); constitutionbaekeland, jour. of industrial and engineering chemistry, washington (1909, 12, 13, 25); w. herzog and j. kreidl, zezt. fiir angewandte chem. (1922). physical properties: ‘‘ electrical testing methods” jour. british etectricat and atited industries manufacturers assn. (1922). viscosity and solubility: wolff, farben zeitung (1920); a. a. drum- mond, jour. of soc. of chem, ind, (1924); jour. of oil and colour chemists’ assn. (march 1925). gh; ayd.) syracuse, n.y., u.s.a. (see 26.302), hada population of 171,717 in 1920, an increase of 25.1°% over 1910, of whom 32,383 were foreign born; in 1925 (state census) 182,003. the land arca in 1923 was 17.78 square miles. syracuse is situated on the new york state barge canal, opened in 1918, and in 1925 was a terminal for 34 motor-truck lines and six interurban electric lines. its accessibility and its large hotels and halls (including the coliseum at the state fair grounds, seating 10,000) make it a natural choice for many state conventions. the output of its highly diversified factories was valued at $49,435,000 in 10909, $150,091,000 in 1910, $140,144,581 in 1923. the salt industry, of great importance in earlier years, had disappeared. the consumption of hydroelectric current for industrial purposes (from niagara and salmon rivers) was 147,597,039 kw. 1n 1923. bank clearings (1924) amounted to $261,665,876; the assessed valuation of taxable property was $235,987,840. the public school buildings, including those under construction, had a valuation of $12,500,000. the acreage in public parks, including the beautiful onondaga park, was 460, and there were 47 ac. in playgrounds. syracuse university had in 1925-6 a faculty of 500 and an enrolment of 5,250 matriculated students. syria (sce 26.305), a state of western asia administered by france under a mandate which became efiective on sept. 290 1923. it was definitely detached from turkey, of which it had previously been a part, by the treaty of lausanne, signed july 24 1923. syriais bounded west by the mediterranean, south by palestine and trans-jordan, east by ‘iraq and north by turkey. the total estimated area is about 60,000 sq. m. and population (1925) about 2,500,000, the bulk of which is of arabic origin. syrian nationalism.—one result of the turkish revolution of 1908 was to give an impetus to the nationalist movement which had begun some years before to gain ground in the arabic- speaking provinces of the turkish empire, and more especially in syria. like other parts of the empire, syria was at first dis- posed to take at their face value the liberal professions of the committee of union and progress. the nationalists were ready to believe that their aspirations were to be realised, and only awaited a conciliatory gesture. the history of the years 1910-4 is largely the history of their gradual disillusionment, as the atti- syria ra ; sr <h alexandvonst y % omume; ~. f= a 6ess cit : ei —antioe) bs! yarim aleppo: asf esh show "a6 os =lataki = fes. oma‘arat en navainan espira eet y of/sriya a ‘ a } p\\dair a ng pama ae | osukhne palmyra =the x¥ medi ttt | sa 3 5 syria english miles 50 kilometres > 89 100 loe (2) ) sewell ee mes my 2 ss rans one motte tosco tude of the young turks hardened into an intolerant chauvinism. among the syrian nationalists two main tendencies may be distinguished. the more advanced party, which worked through a secret society known as “‘al-afhd,” preached an arab war of liberation with a view to the complete independence, not only of syria, but of the arabic-speaking provinces as a whole. on the other hand, there was a larger body of opinion which was less interested in arab independence than in syrian autonomy, and which put forward a milder programme of practical reforms —administrative decentralisation, the replacement of turkish by syrian officials, and the recognition of arabic as an official language. the young turks, however, were in no mood for mak- ing concessions. turkish conciliation.—it was not until 1912, when turkey was reeling under the shock of the balkan wars, that it was thought that something should be done to conciliate the arabs. kiamil pasha, who became grand vizier towards the close of the year, allowed a national assembly to be convened at beirut for the purpose of formulating the syrian demands. the assem- bly met in jan. 1913, but its proceedings were annulled by ma- hommed shevket pasha, who succeeded kiamil a few weeks jater. the decentralisation league, which had been founded at beirut, was suppressed, and the demonstrations of protest which followed were met by the arrest of the ringleaders, which led in turn toa serious outbreak of disorder. in june 1913 a so-called arab congress was held in paris. the members were drawn mainly from what may be called the french sphere of intluence in the lebanon and beirut. the congress adopted a comparatively moderate programme, including the usual demand for decentral- isation, and resolved that it should be communicated, not only to the turkish govt., but to foreign powers in friendly relations with turkey. the turkish govt. was sufficiently impressed to invite three moslem members of the congress to visit constantinople. an- other conciliatory gesture was the recall of the vali of beirut, an uncompromising opponent of concessions to the arabs, and the appointment of a more liberal-minded successor. a little later a number of arabs, including some of the militant reformers, were given seats in the turkish senate or lucrative appointments in the civil service. by these means the turks succeeded in buying off some of their opponents, but on the main points at tssue they continued to temporise, and the syrian demands received no sub- stantial satisfaction. thus, those reformers who were in earnest were gradually driven into the arms of the separatists, and on the eve of the war a variety of revolutionary forces were at work in syria. the malcontents were actively supported by members of the syrian colony in egypt, who in turn did their best to establish contact with the representatives of european powers. the situation in syria was watched with special vigilance in paris. on dec. 21 1912 the prime minister, m. poincare, de- ary clared in the senate that ‘‘ we have traditional interests in the lebanon and syria, which we intend to have respected.” the arab congress held in paris in june 1913 has already been men- tioned. towards the end of 1913 a powerful french squadron visited beirut. on the eve of the world war france was busily engaged in strengthening her position in the levant against ger- man competition, and was negotiating for the acknowledgment, on a do xt des basis, of her prior claim to railway and other con- cessions in syria and palestine. allied agreements during the war.—with the entry of turkey into the war in oct. ro14 the future of the arabic-speaking prov- inces became a question of immediate concern to the allied powers. france promptly asserted her claims in the levant, and so far as syria was concerned, as distinct from palestine, they were hevcr questioned. as between great britain, france and. russia the matter was disposed of in the spring of 1916 by a tripartite agreement, which was elaborated as between great britain and france by the so-called sykes-picot agreement. this agreement, which was concluded on may 16 1916, gave france what was virtually a free hand on the syrian coast, together with a veiled protectorate over the interior. the situa- tion was, however, complicated by the undertakings already giv- en by great britain to the sherif of mecca, who was treated as the spokesman of the arab national movement. in the autumn of 1915 great britain had agreed to “ recognise the independence of the arabs ” within certain territorial limits, which did not in- clude the coast of syria but which clearly included the interior. not only so, but while the sykes-picot agreement laid it down that france should provide any advisers whom the arabs might require in inner syria, the british undertakings to the sherif could be read as implying that these advisers should be british. there were here the seeds of a misunderstanding which was to have serious consequences. war conditions —in syria itself it looked at first as though the outbreak of war had given the nationalists their opportunity. in the early days of the war the reformers were active in pressing their demands and received some encouragement from a sym- pathetic vali. but the tide soon turned against them. among the french consular archives which were seized in syria the turks claimed to have discovered evidence of treasonable deal- ings with france on the part of a number of the nationalist leaders. this was the signal for a series of executions and depor- tations, which began in the summer of 1915 and continued for the next 12 months. for the time being, at least, the nationalist agitation was completely cowed, and though the emir feisal visited syria just before his father, the sherif of mecca, raised the standard of revolt, the syrian arabs remained submissive to the end of the war. they had, indeed, little chance of giving trouble. on the one hand, syria was the base of the turkish iv. army, and though it was not always heavily garrisoned, it re- mained throughout under the shadow of a powerful turkish force. on the other hand, except for an occasional raid on the coast, syria did not become a theatre of war until the eve of the armistice and had no opportunity—even if it had the desire— to co-operate with the allies. in the autumn of 1918 general allenby, at the head of the british forces in palestine, having expelled the turks from palestine, swept on after them through syria. damascus was occupied on oct. r. on oct. 31 the brit- ish cavalry were 15 miles north of aleppo, and the armistice which then came into force left the whole of syria in the hands of the allies. : post-war settlements 1918-24.—on nov. 7 1918 the “british and french govts. issued a joint declaration, in which they an- nounced their intention of establishing, both in syria and meso- potamia, “‘ national governments drawing their authority from the initialive and free choice of the native populations.”” mean- while, it devolved upon lord allenby, as commander-in-chief, to make temporary arrangements for the administration of syria as occupied enemy territory, pending the conclusion of peace. the syrian sea-board, including beirut, was placed in charge of the french, while the interior was handed over to an arab govt, which was set up at damascus under the emir feisal. ‘the sit- ie uation thus created was unsatisfactory to the french, who pressed their claims under the anglo-french agreement of 1916. on sept. 15 1919, the two powers signed a convention by which the syrian sea-board came under the direct and exclusive control of france. the interior remained under the administration of the emir feisal, but it was now brought within the french sphere of influence, and ceased to be under the general control of the british commander-in-chief. the anti-french agitation con- ducted by the arab nationalists came to a head in march 1920, when an arab congress met at damascus and declared “ the complete independence of syria, without any form of foreign interference.”’ at the same time, feisal was proclaimed king of syria. great britain and france united in refusing to recognise the syrian kingdom, but the damascus nationalists remained defiant and the french found their position untenable. the end came in july 1920, when a french ultimatum to the arab govt. was followed by an advance into the interior, the flight of the emir feisa}, and the entry of french troops into damascus. meanwhile, syria had been under discussion at the peace con- ference in paris. on feb.6 ro1g, the conference heard an arab delegation, headed by the emir feisal, who pleaded the cause of arab unity and independence. this was followed by com- plicated, and at times acrimonious, discussions between great britain and france. it was eventually agreed in principle that the situation in syria should be examined on the spot by an in- ternational commission of inquiry, but all that actually happened was that two american delegates, dr. king and mr. crane, spent a few weeks in syria in the summer of rgtg. they reported that a french mandate would be wholly unacceptable and recom- mended that the mandatory power should be the united states, with great britain as a second-best. the king-crane report, however, had no influence on the course of events, and on april 25 1920 the supreme council of the allics formally agreed at san remo that the mandate for syria should be allotted to france. the terms of the mandate were approved by the coun- cil of the league of nations on july 24 1922, but further delays intervened, and the mandate did not become fully effective until sept. 29 1923. the situation was finally regularised by the for- mal detachment of syria from the ottoman empire under the treaty of lausanne, which came into force in aug. 1924. french administration.—it was, however, the french occupa- tion of the interior in the summer of 1920 which marked the opening of the new regime by bringing the whole country under direct french control. the lebanon, which the french had occu- pied at the armistice, was recognised in sept. 1920 as a separate ‘“‘ state,” with an area considerably larger than that of the pre- war province of the same name. the lebanon was predomi- nantly christian, and its administration involved the absorp- tion of a large number of unwilling moslems. inner syria was divided into the “ states ’”? of damascus and aleppo, together with the ‘ territory of the alawiyin,” with its capital at lata- kia. syria was thus broken up into four distinct units, each of them with a separate administration of its own, the only con- necting link being the french high commissioner. in july 1922 the three divisions of syria proper, as distinct from the lebanon, were given an opportunity of co-operating in matters of common concern through the medium of a federal council. in may 1923 gen. gouraud, the first high commissioner, was replaced by gen. weygand, who was responsible for a further rearrange- ment. by a decree dated dec. 5 1924 the federation was dis- solved, the states of damascus and aleppo were amalgamated into the state of syria, and the state of the alawlyin was recon- stituted as a separate unit. in the meantime, some progress had been made, at least on paper, with the development of self- governing institutions. the lebanon was provided with a repre- sentative council in 1922 and the three states of syria proper in 1923, though in each case the powers of the council were restricted and were consequently criticised by the nationalists as inadequate. the druse rebellion.—syria contains many turbulent ele- ments, and the french had repeatedly to deal with unrest in various parts of the mandated territory. in 1919-20 they met szinyli-merse with determined resistance in the djebel ansariyeh, the northern neighbour of the lebanon. there was serious rioting at damas- cus in t922 and againin1rozs. in the alexandretta district, in the extreme north of syria, the french were constantly harassed by turkish raids across the border, while they also had some trouble with the tribesmen of the desert frontier on the east. in the druse country in the hauran there was scarcely a quiet year until 1923, and it was here that the signal was given for the wide- spread rising which closely followed the arrival of gen. sarrail as high commissioner, in succession to gen. weygand, at the beginning of 1925. the druses rose in open rebellion in july. their initial successes brought to the surface the latent discon- tent which existed in other parts of syria, and it looked for the moment as though the french would be faced with a general ris- ing. a serious situation developed at damascus, and on oct. 18-20 the french took the extreme measure of subjecting the city to a 48-hour bombardment. by the end of 1925 the weak french garrison in syria had been considerably strengthened, and the insurrection had been checked, though by no means completely suppressed. in dec. 1925 gen. sarrail was superseded as high commissioner by m. henri de jouvenel, whose policy was one of conciliation. m. de jouvenel was not, however, im- mediately successful. nationalist opposition defeated his attempt to form a provisional syrian govt. under the sheikh taher ed- din, while in some parts of the country, notably at damascus, the population boycotted the elections which he ordered to be held as a first step towards a modus vivendi. by the end of april normal conditions had been partially restored, but damascus was still in a state of siege. by june 1926, the druses were mastered, but there is still much underlying unrest. report of the mandates commission.—the circumstances of the rising were closely investigated, on behalf of the league of nations, by the permanent mandates commission at a special session held in rome in feb. and march 1926. the commission, in its report to the league council, convicted the french of seri- ous errors of policy and severely censured the conduct of gen. sarrail, though at the same time it recognised the difficulties of the mandatory power in dealing with a peculiarly intractable problem, took note of its declared intention to give syria the full- est possible measure of self-government with a view to its even- tual independence, and called upon the syrian leaders to desist from sterile obstruction. (l. sr.) brieliograpuy.—nadra mutran, la syrie de demain (1916); gertrude bell, syria (1919); h. pirie-gordon, a guide-book to central syria (1920); j. ff. scheltma, the lebanon 1n turmoil (1921); admiralty handbook to syria (london, 1921); hist. section of for- eign office, syria and palestine (1921); b. h. springett, secret sects of syria and ihe lebanon (1922); j. and j. tharaud, le chemin de damas (syrie) (paris, 1923); c. g. e. andrea, la vie militaire au levant (1923); count r. de gontaut-biron and l. le reverend, d'angora &@ lausanne (1924); department of overseas trade, reports (london). szinyei-merse, paul de (1845-1920), hungarian painter, was born at szinyeujfalu and studied art at the munich academy. his first pictures, “ the faun and the nymph” (1868) and “the evening star,’ were characterised by gay and graceful colouring, a lyric view of nature and a simple mode of placing the elements of the picture. szinyei soon abandoned the traditional brown undertone and worked with unbroken colours, embraced in a cheerful and suggestive composition. in 1869 he produced his ‘‘ mother and child ” and in 1873 finished the masterpiece of his life ‘‘ may festival,” which was criticised at the time for its alleged “‘ delirium colorans.”? this so embittered szinyei that he retired to his country house and for a time produced very little work. ‘ the woman in lilac ” (1874) and the “ lark ” (1882) are products of this period. on returning to work with renewed enthusiasm, he exhibited ‘‘ rococo,” ‘ oculi,” ‘‘ snow-melting ” and ‘ poppies” at budapest in 1894-5. he afterwards gave successful exhibitions at munich (1909), berlin (1910) and rome (x91). in ro05 he was appointed director of the hungarian national academy of arts. he died in 1920. see bela lazar, paul von szinyet-merse (1911); alexius petrovics, szinyei pal (arts lexicon, 1926). table tennis—tacna-arica question