GYROSCOPE

this instrument has rapidly be- come of technical and commercial importance after having been regarded as little more than a toy or means for use in demon- strating the dynamics of solid bodies. the developments in its construction and application, since torpedoes, submarines and aeroplanes came into extensive use, have been numerous. in- ventive efforts in connection with it were greatest about the year 1920. froma commercial standpoint, the successful appli- cation of the gyroscope in the arts has led to the establishment of important industries turning out gyroscopic appliances with. rotors weighing up to about go tons. improvements in counstruction.—since 1910 many improvements have been made in the construction of the gyroscope and its modifica- tion, the gyrostat, independently of accessories for rendering them useful in the arts. messrs. gray and burnside’s gyrostat, designed chiefly for experimental purposes, is essentially a direct current electric motor, the rotor of which, in the form of a gramme ring secured between the peripheral parts of two magnalium disks, serves as the wheel or rotor of the gyrostat. the field magnet and brush gear are within the space between the disks, and the commutator ts secured to the inner side of one of the disks. the rotor, made up of the heavy ring, the very light disks and the commutator, is mounted on a stationary shaft and may be driven at a speed of 25,000 revolu- tions per minute. enclosed in a magnalium casing, the whole forms a compact, portable apparatus. in rutt’s gyroscope, the relative arrangements of the parts is reversed, so as to leave the rim of the rotor entirely free, the rotor being mounted adjustably on a central gimbal carricd by a rotary shaft. it is important that the rotor of a gyroscope should be mounted in accurately adjusted bearings, especially when the rotor is spun at a high velocity. in order to satisfy this requirement, when ball bear- ings are used, messrs. griffin and sons, ltd., mount the rotor on a tubular spindle encircling a screwed rod secured within the cardan ring carrying the rotor; the ends of the spindle rotate against ball bearings held in correct position by adjustable sleeves on the rod. the spindle and rod are concentric but do not touch each other. the rotors of many gyros are rotated in a partial vacuum to reduce frictional resistance. in order to minimize the resistance and at the same time keep the interior of the gyro casing cool, messrs. anschiitz, near niel, circulate hydrogen, helium or other light gas through the casing. gyrostatic horison.—on ships, aeroplanes, etc., where the use of a mercury bath for obtaining an artificial horizon is often im- practicable, one of the methods adopted is to employ a gyrostat with its spinning axis vertical and carrying a plane retlector at right angles to that axis. this, the first practical use of the gyro, was introduced by m. serson in 1774. since i910, several forms of this type of apparatus have been designed. fig. 1 shows the main features of the gyrostatic horizon of messrs. anschiitz & co. a box @ is mounted on knife edges by a suspension differing from the ordinary cardan in that the horizontal line joining the knife edges 6, which directly supports the box, is below that joining the knife edges which support the outer ring, both lines being higher than the centre of gravity of the box and its attachments. within the box is the rotor ¢ supported by ball bear- ings d, e and rotated by any suitable motor. a rotary ring f carrics an adjustable weight g, by means of which the centre of gravity of the whole is moved out of the gyroscopic axis so that this axis is con- strained to precess in such a way as to compensate for the effects of the earth’s rotation; by means of a scale, graduated in degrees of latitude, the weight can be adjusted correctly. an annular vessel h, containing mercury or oil, and formed with perforated partitions, is employed for damping precessional movements of the gyro. gvyro-compass.—this instrument of precision is used in the various navies of the world, and in the mercantile marine; it is 201 used extensively in submarines, for which the magnetic compass is unsuitable. a gyro-wheel, mounted to rotate rapidly about an axis free to turn in any direction, but provided with a form of gravity control, limiting its tilting movement, tends to set itself so that its axis points in the direction of the true north. this represents the working of the principle on which the construction of the gyro-compass depends. the many forms of gyro-compass which have been patented differ mainly in the construction of their gravity control. pi ct ee a a i ae ee io i aa anal saastvartvar tnt taras crra biukuruhucunudrutalinutat zf pp cll ol 1 a en a a nn ie gap ere rl aa tts ceae at c haheh hehehe a ppitan jidddhddt hi bhishihddda lf ———— ip gp bss ni a eee ee ey ee ee ee oe — | i= 3 7 net tn = naanaraannans sr oy qv =a. : sss et ¥ zs sows 22 inv)? ck vi; z nami z y; z te 'z g y mlz ¢ yy yy yj yj 4 fic. 1.—diagram showing the main features of the gyrostatic hori- zon of messrs. anschtitz & co. in 1852 foucault used a gyro apparatus to demonstrate the earth’s rotation; this was the first practical step towards the production of the gyro-compass. a form of gyro-compass, constructed by sir w. thomson (afterwards lord kelvin) was exhibited in 1884. in the early part of this century the increasing use of submarines demanded the provision of a compass unaffected by magnetic conditions, and dr. anschiitz invented a gyro-compass in which the rotor and its casing were mounted in a support floating in mercury, thus limiting movement about a horizontal axis. this compass was unreliable when the ship was rolliag, and, to overcome this defect, messrs. anschiitz & co. introduced, in 1912, an apparatus comprising three gyros, two of which eliminated errors due to rolling. this apparatus was used in the german navy. in the gyro-compass of the sperry gyroscope co., of new york (british patent specifications, nos, 15669 of igll and 135500), the eyro-wheel casing is supported by a suspended wire, any twist of which caused during the working of the compass is taken out by a follow-up mechanism of special! construction. the sperry co.'s com- pass was adopted for use in the british and allied navies, and was improved by messrs. harrison and rawlings, who introduced a mercury control attachment (british patent specification, no. 131987). the suspension of the vertical axis in the brown gyro-compass (british patent specification, no. 124529) is provided by a pulsating column of oil under great pressure. in hlenderson'’s gyro-compass (british patent specification, no, 166570) the gyroscope has its centre of gravity and that of its gravity-control apparatus at its centre of suspension, and relative motion between the gyro and gravity control is arranged to produce a controlling couple. gyro-apparains for stabilising wheeled vehicles —about the year 1905, mr. l. brennan, of gillingham, introduced his mono- rail car, in one iorm of which he employed two gyrostats rotating in opposite directions and mounted in a horizontally pivoted frame. the gyrostats were geared together so as to rotate in opposite directions; one was provided with means for automati- cally accelerating the precession when the car swayed to one side, thus effecting stabilisation, in accordance with lord kelvin’s rule that acceleration of the precession causes the gyro to rise 302 against gravity. in 1909, mr. brennan introduced powerful mechanism to control the precessional movements or to alter the position of the centre of gravity of the car, e.g., by sliding the car body on the under-carriage. the car was generally unreliable when running rapidly round sharp curves, and its gyro bearings were liable to overheating. several of the cars were exhibited at different times; a large one was run at the brennan factory, on nov. 10 1909. this car had two bogies, each with two double-flanged wheels. the rotors, 15 cwt. each, were rotated at a speed of 3,c00 r.p.m.; the gyros were encased and in a partial vacuum. at a speed of about 7 m. an hour, the car travelled satisfactorily on a curved track and could travel on gradients up to 1 1n 13, tn it € ey, a gyroscopi gvroscopic apparatus for stabilising ships—the earliest use of the gyro principle for stabilising ships was made by e. o. schlick, of hamburg, in 1903. he mounted a number of gyro- stats in the ship and used, for eliminating precessional motions, a braking-mechanism exerting a constant pressure on the gyro mountings. his invention was improved by messrs. swan, hunter and wigham-richardson by using spring-controlled or floating bearings for the gvro frames and regulating the braking effect in accordance with the degree of rolling of the ship. the gyroscopic apparatus of fe. a. sperry and the sperry gyroscope co., of new york, is of an active kind, for its action is not limited by the rolling of the ship but may itself impart to the ship a rolling motion so that the ship may be listed and held fic. 2.—diagram showing principal parts of p. schilowsky’s auto-car. the monorail car of r. scherl, of dresden, had one or more gyrostats with their rotors on vertical axes and mounted so as to be in unstable equilibrium and positively connected to the car at evcry moment. scherl’s car was not successful, difficulties having been experienced on inclines and when running round curves to right and left. in the auto-car of p. schilowsky, described in british patent speci- fications, nos. 12021 of 1909 and 941 of 1914, the gyrostat, like scherl’s, is unstable. fig. 2 shows diagrammatically the principal parts of the car. the rotor a is mounted in a frame } supported by pivots cl, one at each side of the car frame d. a rod e connects the gyro to a quadrant f; this rod is encircled by adjustable springs g, h', to obtain a yielding connection. the quadrant f is suspended at }* from a lever 2, fulcrummed at / and caused to oscillate by the action of a pendulum m; the pendulum is pivoted to the car frame and presses against a cord which extends from a fixed part of the frame over a pulley and then beneath the pendulum, on its way to one arm of a bell-crank lever »; this is connected to a rod 0, which rocks the lever k. when the pendulum presses against the cord, as a result of the tilting of the car to one side, the quadrant f is lifted and a rack p' on the quadrant engages with a rotating pinion g'; consequently, pressure is applied by the rod e to the gyro mounting with the result that its oscillations are annulled and the car brought into an upright position. although only one pendulum is shown in fig. 2, the auto- car had two pendulums to enable the car to reverse and take curves to right and left. the inventor, in 1914, made trial runs in cars of this type and met with much success. claiming that a monorail system of transport would be quicker and cheaper than the existing systems, messrs. scherl and schilowsky, at different times, have considered plans for laying down extensive networks of lines, espe- cially in germany, but nothing seems to have been done. dr. j. g. gray, of glasgow university, has designed a two-wheel car controlled gyroscopically. this car has a front and a rear com- partment, each running on a wheel and connected together by a vertical swivel-joint. the front compartment carries a gyrostat mounted in fixed lateral bearings and the rotor is spun in the vertical plane containing the wheel base. a motor for driving the car 1s installed in the rear compartment. a car of this kind was shown at a meeting of the inst. of civil engineers, on june 17 1925. the car was driven forwards and the gyro rotor was spinning clockwise as seen from the left-hand side of the car, but when the car swayed to one side the two compartments were thrown out of line. then, in consequence of the propulsion by the rear compartment, an accelera- tion of the gyroscopic precession was effected and the car was brought back to the upright position. up to the full strength of the gyro apparatus installed. con- trolled in this way, the ship may be extricated from a difficult position, may be uscd as an ice-breaker or, as set out in british patent specification, no. 149430, a rolling motion of predeter- mined magnitude may be maintained in a warship while her guns are being fired. the important elements of a sperry stabiliser are the main gyro, the small control gyro, the precession engine and the system of electric circuits. the main gyro may have its spinning axis vertical and is so mounted that a precession can be imparted to it by means of a circular rack which engages with a pinion of the precession en- gine. the control gyro, spinning on a horizontal axis, 1s so sensitive that it precesses as soon as the ship begins to roll and effects the closing of an electric contact which, by means of relay switches, operates the precession engine, thus bringing into action a powerful stabilising couple. next, the control gyro stops the precession engine and is ready to deal with the next wave impulse. among the stabilisers built by the sperry gyroscope co. is that for the liner ‘‘ huron ” of 18,000 tons displacement. a large bicon- ical casing encloses the main gyro ina partial vacuum and the gyro wheel, made by bolting together two disks each 13 ft. diam., weighs about 100,000 pounds. in the stabilising apparatus of sir j. b. henderson, of the royal naval college, greenwich, the velocity of the gyroscopic precession is controlled wholly by means of a single mechanism, which may be a continuously variable speed-gear of the variable-stroke pump type, of the mechanical type or of the viscous resistance type. fig. 3 shows the mounting of a gyroscope and its hydraulic connections with the ship and fig. 4a controlling means comprising a variable- stroke pump. the rotor casing @ is mounted on trunnions @ in the cardan ring ¢, which is carried by trunnions d supported by standards e, bolted to the deck so that the trunnion axis d extends fore andaft. the ring ¢ is connected by rods f to the buckets g of the single acting pumps h, j, which have suction valves k and spring-controlled delivery valves /; the suction pipes # and delivery: pipes # may lead to the sea far below the water line. when a wave strikes the ship, the pressure in one of the pumps 4, 7 increases at once and tends to force the gyro to roll with the ship. the hydraulic cylinders 0, p of the precession-control apparatus are mounted on the ring ¢ and their plungers g, r are connected to a crank s, fixed to the trunnion bd of the gyro case. in order to prevent the ship from rolling, the velocity of the plungers g, r should be proportional to the difference of pres- sure in the cylinders 4, 7 and the ratio between them must have a certain value. to effect this, the cylinders 0, pare respectively con- nected by pipes ¢, # to the cylinder of a variable-stroke pump 7z, the gyroscope piston of which is connected to a spring-controlled piston w, working in a cylinder x; the ends of this cylinder communicate with the pumps h and j respectively, by means of pipes y, 2. in a gyro apparatus designed by the tokio firm, mitsubishi zosen jxaisha, the precessional movements of one or more gyrostats effect the closing of electrical circuits controlling an engine eee is geared up to rotary retractile fins projecting from the ship’s ilge. ve ainda ~ 7. rarity e x n : a wz ; 4 \ 4 xx nan bannnans se rnon bop eee aamtiha f&; vestas hen § si fig.4. fic, 3.—diagram showing the mounting of a gyroscope, and its hydraulic connections with the ship; and fic. 4, a controlling means comprising a variable stroke pump. gyro-stabilisers for :lircraft—one of the more recent of these stabilisers is the sperry gyroscope co.’s, which has two pairs of oppositely rotating gyrostats, with their precession axes ver- tical, mounted in a cardan suspension, the outer ring of which has its pivots above the centre of gravity of the gyro-apparatus. the lateral and longitudinal balancing planes of the aeroplane are respectively actuated by relative displacements between the gyro-apparatus and two control arms carried on the aeroplane. 393 these arms control the working of a motor which adjusts the planes. a still more recent stabiliser, that of the societe ano- nyme des etablissements marmonier fils, comprises two gyros mounted in an elongated frame supported by horizontal pivots, each gyro carrying a pendulum bob. the rotors spin in a hori- zontal plane and in opposite directions with equal velocities. gyro-steering apparatus for torpedoes—since rote, improve- ments have been mainly in details in connection with the driving of the gyro-rotor, its locking and releasing mechanism, or the arrangement of the gyro-apparatus to minimise the effects of rolling of the torpedo. gyro turn-indicators.—in a form developed at farnborough, the rotor was mounted outside the aeroplane and driven by the wind, the rotation being in a vertical plane at right angles to the direction of flight. the direction and rate of turn was indicated by a precession-actuated pointer. in the reid control indicator, a compact combination of gyro-turn-indicator, airspeed indi- cator and clinometer, manufactured by messrs. vickers, ltd., the rotor of the turn-indicator is driven by a jet of air passing through a compound venturi tube placed in the slip stream of the propeller. ‘the turn is indicated by means of precession-actuated electric contacts, which switch on one, two or more green lamps, if the turn is to the right, or one, two or more red lamps, if the turn is to the left; the number of lamps switched on is directly proportional to the rate of turn (see air navigation). gyro-apparatus for indicating rate of angular motion —this is usually employed for recording the rolling motions of a ship. in the cunard liner “‘ laconia,” fitted with frahm’s anti-rolling tanks, a gyro pendulum was used for recording the rolling mo- tions. its rotor was horizontal and driven by an electric motor; the rotor was mounted in a cardan ring suspended in a stand secured to the deck, the pivots of suspension being fore and aft. the angular motion of the stand relatively to the gyro represents the rolling of the ship and is recorded by a pencil beneath which a paper band travels continuously. gyroscopic transmission gear.—the gyro principle has been utilised in transmitting power, the gyro serving as a flexible con- nection between a driving and a driven shaft. (see variable transmission gear.) other applications —in apparatus for measuring deviations of bore-holes from the vertical, the gyroscope has been employed to compensate for rotation, in the bore-hole, of the outer casing containing the measuring apparatus. messrs. krupp’s fire con- trol apparatus for use with naval guns makes use of a gyrostatic apparatus at the observation station and a precisely similar appa- ratus at the gun station, both apparatuses being connected elec- trically so as to operate strictly in unison. the gyroscopically controlled photographic camera of prof. sir j. b. henderson com- prises a gyro-controlled prism for counteracting the effects of lateral movements and pitching of the support and a gyroscopi- cally rotated sensitive plate to compensate for rolling movements. the camera is intended chiefly for aerial photography and is rigidly secured to an aeroplane. bibliography.—a. gray, a treatise on gyrostatics and rotatianal motion; theory of applications (1918); j. perry, spinning tops and the use of gyrostats and the gyro-compuss (1919); t. w. chalmers, the gyroscopic compass: a non-amaithematical treatment ( po). eee oe 304 i] aag, carl (1820-1015), british painter (see12.780), died at rother thurm, oberwesel, germany, jan. 17 1915. haase, friedrich (1827-10911), german actor (see 12.782), died in berlin march 17 rorr. haase, hugo (1863-1919), german politician, was born sept. 29 1863, at allenstein in east prussia. at the outbreak of the world war he was parliamentary leader of the social demo- cratic party in the reichstag, but in 1916 he seceded with the independent socialists, who refused to vote the estimate and war credits, and became their leader. in this capacity he exer- cised a moderating influence upon the extreme section of the independents, who at a later date (1920) joined the com- munists. he was one of the commission of six who conducted the government of the german reich, in the name of the people, immediately after the revolution of nov. 1918. haase died on nov. 7 1919 from wounds received in an attempt upon his life while he was entering the reichstag building. haber, fritz (1868- y, german chemist, was born in bres- lau dec. 9 1868. he studied at the universities of berlin and heidelberg and at the technical high schools at charlottenburg and carlsruhe. he was then appointed staff professor at berlin university and afterwards became director of the kaiser wil- helm institute for physical chemistry and electrochemistry. ¥le made a special study of thermodynamic technical gas re- actions, and also made experiments in connection with the equilibrium of ammonia and the influence of very high pressures and high temperatures. during the world warhe studied the gases used in warfare and their effective frustration by gas masks and chemical means. he conducted particularly important re- searches in collaboration with bosch, which led to the establish- ment of the haber-bosch process for the production of nitrogen manure. after the war the large works at leuna, near halle, produced more nitrogenous manure, according to this process, than was imported previously in the form of nitrate of soda. the chief characteristic of the process is the continuous reaction under a pressure of 200 atmospheres, and the most important raw material used is water gas, produced from coke and gypsum (see nitrogen, fixation of). his recent works include bettrag zur kenninis der metalle (1919); uber die synthese des ammoniaks: die chemie im kriege (1922); fiinf vortrdge aus den jahren 1920-3: uber die herstellung des ammoniaks aus stickstoff und wasserstoff (1924). habitual offenders.—in the law, as in common parlance, a habitual offender is one who is repeatedly guilty of criminal offences, who makes a business of crime. in this broad sense the term is identical in meaning with recidivist, a constant back- slider. in a more restricted and accurate sense, however, habit- ual offender denotes one who has become a recidivist by force of habit, and this opens up a wide and interesting divergence of opinion among psychologists as to the mainsprings of conduct. one school of students of this science stresses the hereditary elementin human nature—instinct, impulse, the innate char- acteristics—and to the most extreme of these every “ true ” criminal is by propensity if not in act, a recidivist. the criminal is born, not made. the other school, believing that our original endowment differs only in degree and not in kind, lays the em- phasis on environment, the individual’s experience of life. the criminal is the product of circumstances. the schools of thought—without drawing too fine a line be- tween the adherents of these two schools of thought, it may safcly be asserted that the medical criminologists tend to align them- selves with the former and the sociological criminologists with the latter. many psychiatrists have committed themselves to the view that all recidivists, if not all criminals, are either insane or psychopathic personalities. there is, on the other hand, a strong current of psychological thought in evidence at the present time, which strongly supports the view expressed in the popular maxim, “ man is a creature of habit.” habit is not only a man- haag—habsburg ner of acting but of thinking and feeling as well. will, con- science, impulse, are all the fruits of habit. indeed they ure the habit of which the external act or conduct is only the expression. the habitual offender is what he is because his experience of life has been such as to cultivate criminalistic ways of thinking, feeling and acting. probably no one would deny that the development of these anti-social tendencies comes easier to some than to others, but the clear implication of this doctrine is that, given a sufficiently evil environment, no man that is born of woman js so endowed by nature as to resist its moulding influence. on the other hand it is conceded that some, probably a very small proportion of the whole, are born into the world with such a defective equipment as to render them very unlikely subjects for the development of a socially useful character. such are the neurotic individuals who early in life develop into insane or psychopathic personali- ties. the notion, current a few years ago, that the feeble-minded are of this sort, has now been generally abandoned. mental defect is a handicap in leading any kind of life, good or bad, but it involves no predisposition towards the latter. the net result is that the good life is not an individual endowment but a social achievement, and the same is true of the evil life. that the habitual offender is not irredeemable appears to have been demonstrated by the experience of camp hill in england and by fortunate periods in the recent history of sing sing and auburn prisons in the united states. ‘“‘ habit is second nature,” but like the original nature, it is still plastic and susceptible to new and more wholesome influences. bibliography.—the literature of the subject is still, for the most part, to be found in psychologic and other periodicals. books or articles that may be read with profit are: john dewey, iiuman nature and conduct (new york, 1922); s. hobhouse and f. breckway, english prisons to-day ({.ondon, 1922); b. glueck, ‘‘ a study of 608 admissions to sing sing prison,” in mental hygiene, 2 (1918); ‘* jack ”’ black, “ breaking the shack- les,” zhe cail (san francisco, 1918, 1926). (g. w. ik.*) habsburg (see 12.787), the former ruling dynasty of the austro-hungarian empire. the habsburgs’ relations with their subjects were defined in the 18th century, when charles vi, last of the habsburgs proper, issued the pragmatic sanction, which was accepted by the estates of his peoples. the family dominions were hereby declared indivisible, and the descendants of charles were accepted as their hereditary rulers in perpetuity, so long as a male or female member of them remained. the dynasty of habsburg-lorraine, founded by charles’s daughter, maria theresa, and her husband francis i., ruled in virtue of this contract. in 1918 there were over 120 archdukes or arch- duchesses, descendants of maria theresa, who could thus suc- ceed to the throne. results of the war.—charles i. (q.v.), the last ruling emperor of austria and king of hungary, succeeded his great-uncle on nov. 21 1916. at this time his subjects still protested loyalty to the dynasty; but during the collapse of oct. 1918 one nation after another repudiated its rule. the poles of galicia, who had long been practically independent, formed a national council at cracow on oct. 28 1918 and soon after adhered to the republic of poland. the ruthenians of east galicia decided on oct. 19 to form a separate state. the czechoslovaks on oct. 21, in a manifesto dated the 18th, declared themselves independent and expressly repudiated habsburg rule. the yugoslavs made very similar proclamations during the last days of october. on oct. 27 count andrdssy, the austro-hungarian foreign minister, accepted president wilson’s demands “ regarding the rights of the peoples of austria-hungary, particularly those of the czechoslovaks and yugoslavs.”’ the states of poland, yugo- slavia and czechoslovakia soon after came formally into being, and although charles never renounced his sovereign rights in these territories, the habsburg family has made no serious claim to reassert them; although a small monarchist party in croatia hadfield—hadley, a.t. has since toyed with the idea of reuniting with hungary under habsburg rule. the treaties of saint germain and trianon perpetuated the boundaries of these states, and confirmed italy and rumania in the possession of their parts of the former habsburg monarchy. most of the treaties of the “ little entente ” (qg.v.) are expressly directed towards the maintenance of these frontiers, especially those of hungary, and thus im- plicitly (the forms of those states being what they are) to the exclusion of the habsburgs from these territories. position of the emperor charles-——there remained only german-austria and hungary. on nov. 11 1918 charles issued a proclamation in which he stated: still, as ever, filled with unchanging love foeutds all my peoples, t will not oppose my person as an obstacle to their free development. i recognise in advance the decision which german-austria will take on its future form of state. the people has assumed the government through its representatives. i renounce any share in the affairs of state. at the same time i remove my austrian govt. from its office. the provisional govt. of german-austria proclaimed a republic on the following day. on march 12 1919, following the elections, the first national assembly repeated this declara- tion. charles, however, refused to abdicate in his own name and that of his dynasty. thereupon the national assembly, by decree of april 2 1919, banished all habsburgs from austria and con- fiscated the family property for the benefit of the war invalids. habsburgs who renounced all rights other than those of private citizens were, however, allowed to live unmolested in austria, and several of them did so. the legitimist movement in austria has been very weak since these events. vienna is almost fanati- cally republican, and even in the provinces, the monarchist move- ment in favour of the wittelsbach dynasty has been quite as strong as the legitimist habsburg movement. austrian repub- licans claim that charles’s acceptance in advance of the republic was equivalent to a renunciation of the throne. charles and hungary.—charles issued a similar proclamation to hungary on nov. 13 which karolyi answered by proclaiming the hungarian republic on nov. 16. when, however, the right regained power in hungary after karolyi’s and kun’s regimes, it proceeded by act i. of 1920 to abolish all legislation passed by these two governments. hungary, therefore, reverted to the status of a kingdom, and controversy arose whether or not charles’s action has annulled the pragmatic sanction, in which case the monarchy in hungary, under her old constitution, was elective or not. ‘‘ legitimists ” and ‘ free electors’ disagreed violently, the latter usually demanding the election of a habs- burg but one whose person and wife should be more popular than those of charles. on feb. 2 1920, during the discussions on the draft treaty of trianon, the allied and associated powers declared that a habsburg restoration in hungary would be a matter of inter- national concern and that they would neither recognise nor tolerate such a restoration. they attempted to insist on hun- gary’s styling herself a republic, but finally, in view of the objections raised by the hungarian delegation, compromised on the word “ hlungary.” charles returned to hungary and attempted to assert his claim on march 27 and oct. 20 1921 (see hungary). on april 4 the conference of ambassadors insisted that charles should leave hungary. after the second coup, under pressure from the powers and the little entente, the hungarian parliament passed a decree (nov. 3 1921) whereby the sovereign rights of charles and the pragmatic sanction were declared forever abrogated and the right of the hungarian nation to elect its king by free choice restored. on nov. 10 hungary addressed a note to the powers consenting only to elect its king in agreement with the powers and accepting the notes of feb. 2 and april 3 1921. the legitimist party, however, still looks on otto as the legitimate king since charles’s death on april 1 1922. otto and his mather share this view. habsburgs are scattered over europe. most reside in ifun- gary, austria and at the spanish court. their financial position is various. ‘they have lost all valuables and estates owned in 395 virtue of their rank. great controversy was aroused by the fact that charles took with him, and sold, the crown jewels. many of the family, however, as the modena and d’este branch, own vast private fortunes and great estates. the hungarian branch was fortunate in this respect, as their wealth was not touched by the non-socialist government. the polish govt. at first sequestrated habsburg estates, but afterwards released them. austria confiscated all estates, etc., that were not purely private property. the income of the senior branch of the family is small. the archdukes—the remaining habsburgs have not been prominent outside the realms of politics. the archduke fred- erick (b. 1856) became inspector-general to the austro-hungarian army after the murder of the archduke [francis ferdinand (q.v.) in june 1914. his command was only nominal, his chief of staff, conrad von hetzendorf, performing the real duties. in 1917 the emperor charles took his place. the archduke eugen (b. 1863) also held a high command, assisted by gen. krauss. the archduke joseph (b. 1872) resided in hungary, where he enjoyed great popularity. during the world war he commanded a division, and later an army corps. at the debacle he assumed a nationalist hungarian attitude, recalled the hungarian troops under his command from the front and acted as intermediary between the king and karolyi’s govern- ment. while karolyi still took the oath of loyalty to king charles, joseph had already repudiated the monarchy and his own title. he lived quietly on his own estate as “ joseph habsburg” throughout the commune; but after its fall, he assumed power on aug. 6 1919 as administrator of hungary. he was forced to retire on aug. 22, as the entente declared that they would not negotiate with hungary under a habsburg and were “ obliged to insist upon the present pretender to supreme power in the hungarian state resigning.” after this time joseph took little part in public life. the archduke albert (b.1897), son of archduke frederick supported by his wife, isabella, became the chief candidate of the “free electoral party ” in hungary, with whom he had close relations. the archduke stephen (b. 1860), whose estates were in galicia, was put forward as a candidate by the polish monarchist party. tlis son, the archduke william (b. 1895), at one time aspired to the throne of the ukraine. although many archdukes, including frederick and francis ferdinand, were known as collectors, the habsburgs have not been prominent as creative artists. archduke leopold wolfling wrote a book entitled habsburger unter sich. (see austria.) (c. a. m.) hadfield, sir robert abbott, (1859- ), british metallurgist, was born in sheffield nov. 29 1859. educated at sheffield collegiate school, at an early age he interested himself in metallurgy, subsequently becoming chairman of hadfields, ltd., hecla and east hecla works, sheffield, and director of other important companies. in 1883 he patented his process for the production of manganese steel (see 14.809) and became famous as the inventor and improver of various metallurgical processes, including low hysteresis steel and many other special ferrous alloys. he became a member of many scientific com- mittees, and was president of the iron and steel institute (1905- 7), of the faraday society (1914-20), and of the society of british gas industries (1917-8), besides being master cutler of sheffield 1899-1900. in 1908 he was knighted; the following year became f.r.s., and was created a baronet in 1917. sir robert received many honours, including 10 gold medals, from scientific and learned societies; and became corresponding mem- ber of the french academy of sciences; hon. member of the royal swedish academy of sciences; and officer of the legion of honour. he published over 160 scientific and technical papers of considerable importance. his book metallurgy and its influence on modern progress is a standard work of reference. hadley, arthur twining (1856-— ), american econo- mist and educationalist (see 12.798), was elected a director of the new york, new haven and hartford railway in 1913. in 1914 he lectured at the university of oxford on “ institutions of the united states.”” in r9r5 he endorsed college military camps and advocated the counting of military training for a degree. 306 in 1920 he resigned as president of yale university and the same year was elected a director of the atchison, topeka and santa fe railway. he wrote the aforal basis of democracy (1919) and economic problems of demiocrucy (1923). hadley, henry kimball (1871- ), american com- poser, was born at somerville, mass., dec. 20 1871. he studied theory and composition under emory and chadwick in boston, completing his studies in vienna. in roo4 he went to germany, where he was kapellmeister in mainz opera house for two sea- sons, and produced his opera soffe in 1909. returning to the united states in the same year, he was conductor of the seattle symphony orchestra until 1911, and of the san francisco sym- phony orchestra 1911-5. in 1921 he became associate conductor of the n. y. philharmonic orchestra. he produced three grand operas: azora (chicago opera co.), bianca (society of american singers) and cleoputra’s night (mctropolitan opera house). he composed also ode-music for the worcester (mass.) festival (6oth anniversary) and resurgam for the cincinnati j'estival, 1923, in addition to four symphonies, overtures and cantatas, three tone poems, ballet suites and over 150 songs. he was elected a member of the american academy of arts and letters in 1924. hadow, sir william henry (1859- __), british scholar and musician, was born at ebrington, glos., dec. 27 1859. he was educated at malvern and worcester college, oxford, and. after taking his degree remained at oxford as a tutor and fellow of his college. in 1909 he became principal of armstrong college, newcastle, retaining this post until 1919, when he became vice- chancellor of sheffield university. he was in 1918 appointed assistant director of education for the troops by the war office and also worked for the y.m.c.a. he was knighted in 1918 and was made a c.b.e. in 1920. in 1922 he became stevenson lecturer to the university of glasgow. well known as a great authority on the history of music, sir henry hadow also com- posed many songs and pianoforte pieces besides the incidental music to robert bridges’ demeter (1905). he published studies in afodern music (1894 and 1895); sonata form (1896); 2 croatian composer, a valuable tract on haydn (1897); the section ‘‘ the viennese period " (1904) in the oxford history of music, of which he was the editor; criisenship (1923); and afusic (1924) in the home university library. haeckel, ernst heinrich (1834-10919), german biologist (see 12.803), died at jena aug. 8 rgr09. hafstein, hannes thordur (1861-1922), icelandic statesman and poet, was born dec. 4 1861. as a young man he became known as a lyrical poet. in 1901 he was elected a member of the althing, and soon became a leader of the home rule party. it was chielly owing to his influence that denmark consented, in 1903, to the transfer of the residency of the minister for iceland from copenhagen to reykjavik. on jan. 31 1904 ifafstein was appointed to this ofhice and inaugurated a new era of practical reform. his first work was to arrange a tele- graphic cable to great britain and a net of telegraphs and tele- phones all over the island. his efforts, however, were hampered by the extremists, who demanded greater political independence from denmark. their obduracy led to his resignation in 1908. on the victory of the home rulers in ro11, hafstein again became minister in 1912, but had to resign in r914 after new and fruitless efforts to effect reconciliation. he lived, however, to see the full reconciliation between the two countries in 1918, and the recognition of iceland as an independent state in union with denmark. he died dec. 13 1922. hagenbeck, carl (1844-1913), german collector of wild animals (see 12.814), died at hamburg april 14 ror13. haggard, sir henry rider (1856-10925), british nove- list (see 12.816), was knighted in 1912. among his later novels are child of storm (1913); the ivory child (1916); love eiernal (1918); the ancient allan (1920); and heu-heu: or the amfon- ster (1924). much of his time, however, in his later years was devoted to matters affecting the welfare of the empire. asa member of the dominions royal commission he travelled round the world and, to further schemes for settling ex-service men on hadley, h. k.—haig the land, he visited various parts of the empire, writing a re- port to the royal colonial institute. he also wrote rural den- mark and is lessons, 1911. he died in london may 14 192s. hague, the (see 12.817), with a population in 1923 of 328.581, continues to be a centre of diplomatic and international movements. in 191ro the tribunal of arbitration of the north atlantic fisheries met in the city, and in 1915 the international congress of women. in 1917 an agreement was reached here by british and german representatives as to repatriation of disablecdl prisoners, etc., and in 1920 a committec of the league of nations council met here to frame a scheme for the permanent court of international justice. (¢.2.) in 1913 the palace of peace, to which most countries of the world contributed gifts, was dedi- cated. in 1922 the house, lent to the town, with his pictures and furniture, by dr. bredius, the art historian, was opened to the public; in 1924 a museum, chieily for educational purposes, with large greek, asiatic and egyptian collections, was established. haig, douglas haig, 1st fart (1861- ), british soldier, was born in edinburgh june 19 1861, son of john ifaig, of cameronbridge, fife. he was educated at clifton and brase- nose college, oxford, and in 1885 joined the 7th hussars. ee was promoted captain in 1891, afterwards passed through the staff college and was employed with the egyptian army in 1898 during the nile campaign, for which he was given a brevet majority. on the outbreak of hostilities in south africa in 1899, he went out to natal on the staff, and was present during the opening engagements near ladysmith. he was afterwards chief staff officer of the cavalry division during lord roberts’ vic- torious advance from cape colony through the orange free state into the transvaal, and was promoted brevet lieutenant- colonel for his services. in the later phases of the struggle he was in command of a column and later was controlling groups of columns; at the close of the war he was appointed a.d.c. to the king, promoted bre- vet-colonel, and given the c.b. col. haig subsequently com- manded the 17th lancers for a year, after which he went out to india as inspector-general of cavalry; this appointment he held until 1906, having been promoted major-general in 1905, in which year he married the hon. dorothy vivian, daughter of the 3rd lord vivian. from 1906~—q9 he was a director in the war office, and during this time he was intimately concerned in the development of the general staff and the improvements effected in the organisation of the army, which were set on foot while lord haldane was secretary of state. in 1907 he published a volume of cavalry studics. his next appointment was that of chief of the general staff in india, which he held for three years, being promoted licutenant-general in rt910. in 1912 he was brought home to take the command in aldershot, and in 1913 he was made a k.c.b. on the mobilisation of the expeditionary force in 1914, sir douglas haig took the field as commander of the i. army corps, which he jed during the mons, marne and aisne operations, and the first battle of ypres; he was promoted full general in nov. for his services. on the division of the british expedi- tionary force into two armies at the beginning of 1915, he was placed at the head of the first. on the front of his army during 1915 there took place the battles of neuve chapelle, festubert anc loos, and at the end of the year he succeeded sir john french in the chief command. he had been made a g.c.b. in the autumn. at this time the armies were passing through a period of transition. the regular army with the exception of its cavalry, had almost ceased to exist and the first need was to weld its remnants, the new armies created by lord kitchener and the territorial army, into a whole capable of combined action both in attack ‘and in defence. this involved the creation behind the lines of a large number of schools of instruction in the use of the new weapons, which the requirements of trench warfare had created, and of the old ones which had been brought back with the service of war. beyond and above this technical instruction came the training of the larger formations of all armies and for this it was necessary that a certain number of divisions should hainisch—-haiti be placed sufficiently far behind the line to allow them the ground and the opportunities for gaining experience. this remained one of the chief items of sir douglas itaig’s military policy until a late period of the war. it was a policy which often brought him into discussion both with the french generals and with the french statesmen, who were continually pressing him to take over a larger extent of front. sir douglas haig pointed out that it was not possible to compare a national army created during the course of the war with one which had been long established in time of peace, and that the germans throughout the war maintained a greater density of men oppo- site the british lines than they did clsewhere. in the event, his policy was justified by the fact that in the latter half of 1918 the british army, was as a whole, at least as efficient as any which was then fighting in the war. the campaigns and battles of the british army in france and belgium are dealt with elsewhere and it is here only necessary to refer to the principles which guided sir douglas ilaig in certain of the crises of the war. the first of these during his command arose out of the german attack on verdun during the first half of 1916. on that occasion he assisted the french by relieving their troops in the front and by preparing for the battle of the somme. while that battle disclosed defects both of preparation and of execution, its results convinced sir douglas haig that it had caused such exhaustion of the german armics as should be exploited at the earliest possible moment. he therefore agreed with joffre to renew the battle early in 1917. but the battle of the somme had caused grievous losses and the gains of ground as shown on the maps appeared trifling. therefore, neither french nor british statesmen were prepared to agree to a policy which to their minds seemed likely to exhaust their resources before it caused the enemy to yicld. vhe con- sequence of this was the replacement of joffre by nivelle and the assembly of an allied conference at calais at the end of feb. 1917, at which it was decided to give nivelle the general direction of the british army, while he was at the same time to be in active command of the french army. this arrangement, militarily unsound, early produced friction. for nivelle, who was ill-informed of events on the british front, issued to haig instructions which were inappropriate both as to form and sub- stance. these differences were adjusted at a further conference in london, but they created the impression that haig was opposed to any form of unity of command, which was not true. the direct result of the failure of nivelle’s campaign was a wave of depression which spread through the french armies and resulted in serious mutinies. petain, who had succeeded nivelle, appealed to haig to keep the germans occupied while he was restoring the morale of the french troops. to this appeal hlaig responded by opening in the summer of 1917 a campaign in flanders, which began with plumer’s victory at messines and was followed by the battle of passchendacle. it was only with difficulty that ilaig won the consent of the british govt. to this campaign. by the middle of oct. of that year petain was able to tell haig that the french army was sufh- clently restored to be able to look after itself; and it might have been wiser to have stopped the battle of passchendaele then, as no adequate return was gained for the exhaustion caused by the prolongation of the attack in execrable weather. the crisis brought about by the success of the german-aaus- trian attack on the italians at caporctto following on the col- lapse of russia, resulted in the creation in nov. 1917 of the supreme war council, the first meeting of which was held at the end of the following january. this mecting had been preceded by a renewal of french demands for an extension of the british front, which haig eventually met by agreeing to take over a portion of the line at and south of peronne with his v. army. at this meeting a difference of policy between haig and his govt. was disclosed. the commander-in-chief anticipated an early attack by the germans and asked for reinforcements: the prime minister wished for an offensive campaign in pales- tine, and won his way; and at this same conference, it was decided to create an allied general reserve on the western front 307 under the control of the military representatives of the supreme war council with foch as chairman. during feb. 1918 haig became more than ever convinced that a great german attack on his front was imminent, in which he differed from the mili- tary representatives, who did not expect it before may. when the military representatives applied to him for divisions for the general reserve, he answered that in view of the lack of rein- forcements, the extension of his front and the massing of german troops, he would be unable to furnish these divisions, and the formation of the general reserve broke down. with what calm determination haig met the great german offensive of the spring of 1918 is described elsewhere. in the most critical days of that offensive it was haig’s direct inter- vention with the british govt. which brought lord milner to i'rance, a visit which resulted eventually in giving foch direct control of the allicd armies. with ioch haig’s relations were as harmonious as they had been with joffre, and in the late summer of 1918 the british commander-in-chief reaped at last the reward of his patient policy. when in aug. 1918 rawlinson’s iv. army won the victory of amiens, foch desired that raw- linson should follow up his success. haig, convinced that this would result in another deadlock, and confident now in the superior morale and efficiency of his army, persuaded foch to agree to an extension of the battle northwards, and so came about the breaking of the hindenburg line which made it clear that victory could be won in 1918. for his great services sir douglas haig was raised to the peerage as earl haig and baron haig of bemersyde and was given a grant of £100,000. the order of merit was also conferred upon him, and the ancestral home of the haigs at bemersyde was purchased by national subscription and presented to him. on returning home he was for a short time commander-in-chief in great britain, but when that position was abolished he refused other offers of employment and devoted himself wholly to the welfare of ex-service men. jle succeeded in uniting other organi- sitions with the british legion, of which he became president. he also created and became president of the british empire services league, a union of the ex-service men’s organisations of great britain and the dominions; he was also appointed chairman of the united services fund, which together with the fund he established for the benefit of ex-service men forms one of the largest benevolent organisation in the country. (see loos; neuve ciapelle; somme and articles on other battles of the world war; also western front.) see sir douglas haig's despatches, ed. j. h. boraston (1920) (ib: ve) hainisch, michael (1858- ), austrian statesman, was born aug. 15 1858,at aue, near glogenitz, lower austria, the son of a manufacturer, and marianne hainisch, a pionecr of women’s rights. after a short career in the austrian public service, he devoted himself to the study of social and agricultural] questions. he was founder with engelbert pernerstorfer of the gesellschaft der fabier on the model of the british fabian society. hainisch, who was particularly active in the cause of popular education, founded and endowed many hundreds of popular libraries. his works include: die zukunft der deutschen ocsterreichers(1892); voraussetsungen und berechtigung dcs sozialismus (1919); die landflucht (jena, 1923). hainisch was elected first president of the austrian republic in dec. 1920 and re-elected unanimously for a further period of four years, dec. 1924. haiti (sce 12.824), a republic in the west indics and a mem- ber of the league of nations. its area is 10,204 square miles. no reliable census of the population has been taken. estimates vary from 1,500,000 to 2,500,000, the most reliable giving 2,028,000 in 1924. i. “poeitical. history the principal event in haitian affairs in the period 1910-25 was the military intervention on the part of the united states, which developed into a close politica! and fiscal protectorate. the first part of the period was marked by constant revolution- ary turmoil and by rapid political disintegration. in july 1911 308 president simon was overthrown and on aug. 14 r1911r cin- cinnatus leconte became president. a year later (aug. 8 1912) the presidential palace was blown up and leconte and a number of his followers killed. the national assembly at once elected tancrede auguste, a prominent planter; he died the year after, and on may 4 1913, senator michel oreste was elected. intervention of the united states—dec. 1913 ushered in a period of political turbulence, and three military presidents assumed office in quick succession: oreste zamor, on feb. 8 1914; davilmar theodore, on nov. 7 1914; and vilbrun guil- laume sam, on march 4 1915. the last named, after with- standing the attacks of his opponents for several months, was compelled to seek refuge in the french legation in the night of july 26 1915, while 200 political prisoners in the gaol of port-au- prince were massacred by order of one of his followers. at the funeral of the victims a party of mourners invaded the french legation, dragged out the ex-president, handing him over to the mob for death, and killed the ex-gaoler. two hours later a u.s. cruiser arrived at port-au-prince and landed marines. uss. forces occupied the country, disarmed the natives and restored order. although u.s. naval officers assumed charge of most administrative functions, the haitian governmental organisa- tion remained intact. on aug. 12 1915 sudre dartiguenave was chosen by the haitian congress as president. a treaty having been accepted by the haitian govt. in 1916, the u.s. senate advised ratification. ratifications were exchanged at washington and the treaty was proclaimed on may 3 1916. modelled upon the american-domingo convention of 1907 (see 24.194), this instrument was designed to secure political stability and economic development in haitian affairs by a political and fiscal protectorate, to remain in force for a period of 20 years. by its terms the president of haiti appointed, on the nomination of the president of the united states:— . r (a) a recciver-general of customs to take charge of the customs ouses; (b) a financial adviser to be attached to the ministry of finance; (c) american officers to organise and command a haitian constab- ulary (gendarmerie) which was to replace the haitian armed forces, such officers to be later succeeded by qualified haitians; (d) engineers and doctors to supervise the public works depart- ment and public health services respectively. haiti agreed not to increase the public debt and not to modify the customs duties without the consent of the united states; the united states undertook to intervene when necessary for the preservation of haitian independence and the maintenance of a stable and effec- tive government. the treaty provisions were promptly put into effect, and determined entirely the subsequent course of events. in the early period of american intervention the division of author- ity caused friction, but with the appointment in 1922 by the presi- dent of a high commissioner to supervise and co-ordinate the activ- ities of the treaty officials and the military occupation, native irrita- tion and_the friction between the american authorities and the haitian govt. disappeared. the u.s. marines were later withdrawn from all interior points and concentrated at port-au-prince and cape haitien. the maintenance of order was placed in the hands of the haitian gendarmerie. this was composed of native troops, but the officers generally were officers and enlisted men of the u.s. marine corps. the future of haiti presented in rg21 the gravest problem of united states influence in the caribbean (¢.v.). early termina- tion of military occupation was, in the opinion of those in respon- sible charge, certain to result in reversion to old conditions. on the other hand, public sentiment in the united states did not view with satisfaction the definitive abandonment of the one great opportunity left the negro race to demonstrate, even after repeated trial, an ultimate capacity for self-government. until 1921 the establishment of civil order had engaged the best energies of the american officials. with this accomplished, opportunity was afforded for rendering the further offices con- templated by the treaty in a way conducive to the ultimate assumption of civil authority by the haitian govt.; subject only to those reservations as to political stability and fiscal solvency in force in other areas within the range of american influence in the caribbean. borno as president——louis borno, who was elected on april 10, was inaugurated on may 15 1922 as president of the repub- lic. he found civil order firmly established through an efficient haldane native gendarmerie. roads had been constructed and banditry eliminated, and the peasantry enjoyed, for the first time per- haps in their country’s history, complete freedom. public health services had been greatly improved under american super- vision, great progress being made in town sanitation. a vigorous policy of financial reform was adopted, with very satisfactory results. the public debt, which in 1915 amounted to $36,000,000, had been reduced to $22,046,252 at the close of the fiscal year 1924-25. the budget had been balanced and a comfortable surplus realised by 1923-4, thus enabling the govt. to spend substantial sums on public works and other developments. borno was re-elected president in 1926. ii. economic history production and trade.—the chief crop is coffee, which represented in 1925 some 75 % of the total income of the country. other impor- tant products are cotton and sugar. great efforts are being made to develop systematic cultivation, for even in 1925 coffee and cotton grew semi-wild. an agricultural school had been established at port- au-prince, experimental stations set up under american officials, a system of premiums inaugurated to encourage coffee growers, and attempts made to improve the coffee and sugar crop and encourage the growth of other crops, such as cocoa, sisal, hemp and tobacco. a modern sugar-cane mill and refinery were erected at port-au- prince, as well as a smaller plant near cape haitien, and also cotton ginning plants, etc. means of communication and transport are being improved in order to open up the country and develop the agricultural, forest and mineral resources; 1n 1925 some 7,500 m. of road were open to traffic, motor roads totalling about 650 m. linking up the chief towns. only some 60 m. of railway line were in operation in 1925, but the lines were being extended. banking is in the hands of the national bank of haiti, a subsidiary of the national city bank of new york, and the royal bank of canada. foreign trade had greatly improved between 1915 and 1925. the following table shows the value of imports and exports from 1916 to 1924:— imports exports $ $ 1916-7 : ‘ ‘ . 8,606,086 8,932,887 1917-8 — « «= « 10,180,693 7:743,530 1918-9 ‘ ; s “e7;1t7,608: ©24,762,220 1919-20 , : - 27,398,411 21,620,928 1920-1 . ; : ; : . 11,957,206 6,590,409 1921-2, 4 ‘ ‘ ‘ ¥2,350,271 10,712,210 1922- 14,157,963 14,591,012 1923-4 14,696,128 14,176,332 1924-5 20,237,565 19,403,762 the chief articles of export in 1923-4 were coffee, valued at $10,361,776; raw cotton, $2,068,628; raw sugar, $620,412; logwood and logwood extract, $440,670; cotton seed, $202,580; and cocoa, $139,341. exports to ’rance were valued at $9,369.923; the united states, $1,329,251; denmark, $847,118; the united kingdom, $722,699; germany, $652,688; and belgium, $509,375. imports were mainly from the united states, $11,817,376; the united kingdom, $984,600; france, $885,228; and germany, %447,999. both imports and eae increased during 1924-5, when the total trade approximated $40,000,000, with a small balance in favour of haiti. bibliography.—s. bonsall, the american mediterranean (1912); c. l. jones, caribbean interests of the untted states (1916); paul rebeaux, blancs et noirs (1919); j. w. johnson, “ self-determining haiti,’ nation (n.y.), aug. 28, sept. 4 and 11, 1920; awnual reports of the united states secretary of the navy, 1920-5; report of inquiry into the occupation and administration of llaitt and santo domingo, before sclect committee of the u.s. senate (1922); carl kelsey, ‘‘ the american intervention in haiti and the dominican republic,” asnals of the american academy of political and soctal science, march 1922; charles malo, itistoire d'iiaiti (1925); dept. of overseas trade, reports on the economic, financial and com- mercial conditions in the republic of ifaitt, published by hi.mi. stationery office, london (1925 and 1926). (j. h. ho.) haldane, richard burdon haldane, rst viscount (1856— ), british statesman, philosopher and lawyer (see 12.831). in 1910 he was appointed chairman of the royal com- mission on university education in london. to organise a uni- versity of the first order in, of, and for london, which should secure for science and scholarship, under wise conditions, the full use of the great resources, human and material, of the capital of the british empire, was a task demanding constructive states- manship in a high degree. the report of this commission (cd. 6717) dated dec. rori dealt faithfully and vigorously with the problems placed before it. effect has not yct been given to its hale—hall recommendations. time may show that the university will and can reform itself from within. if, and when, the university sets itself, or is set, in order, the counsels of this commission, which bear the impress of the chairman’s mind, will form the basis of its new activities. in march ro11 he was raised to the peerage and appointed a member of the judicial committee of the privy council—that most important tribunal which constitutional lawyers know to be a practical bond of empire. as a student of the principles which underlie all systems of law, he found the cases brought before the committee to be of absorbing interest, perhaps, most especially, those from india, where the fundamental principles of hindu law are based on religious duty and philosophic con- cepts, unfamiliar to the west. in ro12, at the request of the cabinet, he visited berlin to discuss disarmament proposals and on his return reported to the cabinet information he gathered there as to the attitudes and conditions of those then guiding the policy of germany. to bea messenger of conciliation and co-operation between the two nations was a duty for which he was in every sense especially equipped, but he was, and soon knew he was, to be baulked by the conditions under which germany was then ruled. much party capital was made out of this visit, both then and later during the war. to have refused the opportunity was impos- sible. to have sent any other member of the cabinet, would have been infructuous. something resulted from the mission, but not all that he had hoped for. lord haldane accepted the thwarting of the full result he had looked for with characteristic courage and dignified silence. in 1912 he succeeded lord lore- burn as lord chancellor and presided over the ilouse of lords with dignity and efficiency. when the war broke out in 1914, the great reorganisation of the war office which he had effected was tested to the extreme. his labours were justified by their fruit. a new model had been created. there was a new spirit in the army. it had been set on the way of becoming a learned and scientific profession. it had been organised in accord with sound principles and its constituent elements had been brought into close relationship and enabled to co-operate with and understand one another. by the creation of the officers’ training corps in 1909, the universi- ties and schools were able to contribute in the time of need exactly the type of officer required. the militia had been replaced by a special reserve of real value as events showed. the territorial army had been created, and saved the situation more than once. the general staff was brought into existence by the issue of a special army order, establishing it on the foot- ing it held during the war and after. to lord haldane, again, is due the decision of the dominion conference in 1907, accept- ing the principle of an imperial general staff, by which con- certed action and intelligent co-operation between armies drawn from all paris of the empire was made possible. the expcri- mental mating of minerva with mars had, indeed, been fruitful and felicitous. practical reasons and popular prejudice account for his absence from the first coalition ministry in 1915, when he received the order of merit. he was then free—as free as any patriot of his nature and temperament could be in such stressful days—to turn to philosophy. he published in 1921 the reign of relativity, a masterly presentment of profound, scientific and metaphysical thought, and in 1922, the pitlosophy of human- zsm, an abiding memorial of the dictum das geistige allein ist das wirkliche. when einstein came to england to lecture, he was the guest of lord haldane, who presided over the gathering which heard the exposition of the theory of relativity from its discoverer. always eager to promote national education, lord haldane devoted much time and energy to the workers’ educa- tional association, which owes much of its success to his support. lord haldane was lord chancellor in the labour ministry of mr. ramsay macdonald (1924), and working chairman of the committee of imperial defence, where his experience, tact and indefatigable industry were invaluable, and, on the fall of the labour ministry, mr. baldwin invited him to continue his long 309 association with it. the report of the machinery of govern- ment committee (cd. 9230, 1918), of which lord haldane was chairman, pointed out that ‘* further provision is needed in the sphere of civil government for the continuous organisation of knowledge and the prosecution of research in order to furnish a proper basis of policy.’? accepting this declaration of principle, mr. baldwin established in to25 the committee of civil re- search, on which lord haldane has served as a member. thus, through every department of state, in education, in university hfe, in the army, in the law and tn industry are found the effects of his master mind, of his clear vision, of his resolute adherence to first principles and of his practical philosophy. elected first chancellor of bristol university, he has been lord rector of edinburgh, and has received many honorary degrees. his book, before the war, gives an account of his political activities at that time. hale, george ellery (1868- ), american astronomer, was born at chicago, ill., june 29 1868. he studied at the harvard college observatory and the massachusetts institute of technology, graduating in 1890. he was director of the kenwood astrophysical observatory, in chicago, from 1890 to 1896. from 1892 to 1905 he was at the university of chicago as associate professor of astrophysics, professor, from 1897, and director of the yerkes observatory, after 1895. in 1904 he became director of the mount wilson solar observatory (cal.) of the carnegie institution of washington, a position which he held till 1923, when he became honorary director in charge of policy and development. he invented the spectroheliograph first used in 1892 for photographing solar prominences, and won an international reputation for his solar and stellar spectroscopic work. he was awarded the janssen medal by the paris academy of sciences in 1894, the rumford medal by the american acad- emy in 1902, the draper medal in 1903, a gold medal by the royal astronomical society in 1904, the bruce medal by the astronomical society of the pacific in 1916, and the janssen medal by the astronomical society of france in 1917. he was the author of the study of stellar evolution (1908) and ten years’ work of a mountain observatory (1915), besides numerous papers in scientific publications. halifax, nova scotia (see t2.843).—the population of the city in 1921 was 58,372. the public buildings and many of the houses built of stone show a considerable taste in architecture. much of this stone was brought from the dismantled homes and fortifications of louisburg. about one-tenth of the city area was devastated by the explosion on dec. 6 1917, of a french steamer carrying 3,000 tons of t.n.t., on colliding with a norwegian steamer on its way with a relicf cargo for belgium. the recon- struction of a greater halifax has been carried out on modern lines of town planning. the harbour is accessible all the vear round to the largest vessels. new docks and railway stations, in course of construc- tion, will give it an area of over 200 ac. and make it one of the best equipped ports in the world. grain elevators and conveyor systems will meet the needs of expanding commerce. halifax claims to have the lowest port charges on the atlantic coast. there are a number of manufacturing industries, including the largest sugar refinery in canada, and the city is also an important distributing centre. halifax is the chief winter port of canada and the atlantic terminus of the canadian national railwavs. it has a naval dockyard and training school. hall, granville stanley (1846-1924), american psy- chologist and educationalist, was born at ashfield, mass., feb. 1 1846. he graduated from williams college in 1867 and took the degree of ph.d. at harvard in 1878. after holding the chair in psychology at antioch college, 1872-6, he pursued further studies at berlin, bonn, heidelberg and leipzig. he was pro- fessor of psychology in johns hopkins university, 1881-8, and was then elected the first president and made professor of psy- chology of the newly formed clark university, worcester, mass. which, under hall’s personal leadership, was devoted, during its first two decades, chiefly to educational research. he became widely known as an exponent of the culture-epoch theory of 310 work, adolescence, 2 vol. (1904). during the later years of his presidency his influence perceptibly diminished, this being partly due to the lack of scientific method in his work. he resigned in 1920 and died april 24 1924. hall’s numerous published works include: fducational problems (2 vol., 1911), founders of afadern psychology (1912), senescence (1922), and life and confessions of a psychologist (1923). halle, wilma maria francisca, lady (18309-10911), anglo-german musician (see 12.853), died in berlin april 15 iqti. | halsbury, hardinge stanley giffard, 1st ear of (1823-1921), british lawver and politician (see 12.867), died in london dec. 11 1921. the year of his birth, earlier given as 1825, was subsequently found to have been wrongly stated. the records of merton college, oxford, show him to have been born on sept. 3 1823. hamburg, germany (sce 12.871), with a population in 1922 of 1,025,502, 1s the second city of germany. its commerce, in- dustry and shipping had been increasing up to the outbreak of the world war, which sharply arrested its development, but after the armistice it began to recover. in 1923 the port was entered by 13,192 seagoing vessels of 15,344,999 tons, as compared with 16,427 of 14,185,496 tons in 1913. traflic at the end of 1925 was about 90% of the pre-war figure. the proportion of ship- ping flying the german flag was only half what it had been, and emigrant and tourist traffic much less. the i!amburg-amerika line, which had made great strides before the war, had 89 steam- ers of 386,000 tons in 1924. since 1910 new docks have been built on waltershof is., forming a second free port, and large ship- yards were laid down at iinkenwerder in 1918. new buildings include the trade corporation house (1912-6) in neustadt, the museum of hamburg antiquities (1914-20) and two ten-storyed office buildings of vitreous brick on the messberg. the ex- change was rebuilt in 1908-12, and the institute for tropical diseases in 1914. great s. michael’s church, burnt down in 1906, has been re-erected on the old lines and the kunsthalle, to the east of the binnen-alster, has been much enlarged. the tunnel under the elbe from the st. pauli district to steinwarder, which is entered by lifts, was finished in 1911; but a two-storyed bridge over the river, begun in 1914, was still unfinished in 1925. the university, founded in 1918, with a democratic constitu- tion, is in rotherbaum, to the north of the city, in a building originally designed as a lecture hall. near it is a statue of her- mann von wissman, the explorer, which was erected at dar-es- salaam and removed here in 1922. space in ohlsdorf cemetery for yoo graves of men who died in the district during the world war has been acquired by the british government. a memorial commemorating the seamen of hamburg who died as prisoners of war in america was unveiled in 1920. in 1917 a commission was appointed to bring about a reform of the class franchise which had hitherto existed in the hanseatic cities, and a measure of electoral reform was adopted. the city and territory had nevertheless as severe an experience of the revo- lutionary movement as any region of germany. the council of workmen and soldiers assumed complete political power in nov. 1918. the region of cuxhaven belonging to hamburg declared its independence in jan. 1919 under communist leader- ship, but the republic only lasted four days. in jan. and feb. 19:9 communist disturbances broke out in the city itself. the new constitution adopted in 1920, reduced the authority of the senate, and the power which it formerly wielded is now in the hands of the birgerschaft (representative assembly), which consists of 160 members elected on the system of proportional representation. hamburg, university of.—by a process of natural development the university of hamburg was formed in 1919 from the material of the colonial institute, and consists of the faculties of law, medicine, philosophy and natural science. spe- cial facilities exist for study of the history and culture of the orient generally, of india, china, japan, africa and the south halle—hamilton mental development, a doctrine set forth in his most influential | seas. anthropology, folklore and missionary problems are among the many notable features of the courses—especially the summer course, which attracts a large number of students. hamilton, sir ian standish monteith (1853- j, british soldier, was born at corfu jan. 16 1853. educated at wellington college and in germany, he joined the army in 1872. he served with the g2nd highlanders in the afghan war and the boer war of 1881, and was severely wounded on majuba hill, one arm being permanently disabled. he was then for several years intermittently on the staff of sir f. (lord) roberts. he served in the nile expedition of 1884-5, in burma in 1886-7, and on the staff of the chitral relief force in 1895. he com- manded a brigade on the north-west frontier in 1897, and after- wards the school of musketry, hythe. in the south african war he commanded a mounted infantry division during the advance from bloemfontein to pretoria and into the eastern transvaal. tle returned home early in 1901 to become military secretary at the war office, but towards the end of the year went back to south africa nominally as chief of the staff to lord kitchener, although in reality he was employed chiefly as the commander-in-chief’s deputy to control particular groups of operations from time to time during the closing stages of the struggle. ile was afterwards again military secretary and then quarter- master-general at the war office, and in 1904 he went out to the far east to accompany the japanese armies in the field. his impressions under the title a staff officer’s scrap book (2 vol., 1906-7), by reason of the interest of its subject, the charm of the author’s style, and the combination of war experience and of imagination which inspired his judgments and criticisms, at once took rank in europe as a modern military classic. his literary ability, though a token of unusual imagination and clearness of thought, rather prejudiced him throughout his career in the eves of old-fashioned soldiers. on his return he had charge of the southern command until 1909, and was afterwards adjutant- general at the war office for a year. he took a prominent part on behalf of the voluntary service system during the campaign in favour of compulsory service led by lord roberts, and in the course of this controversy he published a book compulsory service (1910), which he wrote at the request of lord haldane. in 1910 he was appointed commander-in-chief in the medi- terranean and inspector-general of the overseas forces. on the outbreak of the world war in 1914 hamilton served for some months as commander-in-chief of the home defence army in england. then in march 1915, he was selected to take charge of the mediterranean expeditionary force (see dar- danelles campaign). the naval effort to force the dardanelles having failed, he found himself obliged to undertake operations in the gallipoli peninsula, and although his army was very ill- equipped for the task, he succeeded in landing it in the face of the enemy, but was brought to a standstill. having, after consider- able delay, reccived substantial reinforcements, he made a great effort in aug. to improve his position, but partly through the inertia of some of the local commanders, sent out without con- sulting him, the operations miscarried, and a situation of stale- mate arose. the government consulted him in oct. as to the expediency and feasibility of withdrawing from the peninsula, and on his pronouncing himself strongly opposed to such a policy he was replaced by sir c. monro and returned home. in 1920, after the issue of the report of the dardanelles com- mission, he published his own story of the campaign under the the title of gallipoli diury (2 vol., 1920), and in 1921 the soul and body of an army. for this excyclopadia sir lan wrote a brilliant article on war. (b. hw. 1. 1.) hamilton, ontario (sce 12.891), had in 1921 a population of 114,351. it was estimated (1924) at 120,235. hamilton’s geo- graphical posilion gives it excellent shipping facilities on the great lakes. the city ison the canadian pacific and canadian national railways and is connected with several lines of the united states. it is the centre of a system of city and suburban lines, andthe municipal supply of electric power is cheap and prac- tically unlimited. ilamilton has about 700 factories, including hammarskjold—handicrafts, artistic the largest plough works and implement works in the british empire. besides its anglican and roman catholic cathedrals, the city has 89 churches, 50 banks, 45 schools (public, private and technical), five hospitals and three public libraries. hammarskjold, hjalmar (1862—- __), swedish states- man, was born at tuna feb. 4 1862 and educated at the uni- versity of upsala, where in 1891 he was appointed professor of civil law. after establishing his reputation as a jurist, he played an important part in national politics and became min- ister of justice in the van otter cabinet, holding this post from tgo1-2 when he was appointed president of the geta high court. in roo05 he was minister of education in the lundeburg cabinet and also a delegate to the conference with norway at karlstad at the time of the dissolution of the union. he was swedish min- ister in copenhagen from 1905-7 when he became governor (landsherding) of the province (lin) of upsala. he had been swedish delegate at the hague conferences in regard to private international law in 1900 and 1904, and from 1904 was swedish member of the hague international board of arbitration. in 1907 he was swecen’s leading delegate to the hague peace con- ference and in 1909 acted as president of the franco-german board of arbitration in regard to the casablanca affair. he pre- sided in 1913 over the franco-italian arbitration court regarding the seizure of vessels during the tripoli war. in feb. ro14 he succeeded staaff as prime minister, retaining this post during the world war until 1917 (see sweden). hammarskjeld became a member of the institut de droit international and a curator of the academie de droit international at the hague. in dec. 1924 he was appointed by the council of the league of nations chairman of the commission relating to the codification of inter- national law. hammerstein, oscar (1847-1919), american musical director, was born in berlin. he went to the united states in 1863, where he made moncy as an inventor of cigar manufac- turing machinery. in 1870 he became lessee and manager of a bowery theatre and after 1880 built and operated the harlem opera house, the olympic, the victoria and other theatres. in 1906 he built the manhattan opera house, in avowed rivalry with the metropolitan opera house. in the operas which he produced there he broke away from the classics and presented the works of modern composers, for example massenet’s thdis, debussy’s pelleas et melisande and charpentier’s lonise. he secured artists such as melba, tetrazzini, bonci and renaud with campanini as conductor and artistic director. in 1911, however, he was compelled to sell his concern to the metropol- itan opera company, agrecing to abstain from producing grand opera for 10 years within the latter’s territory. he then went to london and built the london opera house, but here again he failed to make a commercial success of the undertaking. re- turning to new york in 1912 he built another theatre for the purpose of entering his former field of grand opera, but the met- ropolitan opera company secured an injunction prohibiting him from so doing. he opened his new house under the name of the lexington theatre in 1914, with the usual form of theatrical programme. he died in new york city aug. 1 1919. hammond, john hays (18s55- ), american mining en- gineer, was born in san francisco march 31 1855. he stuctied at the sheffield scientific school, yale university (th.b., 1876), af- terwards taking a course at the royal school of mines, freiburg, saxony. in 1880 he was engaged in the u.s. geological survey of the california gold fields, afterwards practising as consulting engincer, in which capacity he visited most of the countries of north and south america. in 1893 he became associated with barnato bros. and cecil rhodes in south africa, acting as con- sulting engineer for the consolidated gold fields co. of south africa, the british south africa co., and the randfontein estates - gold mining company. as one of the leaders of the rand faction, he was, in jan. 1896, after the jameson raid, arrested and con- demned to death, but the sentence was commuted, and later he was rcleased on payment of a $125,000 fine. in 1goo he returned to the united states and became largely interested in mining properties and irrigation projects both in the united states and 311 mexico. ife was president of the panama pacific exposition commission to europe, 1912; chairman of the world court com- mission, tg14—-5; and chairman of the u.s. coal commission 1922-3. he became general manager and consulting engineer of the guggenheim exploration company. his son, joun hays ifammonn, jr. (1888- ), american in- ventor, was born in san francisco april 13 1888. he studied at the sheffield scientific school, yale university (b.s., r9te). de- voting himself to clectrical developments and experiment, he in- vented a torpedo for coast defence controlled by wircless energy, a system of radio control of ships and a system of selective radio telegraphy; also various electrical devices the use of which for military purposes was secured by the u.s. government. hamsun, knut (1859- }, norwegian author, was born aug. 4 1859 at lom in the gudbrandsdal valley, the son of poor parents. ile started to write at the age of 19 when he was a shoemaker’s apprentice at bod6e in north norway, and for the next 10 years earned his livelihood in various ways such as coal trimmer and country schoolmaster. he eventually went to america, where he became a tram conductor in chicago and a farm labourer on the prairies. in 1888 he published, in a danish magazine, the fragment of a novel, su/t, which was later trans- jated into english, as hunger. this work at once attracted attention by the beauty of style and originality of treatment. his works from this time onward revealed a richness of talent which rapidly increased his reputation. he is akin to the rus- sians in his psychological analysis of morbid types, but the american influence is apparent in his use of startling metaphors and the aptness of his expressions. an intense love of nature also characterises his work. ele is chiefly known to the english- speaking world by his three novels, hunger, growth of the soil and the woman at the well, in 1920 hamsun was awarded the nobel prize for literature.