GUIANA, DUTCH

the only dutch possession on the south american mainland, has almost doubled its popu- lation since 1910. statistics obtained in 1925 gave the popula- tion as: europeans, 1,422; natives, comprising indians and bush negroes, 56,339; javanese, 18,685; hindus, 30,974; chinese, 1,454. the population of the capital, paramaribo, in 1925 was 44,772. in 1923 there were 35 public schools in the colony with 5,296 pupils in attendance, a government normal school with 127 students, and 55 private schools attended by 9,481 pupils. the shortage of labour that followed on the abolition of slavery in 1863, causing the reduction of the plantations from 500 to 5 sugar plantations and 66 for other products, created a jabour problem that led to the introduction of chinese, javanese and hindus as contract labourers. the chief products are sugar and coffee; next in importance come bananas, rice and cocoa. cotton is produced on a small scale, and oranges and coconuts are grown by the crofters, many of whom were originally contract-labourers. the principal articles of export are sugar, coffee, bananas, cocoa, balata. timber is furnished from the hinterland and gold is mined in many districts. important deposits of bauxite are known to exist in the colony, but hitherto this mineral has not been worked on any large scale. the balance of trade is usually adverse, and the deficit is adjusted by an annual subvention paid by the netherlands government. during the four years 1922-5 the sum required for the state subvention has progres- sively decreased. imports in 1924, mostly foodstuffs and manu- factured articles, were valued at £624,704. exports, consisting of agricultural and mineral products, besides timber and balata, were £617,453 during the same year. sce j. m. brown, the dutch east (1914); a. s. walcott, java and her neighbours (1914); also juarcijfers voor het koninkrijk der neder- landen, annual publication of the colonial office, the hague. cie gecks) guiana, french (sce 12.681), has an area of about 32,000 sq. m. and a population (1921) of 44,202, including 2,368 indians (natives). some indian tribes may have escaped enumeration, but in any case the colony is very sparsely inhabited. about 10° of the people are whites and another 10% negroes; the re- mainder are mostly of mixed blood and locally are called creoles. cayenne, the capital and chief port, had 10,146 inhabitants; st. laurent du maroni, 1,300. the colony is best known as a penal settlement and as including the iles du salut, one of these islands being the notorious devil’s island. the 1921 census figures included 3,775 convicts. the natural resources of the country remain very little devel- oped. the chief industry is gold mining, the gold produced repre- senting fully half the value of the exports. the mines are near the dutch and brazilian frontiers respectively. the forests contain valuable timbers. rosewood is exported and there are factories for the extraction of rosewood essence. balata is also obtained from the forests. small quantities of coffee, cocoa and sugar figure in the exports, but labour is scarce and dear and 298 only a very small portion of the land is cultivated. the ad- verse trade balance in 192r was 25,000,743 francs. the cost of the penal settlement is borne by france. there are few roads and but 15 m. of railway. a seaplane service is maintained between cayenne and st. laurent and there is a wireless telegraph station. the colony is represented in the french parliament by one deputy. sce le journal de la societe des americanistes de paris, for articles on the history and explorations of the country. guild socialism: sce socialism. guillaumat, marie louis adolphe (1863- ), french soldier, was born at bourgneuf, charente inftricure, jan. 4 1863. he left the military school of st. cyr in 1884, and became a captain in 1893. ie served for three years in tongking with the foreign legion, and during the boxer rising in 1900 was in tientsin where he received his first wound. in 1903 he was appointed professor of military history at st. cyr and in 1908 lecturer on infantry tactics. after being director of infantry at the ministry of war from 1911, he became chef de cabinet to the minister of war, m. messimy, in tory. at the outset of the world war, guillaumat, who had already taken part in 12 cam- paigns, commanded a division at the battle of the marne and later in the argonne. subsequently, in command of the i. army corps, he took a notable part in the battle of verdun and the somme. in dec. 1916 he was given the command of the ii. army in front of verdun and directed the attack of aug. 20 1917, which succeeded in freeing the position. in dec. 1917 he was sent to salonika as commander-in-chief of the armies in the east (see salonika campaigns) but was recalled in july 1918 to take command of the entrenched camp at paris in face of the enemy advance. he urged the launching of an offensive in macedonia both at the inter-allied war council at versailles and before the british war cabinet; and on sept. 4 1918, at the london conference, his advice was adopted. in oct. 1918 gen. guillaumat was given the command of the v. army on the aisne for the final advance. after the war he was president of the commission of inquiry into the surrender of the frontier fortresses and later was elected a member of the conseil superieur de la guerre. after being entrusted with a mission to athens, where he drew up a plan for the reorganisation of the greek army, he took command of the army of occupation in the rhineland at the end of 1924. guillaume, charles edouard (1861- ), french physicist, was born at fleurier, switzerland, feb. 15 1861, edu- cated at neuchatel, he became a docteur-es-sciences, and devoted himself to the study of practical physics. he is principally known for his invention of the metal, invar, an alloy of nickel and steel which, having a co-efficient of lincar expansion of only -9000008 for one degree centigrade, is in general use as a material for standard measures and instruments of precision. in 1920 he was awarded the nobel prize for physics and he became director of the international bureau of weights and measures. guillaume's works include: traite pratique de la thermometrie de precision (1889); les radiations nouvelles; les rayons x, etc. (1896); les applications des acters au nickel (1904); determination du valunie du kilogramme d'eau (1910); compensation des horloges et des montres (1921); les recents progres du systeme nretrique (1907-21). ’ guinea, french (sce 11.102). revised estimates give the areca as 90,000 sq. m. and the population (1925) as 2,000,000. there were 2,000 europeans, of whom half were french. trom the port of konakri (population 9,000) a railway 411 m. long was completed in r915 to kankan, on the upper niger. palm oil and kernels, ground nuts, rubber and hides are the chief exports. since 1922 cotton has been grown in the niger regions. coffee and bananas are other crops. guise, battle of: sce frontiers, rattles of the. guitry, lucien germaine (1860-1925), french actor (see 12.705). in 1920 he came to london with his son sacha, and achieved an immense success in pasteur, when he played the title rele. he also played in his son’s play, afon pere avait raison. he died in paris june 1 1925. sacha guitry’s play, deburand, had a successful run in new york and london. guild socialism—gunniery, naval gullstrand, allvar (1862- }, swedish physician, was born june 5 1862 at landskrona. in 1894 he became professor of diseases of the eye at uppsala and in 1913 was appointed pro- fessor of physiological and physical optics at the same university. his investigations concerned the general laws of dioptrics, a new conception of the theory of optical images; the extrication of the optical images in the eye, and the eye’s relation to the diffusion of light. in 1911 he was awarded the nobel prize for medicine. among gullstrand'’s works are allgemeine theorie der monochro- matischen aberrationen (1900), die optische abbildung in hetero- genen medien und die dioptrik der kristallinse des menschen (1908) and finfiihrung in die mcthoden der diopirik des auges des menschen (1911). he received the honorary degree of sc.d. at dublin in t912 and became honorary member of the ophthalmological society of the united kingdom in rg16. gun: sec artillery: ordnance. : gunnery, naval.—it is no easy matter to hit, and keep on hitting a moving target at sea, with a gun mounted upon an un- stable platform that is also moving in relation to the target. with a single gun firing, at short ranges, the gunlayer can follow the path of his shot and see it strike the water or target, and can correct his sights so that the next shot will hit. with several guns firing, under battle conditions at even moderate ranges, this becomes a sheer impossibility for anyone stationed at the guns. hence the necessity for controlling the fire of the guns of a ship from a central position remote from the guns themselves. the control officer is usually stationed high up in the ship where he is in a good position to spot the fall of the shot and has all the available information for estimating the hitting range and for communicating it to the guns. the gunlayers keep their guns continuously laid upon the target and the guns are fired at the command of the control officer. let us consider a simple case of a ship firing at a towed target at a range of about 10,000 yards. the range of the target is ob-. tained by the rangefinder and certain corrections, which will be explained later, are applied to the rangefinder range to obtain the estimated “ gun range”? which is passed to the guns. as the firing ship and the target are both moving, it is obvious that the range must be changing at a certain rate. this rate of change of range is estimated and is applied to the gunsights at sct intervals. the deflection is estimated by the control officer and is applied to the sights. the control officer then fires a salvo of two or more guns and watches the fall of the shot. he makes a spotting cor- rection in range and dellection, calculated to get the next salvo to fall, if possible, upon the other side of the target to the first one. if this happens he halves his original spotting correction, applies it in the opposite direction and fires again. this third salvo should fall very close to the target, if it does not hit, and if the rate of change of range has been estimated correctly, sub- sequent salvocs will, theoretically, continue to hit. this is a very simple case of a bracket system, which is used in one form or another by all control ofhcers. corrections.—the corrections which must be applied to the range observed by the rangefinders in order to obtain the hitting or gun range are duc to (1) the variations in muzzle velocity caused by the wear of the guns, (2) the change in muzzle velocity due to changes in the temperature of the charges, (3) the direc- tion and force of the wind and (4) the height of the barometer and thermometer. the first two are usually applied as a correc- tion upon the sights of each individual gun and remain more or less constant for any one day. the last two factors are variable from hour to hour and are applied as a direct correction to the rangefinder readings. the rate at which the range is changing is a variable factor since it depends upon the relative bearing between the two ships, which is constantly changing. the same applies, in a lesser degree, to the deflection, and constant corrections are necessary in both rate and deflection to maintain hitting after it is once established. increase of range-—thus there are many problems to be solved, even in the simple case of firing at a target at 10,000 yards. battle ranges have now been extended up to 20,000 yd. or more, and as the range is increased the problems with which gunnery, naval the control officer is faced become much more complicated. at ranges which approach the limits of visibility the observation of the fall of shot becomes: extremely difficult, and it is practically impossible to tell whether shot are falling over or short, unless they are falling directly in line with the target. as the range increases errors caused by the roll, yaw and pitch of the ship, which at moderate ranges are not so serious, become accentuated and have to be taken into account. trial and error process.—the trajectory of the shell reaches a very high altitude and the wind and atmospheric conditions in the upper air cannot be known with sufficient accuracy to en- able a correct forecast to be made of the eflect upon projectiles. the effects of the variations in muzzle velocity, due to the wear of the guns, to changes in the temperature of charges and to other more obscure causes, become more pronounced. range ob- servation, even with the most perfect instruments and with the best trained observers, becomes unreliable when the visibility 1s poor and the errors in the rangefinders themselves become greater as the range increases. it thus becomes a matter of great difficulty to make an accurate forecast of the initial gun range and deflection. it has become the practice to obtain the hitting range by a process of “ trial and crror,”’ employing a large bracket system and using the gun as its own rangefinder, obtaining what assistance is possible, under prevailing conditions, from the in- struments of observation. this can be done as long as the fall of shot can be observed, but becomes impossible as soon as this condition ceases to exist. the use of aircraft to assist the spot- ting officer, or to carry out the whole of the observation of fire at extreme ranges, naturally suggests itself, and it is in this direc- tion, followed by the possible introduction of some form of indirect fire, that future developments may be expected. the mechanism of fire control the installation used for the control of fire was intricate in the years before 1914, and war experience has made the addition of further complications necessary. little can be said of the de- tails of the various instruments used, as the majority of them are confidential, and the functions, and even the existence, of some of them are kept as secret as possible. the main problems are the same for all and may be divided into three parts:— (1) the communications between the control stations and the guns. (2) the apparatus for obtaining the hitting range and de- flection and for keeping them both correct. (3) the arrangements for firing the guns and for observing the fall of shot. communications.—the positions between which communication must be mainrained are the observing positions aloft, the principal control position, usually in the vicinity of the conning tower, the transmitting station.and the turrets or other gun positions. com- munications must be rapid and sure, as most of the information sent is only of value at the moment of transmission and loses its signifi- cance if any delay occurs. ilence several lines usually exist between important stations, any one of which can be used in the event of breakdown of the others. all lines of communication are usually con- centrated from outlying stations into the transmitting station. this station is situated in the centre of the ship, well below the armoured deck in the quietest position that can be selected and is the centre of the whole control organisation. voice-pipes are used to a great extent between stations that are permanently manned and that are moderately close together. to be efficient a voice-pipe must be as straight as possible, and there are well-defined limits of length for each diameter of pipe beyond which the acoustic properties are lost. voice-pipes are difficult to make watertight and gastight. the telephone is used between all stations, often in addition to the voice-pipe. there is usually a telephone exchange, in or near the transmitting station, solely for the use of the fire control organisation and quite independent of the general telephone system of the ship. the telephone transmitters and receivers are of many patterns and are specially designed for use by operators who have other duties to perform, or who have to use the instruments in positions which are exposed to the weather. electro-mechanical transmitters and re- ceivers are used for passing ranges, deflection, bearing, orders and other information of a standard character between the control positions and the guns. there are several different patterns of these instruments, those most commonly used in all navies being the barr & stroud “ step-by-step,’ and the vickers “‘ counter” types. 299 frequently one transmitter is arranged to work a number of re- ccivers in outhing stations. a development of these instruments is found in the * follow the pointer " method, which is commenly used for sending ranges from the transmitting station to the guns. the transmitter takes the form of a sight dial upon which the range is set by moving a pointer to the required setting. the motion of the pointer is transmitted electrically to pointers upon the gunsights. a mechanical pointer, geared to the mechanism which works the gun- sight, is kept in line with the electric pointer by the sightsetter, and the sight is thus kept set without the sightsetter having to watch the movements of a separate instrument. the large clock-faced dials and other similar arrangements which are often seen about the upper works of warships are used for communicating the range and deflection in use to consorts who may be firing at the same target. their place will doubtless be taken in the future by wircless teleg- raphy or telephony. rangefinding and rangekeeping.—in the transmitting station are situated the majority of the calculating instruments, and to this position are passed the results of all observations of range, bearing, course of enemy, fall of shot, etc. also all orders from the chief control officer to the guns are passed through the transmitting station. asa rule the control officer is in direct communication with the officer in charge of the transmitting station by means of a large, direct voice-pipe. the functions of the majority of the instruments in the transmitting station and their details are naturally con- fidential. broadly they consist of arrangements for deducing the course and speed of the enemy from such data as may be available, and for calculating from this the rate of change of range and detlec- tion that should be applied to the gunsights. in the british service the dreyer calculating table is in general use, and to this constant improvements are being made to meet the changed conditions brought about by the increasing range at which the guns are used. the details of this calculating table are secret, but there are other patented apparatus, notably the argo and the ford, which aim at achieving the same results. apart from the calculating apparatus, some form of which is in use in all navies, there are a certain number of instruments which are generally employed. rungefinders.—the rangefinder most commonly used by all navies, and which forms the equipment of the british fleet is the barr & stroud coincidence instrument. in a capital ship there are at least six large rangefinders, mounted in various positions, and the number and size of the instruments are reduced proportionately in smaller ships. the observations of each instrument are transmitted elec- trically to the transmitting station, where apparatus exists for obtaining rapidly a mean of all the observations, thus giving what is called the “ mean rangefinder range.” to this are applied correc- tions for the density of the air, the effect of wind, the temperature of the charges, the nature of the projectile, the change of range during the flight of the projectile and for several other variables. the result 1s the gun range which is passed to the guns. change of range calculators —to obtain the rate at which the range is changing at any moment involves the solution of two triangles, the functions of which are the course and speed of the firing ship, and the bearing, course and speed of the target ship. the first two of these are known, the third is easily observed, but the other two can only be obtained by calculation, or judged approx- imately by observation. there are several types of calculators for this purpose, but that used in the british service is the dumuaresque in which the elements are set graphically, and the resulting rate of change of range corresponding to the settings is read olf in “ yards per minute ’’ which, is what is required. the speed of the target ship must always be guessed in the first instance, but instruments known as inclinometers are being experimented with, whereby the angle between the course of the target ship and the line of fire can be observed with fair accuracy at any moment. the course of the target ship is thus obtained. range clocks.—some type of clock, which can be set to run at the rate at which the range is changing is used in all navies. in the british service the vickers clock is used. this consists of a powerful clockwork escapement, driving a large pointer around a clock face, the perimeter of which is graduated in yards. a method of altering the speed of the pointer is fitted, so that 1t can be made to move at speeds of 0 to 2,000 yd. per min. in cither direction. arrangements are made for large corrections in range to be put on the perimeter of the clock without interfering with the motion of the pointer, so that the clock can always be run at the gun range that it is desired to transmit to the guns. there are many other uses to which it can be applied. deflection calculators.—it is a difficult matter to obtain the cor- rect deflection for hitting a target at long range. there are many types of deflection calculators, wherewith, by using the data available in the transmitting room, an approximation to the theoretical de- flection can be obtained. all these instruments, however, have their limitations, because, allhough the allowance can be mace for the wind at the firing ship, at long range the wind etfect at the target may be entirely diiferent. also the direction of the wind in the upper air, through which the trajectory of the projectile passes, is an unknown factor. the practice is to calculate the proper setting as near as possible and to correct it by observation of fall of shot. dellection is of the greatest importance in ranging, for at long 300 ranges, unless the shot fall in line with the target, it is impossible to tell whether they are short or over. bearing indicators.—these instruments are mounted in the con- trol positions, and consist of a bearing plate, mounted with the zero in the fore and aft line of the ship. a telescope or binocular is suit- ahly mounted and the bearing of any object, with reference to the ships fore and aft line, can be readily observed. in the evershed type used in the british navy, the bearings are transmitted electrically to the guns and to the transmitting station. this forms a ready method of indicating the correct target to the guns, and from the observations the rate at which the bearing is changing can be obtained. observing and firing the guns before the range at which heavy guns are used at sea became so extended, a single gun was used for ranging, before opening fire with the whole broadside. the differences between the rang- ing of individual guns, due to wear and a variety of other causes, become accentuated at long ranges, and no two guns can be built that will always shoot precisely the same. this leads to a “ pattern,” or spread, resulting when a number of guns of the same size are fired at the same elevation. apart from this, in practice the errors in laying of the indivilual gunlayers have to be taken into account. the “ spread of the salvo,’ as it is called, can be reduced by making careful adjustments, but it can never be eliminated entirely, even if there are no errors in laying the guns. the spread can, however, be made an approximately constant quantity, by careful adjustments and training of the personnel, and this quantity is known to the control officer of each individual ship. to base the corrections for the broadside upon the result of the fall of a shot from a single gun is obviously liable to lead to large errors, and at extreme ranges the splash of asingle shot is extremely difficult to see. it is now the general practice to range with a salvo of several guns, usually half the broadside, and to continue firing alternate salvoes of an equal number of guns. the object of the control officer, know- ing the approximate spread of his salvoes, is to give such corrections, using some form of bracket system, as will bring the mean point of impact of the salvo on to the target. thisis termed a straddle—that is, some shots short and some over, and when this is achieved, the control officer knows that he is obtaining the maximum hitting etfect from the armament that he is controlling. director firing.—practically all navies have now adopted some form of master sight or director, whereby all guns can be fired by a single layer. this system of firing has many advan- tages, chief amongst which are the elimination of smoke inter- ference between the guns; the reduction in personal errors in laying; and the fact that it is far easier to spot the fall of a salvo that falls ‘ all together ” instead of being spread out over an irregular time interval. in the british navy the director installation invented by adml. sir p. scott is used. this consists of a director sight mounted aloft, or in a director tower well separated from the guns themselves. the sight is similar to a gunsight and is carried in a mounting which can be trained and elevated in the same way as a gun mounting. the motion of the director mounting is trans- mitted electrically to training and elevation receivers at the guns. on these receivers are mechanical pointers geared to the training and elevating gear of the turret or gun. the gun is moved in training and elevation so that the mechanical pointers are kept in line with the electric ones worked by the director mounting. the guns thus follow the motions of the director or master sight and are laid at the desired elevation and training. the gun range and detlection are set upon the director sight, and the director telescope is laid upon the target in the same manner as a gunsight. the firing circuits of all guns are brought to a single trigger at the director sight, so that all guns can be fired simultaneously by the director layer. this brief description indicates the principle upon which the director is worked, but in actual practice there are many com- plications. corrections have to be made for the relative positions and levels of the different gun mountings and the director sight and for many other matters. the installation is intricate, but has stood the test of prolonged war service and the results achieved by it have been invaluable. in capital ships there are, as a rule, two director sights, one mounted aloft and one just above the level of the guns, which can be used alternatively for the main armament. a director is also fitted for use with the secondary gun pow der—gy mnastics armament. light cruisers are fitted with directors for their main armament, and a modified form is used in destroyers. squadron control.—in the foregoing, the control of the fire of the guns of a single ship has been dealt with, but under modern battle conditions, it often happens that one or more ships will engage the same target. when this occurs, unless there is some pre-arranged organisation between the firing ships, confusion will occur owing to the spotting officer taking the fall of another ship’s salvoes for his own. therefore a pair of ships firing at the same target generally fire a salvo or pair of salvoes alternately, each waiting upon the other and correcting the gun range by the fall of the other’s salvoes. this necessitates an intimate inter- communication between the two control officers, which is possible by wireless telegraphy. a squadron of four ships may fire together at the same target, the fire being controlled by the control oflicer of the leader, who orders the gun range at which each ship shall fire, after receiving the result of observations as to fall of shot from his own and the firing ship’s spotting officers, and possibly from the air. ina case such as this, the object of the squadron control officer is the same as that of the control officer of a single ship, that is to bring the mean point of impact of the shell from the armament he is controlling as near the target as possible, for then only can he be sure that he is getting the maximum hitting effect. in view of the extreme ranges at which future actions at sea will be fought, it appears certain that fire tactics will tend to develop in the direction of concentrated fire by pairs of ships or by squad- rons, aided by observation from the air. the perfecting of the intricate organisation of the fire control of any ship is the most important item in making her an efficient fighting unit and requires arduous and painstaking exercise lasting over many months. (see ordnance.) (s. h. w.) gunpowder: see explosives. . gwalior, mahdo rao sindhia, manaraja of (1876- 1925), was born oct. 20 1876, and succeeded his father, sir javaji rao sindhia, in 1886 (see 12.748). he threw himself with the utmost keenness into the supervision of every detail of state management, endowing gwalior with an excellent system of light railways, carrying out irrigation projects, husbanding the revenues and raising the standards of administration by unceas- ing vigilance. in the world war his two regiments and transport corps fought with distinction in france, east africa, egypt, palestine and mesopotamia. a boundless and inventive gen- erosity found scope in his constant presentation of munitions of war and princely donations to various relief funds. he took the main part in purchasing, equipping and maintaining the hospital ship “ loyalty,” which carried 15,000 war patients; and provided a convalescent home at nairobi in east africa—to mention only a few of his gifts. a lieutenant-general in the british army, he was hon. a.d.c. to king george v., and the bearer of several grand crosses; his permanent dynastic salute was raised to the maximum of 21 guns, and oxford and cambridge conferred honorary degrees upon him. king george v. also honoured him by becoming sponsor to his heir, george jivaji rao (b. 1916). vhe maharaja went to europe in the spring of 1925, partly to recuperate his impaired health, but died in paris on june 5.