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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "verified_text": "since 1o1o the popularity of golf has in- creased steadily in great britain, while in the united states of america it has spread like a prairie fire. there could be no more striking evidence than the fact that the profession of the golf architect has now become an exceedingly busy and prospcrous one. tracts of woodland, where it would once have been deemed impossible to make a course, have been hacked and hewn into shape, tree stumps have been blown up with dynamite and on one famous course in america, the lido, sand has been sucked up from the sea by giant engines and spread over a flat marsh in picturesque hills and valleys. the designing of courses has de- vcloped into an art requiring skill, experience and imagination. this, which may be called the second great boom in the history of the game, began with the coming of the rubber-cored ball and is no doubt largely due to it. the ball made the game far easicr and pleasanter for the average man to play, but it has had its disadvantages. the ball goes so far that there has been a con- stant cry that courses are too short. consequently clubs have had to remake their courses, taking in more ground with great attendant expense. some attempts have been made, though not with any conspicuous success, to limit the ball’s activities. in 1920 there was passed a rule, still in force, which liys down that the weight of the ball shall not be greater than 1-62 02. avoirdu- pois and the size not less than 1-62 in. in diameter. the “ im- plements committee ” of the u.s. golf assn., after exhaustive goldiu—golf experiments, proposed a further slight limitation. at the autumn meeting of the royal and ancient club in 1925 it was proposed that a ball thus further limited should be used in the open and amateur championships of 1926, but the proposal was rejected by a large majority. tut game in the united states ; in the united states, in the earlier years of this century, golf may be said to have altered largely the lives of the upper and middle classes there, by the introduction of the ‘ country club ” habit. now it has spread to all classes of society. many american towns have public links where anybody can play either on the payment of a small fee or for nothing. chicago heads the list with nearly 20 of such courses, and all over the country they are growing rapidly. it is significant that there has been officially instituted by the u.s. golf assn. a public links championship which draws many entries and produces fine golf, the winner being often one who was a caddie in boyhood. standard of play in the u.s.a.—in these circumstances it is only natural that the americans should have produced very good players. ‘their standard of play is now unquestionably higher than great britain’s. as long ago as r904 mr. walter travis, an australian born who had become an american citizen, won the british amateur championship at sandwich. curiously enough, although the standard of play in america is now far higher than in mr. travis’s day, no other amcrican amateur won the cham- pionship until 1926, when the coveted prize fell to mr. jesse sweetser. mr. travis’s fine victory marked the beginning of the american challenge, but it was not until eight years later that the menace to british supremacy was fully realised. in rot3 harry vardon and e. ray ‘went touring through america and took part in the open championship at the country club at brookline, mass. they seemed certain to have tied for first place when almost at the end of the day mr. francis oulmet, a young boston player who had only lately played in his first amateur championship, managed to tie with them by means of a great finish. on the next day the tie was played off over holes in horrible conditions with sheets of rain and muddy ground. mr. ouimet held his two opponents all the way, gradually wore them down and beat them handsomely. changes during the world war—a year later golf practically ceased in great britain owing to the war but it naturally con- tinued to grow and flourish in america. up till that time most of the professionals in america had been imported scotsmen or englishmen, but there was gradually arising a race of ‘ home- bred”? professionals and after the war they were both formi- dable and numerous. when the british open championship began again in 1920, the great british golfers, vardon, braid, taylor and herd, had grown a little too old. they were, as they still are, very fine players, but their youth is not perennial and the long strain of a championship had become something too much for them. great britain had then, as to-day, many very skilful pro- fessional golfers but none perhaps who combined skill with tem- peramental virtues as did those four. in 1920 the series of american invasions began with hagen, a “home-bred,” and barnes, a cornishman who had gone to america as a very young man. barnes did well, but hagen failed on this his first visit and duncan, for whom that year was an annus mirabilis, won the championship. next year they tried again and hagen was clearly becoming acclimatised to british golf; but the winner was jock hutchison, a st. andrew’s-bred player, professional to the glenview club near chicago who, though a scottish golfer, played a typically american game. he tied with mr. roger wethered, who had the misfortune to lose one vital stroke by kicking his own ball, and then won easily on the play-off. at the third attempt in 1922 hagen was successful, winning at sandwich by a single stroke, despite a wonderful spurt by duncan in the last round. the next year was one of encouragement for great britain, for havers, a young profes- sional of great power and promise who learnt his game at nor- wich, managed to beat hagen by one stroke. there were other invaders from america, barnes, macdonald smith, one of a golf great carnoustie family, and gene sarazen, a young “ home- bred ” player of italian parentage, who had suddenly come into prominence. barnes and sarazen failed to qualify but mac- donald smith finished high on the list. in 1924 all four came to hoylake and hagen won by one stroke, chiefly by means of a most gallant finish. indeed he has shown himself to possess unique powers of recovering from difficulties and of turning defeat into victory. in 1925 he did not come but barnes won, beating ray and compston by a stroke. macdonald smith appeared at one time almost assured of victory but failed badly in the last round, during which he was rather hampcred by an enormous crowd. the names of american pro- fessionals already mentioned make up a large part of the history of the american open championship but there is a word to be said about one truly astounding golfer, mr. r. t. jones, com- monly called “ bobby.” mr. jones has actually won the american open championship only once, a feat equalled by mr. jerome travers, mr. oquimet and mr. “f chick’ evans, but in the championship since the war his aggregate of scores is better by 19 strokes than that of the next best man, walter hagen. that is an eloquent piece of statistics to which nothing need be added. the walker cup.—the history of american and british ama- teur golf centres chiefly round the walker cup which was given by a well-known golfer, mr. walker, for matches between the two countrics. in 1920, an american amateur team came to take part in the amateur championship at hoylake, played a match against a british team, and won decisively. that was before the giving of the cup. walker cup matches have since been played on the national golf links, long island, in 1921, at st. andrews in 1923 and at garden city, new york, in 1924. the american team has won on each occasion, very easily in its own country, by a narrow margin and a most courageous finish at st. andrew’s. the american team won also in the two following years, 1925 and 1926. in messrs. jones, evans, ouimet, guilford, gardner and sweetser they had the nucleus of a side stronger than any great britain could command; and it is certain that any american team will always be a very formidable one. the american amateur is invariably well taught and grounded in his boyhood and he has a steadiness and consistency to which very few british amateurs seem able to attain. this is the more remarkable because, unless he goes to pinehurst or palm beach or other southern courses in the winter, he probably plays less golf than do british golfers, who can and do play all the year round. golf in france and elsewhere before coming to british golf, something must be said of that in other countries. as long ago as 1907, arnaud massy, originally a biarritz fisherman, won the british open championship. he has never repeated that feat, though he tied with vardon in torr and has several times beaten strong fields of british players in the french championship and did so once again in 1925. there has been no other ['rench prcfessional as good as massy, but there has been a number of very good ones, such as the late louis tellier, gassiat, laffitte, dauge, and one most remarkable one-armed player, yves bocatzou. the french amateurs have hardly yet reached the same standard, but france has pro- duced one extremely good lady player, mlle. simone de la chaume. she is already a very fine player and in soundness of method probably comes nearer to the british lady champion, liss wethered, than any other lady. there are to-day some very good courses in france. paris has la boulie, chantilly, st. cloud and fontainebleau. le touquet, near etaples, is excellent, a mixture of seaside sand and inland pine trees; and wimereux, lately remodelled, promises well. in the riviera english visitors have made courses of varying qual- ity. cannes has one very pleasant one among pine trees at napoules and the new cannes country club, rather further off at mougins, is probably better. sospel, in a mountain valley above mentone, is very charming, and others that are at least pretty and worth playing on are costebelle, valescure and 243 cagnes, near nice. on the cete d’argent there is la nivelle, near st. jean de luz, where massy is the professional, and biarritz. moreover, close to biarritz a new course is being made of which its promoters think very highly. nor must pau be for- gotten. it is a club of now almost venerable age, one of the oldest out of scotland. switzerland and italy have courses which are at least very beautiful. indeed there are courses wherever british people are to be found. canada, if it has not yet quite attained to the american standard of skill, is almost as keen and spends almost as much money on its courses and club houses. australia has some good courses, notably perhaps seaton near adelaide and kensington near sydney; and it has bred at least one first-class professional, joseph kirkwood, who has several times done well in the british open championship and is now one of the leading professionals in america. japan has taken to the game with enthusiasm although the turf of the country is not of the best kind. it possesses a golf paper, go/fdom, and has some good players, although none have yet reached the standard of its lawn-tennis players. in short, in regard to its world-wide character, the game is now only second to lawn tennis. the game in great britain in great britain golf has become steadily more and more popular, and nowhere more markedly than in its original home, scotland. in scotland it is essentially the people’s game and there are many municipal courses on which it can be played at the minimum of expense. in england it is still largely the game of the comparatively well-to-do, but municipal golf is on the in- crease and wherever it arises it is an instant success, as witness the public course in richmond park which is crowded with all sorts and conditions of players. there are to-day far more golfers than there used to be who have begun the game as boys. {tis not a school game but many boys play in their holidays; and considering this fact it is rather surprising that great britain does not breed more good young players. the universities of oxford and cambridge are full of golfers, but only a few of them are good golfers and the standard of university teams is not noticeably higher than it used to be. the number of players who may fairly be called good has of course increased very greatly throughout the country asa whole, and championship fields have correspondingly increased. british amafeurs.—it has already been sail that when the game was resumed after the war, the leading british pro- fessionals were a little past their best. much the same may be said as regards the amateurs. mr. john ball, mr. hilton and others of their generation had naturally begun to think of retiring and their places were left open. two very brilhant young players, too young to be heard of before the war, at once made their presence felt after it, mr. cyril tolley and mr. roger wethered. of all british golfers in late years, these two have been the most essentially dramatic, and have taken the largest share of public attention. both can hit the ball enormous distances, both are on their day almost unapproachably good and both can be, on an off day, disappointing. they lack the consistency of such a player as mr. john ball, but the game as played by them is an exciting and attractive one. each has won the amateur championship once. mr. tolley has won the french open championship against a strong field, and mr. wethered did the best thing which any british amateur has done for a long time when he tied for the open championship with jock hutchison. a golfer of a rather different type, sir ernest itolderness, has twice won the amateur championship since the war and, though he has not the magnetic powers of a tolley or a wethered, he 1s beyond doubt a very tine plaver. in the matter of consistency and steadiness he challenges comparison with the best of the elder amateurs. in 1925 another eminently consistent player, mr. robert harris, won the amateur championship. it was a most popular victory, for mr. harris has now been among the leading amateurs for a long time; he was in the semi-final of the amateur championship as long ago as 1907 and in the final in l913 and 1923. 244 these two players, sir ernest holderness and mr. harris, probably make the safest models for the young amateurs of the present day, for the reason that they are both essentially straight and accurate. there is some danger lest too much importance should be attached to length and that young golfers should indulge in an orgy of slogging. still, in the last few years, there has been noticed a great increase of driving power. this cannot be wholly accounted for by the increasing skill in the manu- facture of the rubber-cored ball. on the whole the amateur standard is going up; but there is still room for a combination of the clder and younger virtues. british professionals—no one or two professionals have definitely succeeded to the throne left vacant by the “ trium- virate,” vardon, braid and taylor. duncan appeared likely to do so when he played so wonderfully well in 1920, but he has since been somewhat fitful ancl inconstant. te is a magnificent golfer but lacks something of solidity and stolidity. much the same may be said of abe mitchell, who has never yet won the open championship, though he has been very successful in tournaments by match play. it is almost impossible to imagine anything better than mitchell’s golf when things are going well; his brother professionals always expect him to win; but he too seems to want that power of rising superior to circumstances, which hagen so conspicuously possesses. the two whitcombes, george gadd, ockenden, havers and many others all play ex- ceedingly well without quite rising to the greatest heights. in 1925, however, there appeared suddenly another player, comp- ston, who adds great determination and character to great physical strength and may possibly be the man for whom the british golfing world has been waiting. he was unquestionably the player of the year and appears, far from relaxing his efforts after a victory, to go from strength to strength. late in the year he was rather heavily defeated by abe mitchell, who played golf of overpowering brilliancy, but this will not discourage him. golf fer ladies.—in its ladies’ golf great britain is strong- est. for the first few years after the war miss cecil leitch was the outstanding figure. she has all the qualities of a great player; it is possible to criticise her rather unorthodox methods, but not their results. she is still as good as ever, but she has been sur- passed by miss joyce wethered, who to equal strength and cour- age adds a sounder method. indeed she is so sound in everything she does that it is impossible to suggest even the smallest loop- hole in her armour. she won the english close championship five times in succession and the open championship three times in four years, the last time after a terrific struggle with miss leitch, in which both played superbly. she has now no worlds left to conquer. these two ladies have dominated ladies’ golf since the war, but there are some other excellent players, such as miss fowler, mrs. macbeth, miss chambers, and amongst american invaders, miss glenna collett and mrs. fraser, formerly miss alexa stirling. lady golfers, although they now drive a great deal further than their predecessors, have not yielded to the passion for big hitting as have some of their male contemporarics. for the most part they play very accurately. their iron play is a great deal more forceful than it used to be and, generally speaking, the difference between good men’s golf and good women’s golf to-day is one not of kind but only of degree. somme golf courses the select list of championship courses has been slightly enlarged. two amateur championships have been played at westward ho, and one at deal, which had previously been only upon the rota for the open championship. the open champion- ship has been played at troon and is to be played in 1926 at lytham and st. anne’s. the fixed rota has in both cases been abandoned and, as time goes on, other fresh courses will no doubt get their turns. the management of the two champion- ship meetings is now in the hands of the championship committee of the royal and ancient golf club. its members are appointed by the royal and ancient but are not necessarily members of that club. they are chosen from representative golfers in different parts of the country. it may here be added that golf england, scotland, ireland and wales has now each its own golf union. there is also a large number of county unions, county matches and county championships. mention may also be made of the professional golfers assn. which does a great deal of useful work on its members’ behalf and manages certain competitions, such as 7he news of the world and the daily afail tournaments open to its members. it would be impossible to enumerate all the new and good courses which have come into existence since 1910. there are not so many new sea-side ones of quite the first rank, though there is certainly one, prince’s, sandwich, which is as fine as any in the country, and another, saunton, in north devon, which promises to be so. the great increase is in good inland courses. this ts largely due to the discovery that the country of fir trees and heather, such as is to be found particularly in surrey, can be turned into the very best kind of inland course. the london golfer has consequently a wonderful choice of fine courses within easy distance, sunningdale, walton heath, woking, worplescon, west hill, st. george’s hill and addington are among the lead- ing ones. ganton and alwoodley, in yorkshire; hollinwell, in nottinghamshire; sandwell park, near birmingham; and glen- eagles, in perthshire, are perhaps the best outside the london district, but the list is really unending. finally it has regretfully to be recorded that golf is no longer played on blackheath, its earliest home in england. the classic heath is now given over to football players and its sacred turf has been largely kicked to pieces. the royal blackheath club has, however, moved its home to eltham, where it still flourishes and retains its proud claim to be the oldest golf club in the world. winners of british championship, 1911-26 year open amateur ladies roti | ii. vardon (prest-| h. h. hilton, miss id. camp- wick)! (prestwick) bell (portrush) 1912 | e. ray (muirfield)| j. ball (westward| miss gs. ravens- ho!) croft (turn- berry) 1913 | j. ii. taylor (hloy-] h. h. hilton (st.) miss m. dodd lake andrews) (st. anne's) 1914 | 11. vardon (prest-| j. 1. c. jenkins} miss c. leitch wick) (sandwich) (itunstanton) i915- 1919 no matches 1920 | g. duncan (deal) | c. j. h. tolley | miss c. leitch (nuirfield) (newcastle, co. down) 1921 | j. elutchison (st.| w. i. hunter miss c, leitch andrews)? (hoylake) (turnberry) 1922 | w. hagen (sand-| fk. ilolderness miss j. wethered wich) (prestwick) (sandwich) 1923 | a. g. havers r. 11. wethered | miss 1). chambers (troon) (deal) (burnham) 1924 | w. hagen (hoy-| le. ilolderness | miss j. wethered lake) (st. andrews) (portrush) 1925 | j. ml. barnes r. ilarris (west-| miss j. wethered (prestwick) ward ilo!) (troon) 1926 | robert t. ( bob-| jesse sweetser miss c. leitch by \"') jones (nt uirfield) (llarlech) (st. anne’s) 1 after tie with a. massy. 2 after tie with r. 1]. wethered. bibliography.—j. braid, advanced golf (1908); a. massy, le goif (1911); f. wh. taylor, taslor on gelf (1911); h. g. efutchinson, the new book of golf (1912) and fifty years of golf (1919); j. d. travers, -l golf book (1913); j. w. duncan and b. a. clark, aftntc2- pal golf (seattle, 1917); j. m. barnes, picture analysis of golf strokes (1919) and a guide te good golf (1925); h. s. colt and c. h. alison, some [essays on golf course architecture (1920); b. darwin, golf: some [tints and sugcestions (1920), a friendly round (1922), and the golf courses of great britain (1925); c. evans, chick evans’ golf book (1921); a. wirkaldy, fifty years of gelf (1921); f. ouimet, golf facts for young people (1921); j. white, putte (1921) and easier golf (1924); cecil leitch, golf, etc. (1922); h. h. elilton, modern golf (1922); r. and j. wethered, golf front two sides (1922); g. w. beldam, the world's champion golfers (1924); c. g. duncan and b. darwin, present day golf (1924); g. sarazen, common sense golf tips (1924); r. e. howard, lessons from great golfers (1924); c. j. h. tolley, the afodern golfer (1924); h. vardon, how io play golf (192.4); sce also the volume on go/f in the badminton library, the golfers’ yearbook, the golfing annual, and the american annual golf guide and yearbook, (b. 1d.) golitzin —gorgas golitzin, boris borisovich, prince (1862-1016), russian physicist, was born on feb. 18 (old style) 1862 in st. petersburg (leningrad). he was educated in the naval school and navalacademy. in 1887 he left the active service for scientific studies and went to strasbourg. in 1891 he was appointed privai-docent at the university of moscow andin 1893 professor of physics at dorpat. the same year he was elected fellow of the academy of sciences in st. petersburg and in 1908 a member of the same. his early research was in spectroscopy, but his world-known work is on the methods of earthquake ob- servations and on the construction of seismographs, which are used in all russian and in many foreign observatories. his valu- able book, lectures on scismomeiry , was published in 1912 and translated into german in 1914. he received the degree of d. sc. from the university of manchester in 1910. in 1911 he was elected president of the international seismological association. in 1913 he was appointed director of the central physical (now geophysical) observatory at st petersburg and achieved good results in the organisation of the meteorological service through- out russia, especially during the world war, but his work was cut short by his death from pneumonia on may 4 1016 at new peterhof, near st. petersburg. he took part twice in expedi- tions for observations of solar eclipses, once in 1896 at novaya zemlya and the second time in 1914 near riga, where he obtained splendid photographs of the corona. (a. fo.) gollancz, sir israel (1864- ), british scholar, was born in london of a jewish family july 13 1863. he was educated at the city of london school and afterwards at university college, london and christ’s college, cambridge. from 1892 to 1895 he was quain student and lecturer in english at university college, london and in 1896 was appointed university lecturer in english at cambridge, becoming in 1906 university professor of english language and literature at king’s college, london. he became secretary of the british academy on its foundation in 1903 and was knighted in 1919. he was general editor of the temple classics and king’s library scries and of the book of homage to shakespeare which appeared in 1916. his published works include cynewlf’s christ (1892); an edition of c. lamb’s specimens of elizabethan dramatists (1893); excter book of anglo-saxon poetry (1895) and hamlet in iceland (1808). goltz, colmar von der (1843-1916), prussian gen- eral, military writer and organiser of the turkish army (see 12.227). gen. von der goltz was made a field-marshal in 1911 and retired in 1913. in aug. 1914 he was appointed governor- general of belgium, then occupied by german forces. in nov. of the same year he was attached to the turkish headquarters as alde-de-camp-general to the sultan. in april ro15 he was placed in the chief command of the i. turkish army in meso- potamia, and succeeded in investing gen. townshend’s british forces at kat-cl-amara in dec. 1915. he died april 19 1916 at baghdad and was said to have been poisoned by the young turks. his latest work was kriegsgeschichte deutschlands int toten jahrhundert, 2 vol. (1910-4). goluchowski, agenor, count (1849-1921), austrian statesman (sce 12.227), died at lemberg march 29 1ro2r. gompers, samuel (1850-1924), american labour leader (see 12.230}, was convicted in 1907 and sentenced to 12 months’ imprisonment for contempt of court in disobeying an injunction prohibiting the federationist (the organ of the amcrican federa- tion of labour), from blacklisting the buck stove and range co. of st. louis. on his appeal, the u.s. supreme court waived the conviction on technical grounds. new proceedings were insti- tuted and another conviction and sentence in the lower court was set aside by the supreme court on the ground that the statute of limitations had expired before the second prosecution was launched. although in theory opposed to all war, after the out- break of the world war he resisted any tendency in labour unions to favour peace at any price. he was appointed a member of the advisory commission of the u.s. council of national de- fence in 1917. gompers represented the american federation of labour at the peace conference in paris 1918-9, and was appointed chair- 245 man of the international committee on labour legislation. he was also chairman of the american labour delegates at the convention of the international federation of trades unions at amsterdam in tgrg. he consistently opposed socialistic move- ments among the unions and favoured collective bargaining. he opposed compulsory arbitration in labour disputes and urged that labour unions be exempt from the anti-trust law. in ig2i he was elected president of the american federation of labour for the goth time. in dec. 1924 he was taken ill at mexico city, whither he had gone after attending the annual convention of the american federation of labour at el paso, tex. as he had expressed a wish to die on u.s. ground he was placed on a special train, bound for new york city. he died at san antonio, tex., dee 74. gomperz, theodor (1832~1912), german scholar (see 12.230), died at baden, near vienna, aug. 30 rgr2. goodhue, bertram grosvenor (1869-10924), american architect, was born at pom/ret hill, conn., april 28 1869. he studied architecture in new york city with james renwick and in 189t entered the office of r. a. cram in boston, mass., later becoming a partner. in 1903 the firm opened an office in new york city of which goodhue took charge. after ror4 he prac- lised alone. he designed churches and cathedrals which were thoroughly modern yet gothic in inspiration. at the same time he was one of the most prominent exponents of the sky-scraper building. among the structures designed by him are st. thom- as’s church, the chapel of the intercession, and the church of saint vincent ferrer, new york city; the nebraska state capitol, lincoln, neb.; st. mark's church, mount kisco, n.y.; st. thom- as’s college, and the national academy of sciences and national research council in washington, d.c.; mandel hall, at the university of chicago; the california institute of technology, pasadena, cal.; and the exposition buildings for san diego, cal. he was also the architect for the cathedral of maryland, baltimore. he died in new york city april 24 1924. goodnow, frank johnson (1859- ). american edu- cationist, was born in brooklyn, n.y., jan. 13 1859. edu- cated at amherst college, mass., he studied law at columbia (ll.b., 1882), subsequently proceeding to the ecole libre des sciences politiques, paris, and the university of berlin. he was appointed instructor in history and lecturer in u.s. adminis- trative law at columbia university in 1883, becoming professor in 1891, and eaton professor of administrative law and munici- pal science in 1903. during 1906-7 he was acting dean of political science. he was legal adviser to the chinese govt., stationed at pcking, during the years 1913 and 1914. he was appointed president of johns hopkins university, oct. 1 1914. among his published works are comparative administrative law (1893); afunicipal ilome rule (1895); municipal problens (1897); politics aud administration (1900); city government in the united states (1904); principles of the administrative law of the united states (1905); municipal government (1910); soctal refornt and the constitution (1911); prinetples of constitutional government (1916). goodwin, nathaniel carl (1857-1919), american actor (see 12.239), died in new york jan. 31 19109. goodwin, william watson (1831-1912), american scholar (see 12.240), dicd in cambridge, mass., june 16 1912. gore, charles (1853- ), british divine (see 12.254), was, in 1g11, appointed bishop of oxford, where he remained until 1919 when he resigned and settled in london. his recent works include new theology and old religion (1908); orders and unity (1910); the question of divorce (1911); the religion of the church (1916); the epistles of st. john (1920); belief in god (1921); the holy spirit and the church (1924). gorgas, william crawford (1854-1920), american army surgeon, was born at mobile, ala., oct. 3 1854. he was educated at the university of the south, sewanee, tenn., and bellevue hospital medical college, new york, taking his m.d. in 1879. in 1880 he entered the medical corps of the u.s. army. during the spanish-american war he served as major in the medical corps, and was sent, after the santiago expedi- tion, to havana, where he was in charge of yellow-fever patients. 246 from 1898 to 1902 he was chief officer in charge of sanitation measures in havana, and there conducted many experiments in connection with the discovery that yellow fever was transmitted by the mosquito. because of his success in eliminating yellow fever there he was made assistant surgeon-general, u.s. army, with the rank of colonel, by special act of congress in 1903. in 1904 gorgas was sent as chief sanitary officer to panama, where two of the main obstacles to building the canal were yel- low fever and malaria. here again his methods were so eflective that in two years he eliminated yellow fever from the canal region. malaria also was brought under control. in 1907 he was appointed a member of the isthmian canal commission by president roosevelt, and the following year was u.s. delegate to the first pan-american medical congress, held at santiago, chile. he was president of the american medical association, 1908-9. in 1913 he was called to the rand gold mines in south africa to suggest means for combating the frequent epidemics of influenza. this he found was largely due to crowding the labourers together in barracks. in 1914 he was made surgeon- general, u.s. army, with the rank of brigadier-general, becoming major-general in 1916. in 1918 he was retired. he then became the permanent director of the yellow-fever work of the inter- national health board of the rockefeller foundation. he went to central america, and under his direction investigations of yellow fever were made in guayaquil, ecuador and guatemala. in ro19 he accepted a contract with the government of peru to carry out a sanitary programme in that country. he died in london july 3 1920, and was buried in the arlington national cemetery, washington, d.c. gorgei, arthur (1818-1916), hungarian soldier (see 12.256), died may 21 1916. gorst, sir john eldon (1835-10916), british politician (see 12.261), died in london april 4 1916. tis son, sir joun elpon gorst, died at castle combe, wiltshire, july 12 rort. gosse, sir edmund (1849- ), british critic (see 12.268), retired from the post of librarian to the house of lords in 1914. jn the previous year his autobiographical father and son (1907) was crowned by the french academy, and an edition of his collected essays was issued. in 1917 he published his important life of algernon charles swinburne, the fruit of his great knowl- edge of the poet and many years’ friendship with him. he re- celved numcrous honours from universities and governments, british and foreign, and was knighted in 1925. ie continued to write weekly critical articles in the sunday times, and selec- tions from these were reprinted in books on the table (1921) and more books on the table (1923). goteborg or gorhenburg, sweden (see 12.271), with a population in 1923 of 227,343, is now the first port of sweden and the chief centre of the shipbuilding industry. the value of its foreign trade increased from 811,409,000 kronen in 1915 to 1,725,061,000 kronen in 1924. the harbour, which has been considerably enlarged, is the largest in sweden, and was made a free port in 1922; a dry dock was in course of construction in 1925. goteborg is now a port of registry for steamers to all parts of the world, and is no longer only a port of call. the town, which is an important industrial centre, with over 400 factories in 1920, has an area of 7,407 hectares. the first swedish fair, held in the town in 1918, was later recognised by the govern- ment as an international industrial fair. among new buildings are a commercial institute, lorensberg (1914); a latin high school (1919); the natural history museum in slottskogen park (1923); a fine public school (1917); and masthugget church (1916). the navigation school was rebuilt in 1916, and a marine museum, with models of vessels, shipbuilding exhibits, etc., was opened in 1913 and endowed with over 1,000,000 kronen in 1917. a new botanical garden was opened in the anggarden in 1923. the restoration of the kristine church was undertaken in the same year. the railway line to stockholm was under- going electrification in 1926. goto, shimpei, viscount (1856- }, japanese politician, was born in iwate-ken and studied medicine in germany. as the first civil administrator of taiwan (formosa) under gen. gorgei—gouraud kodama in 1898, and as the first president of the south man- churia railway in 1906, he laid the groundwork of japan’s colo- nialenterprises. he was minister of communications in 1908 and 1912; of home affairs in 1916; forcign affairs in 1918; and mayor of tokio (1921-2). he exchanged conversations with mm. joffe regarding the reopening of russo-japanese relations upon his own initiative and personal responsibility in 1922. after the great japanese earthquake in 1923 he became again minister of home affairs and president of the reconstruction board. gough, sir hubert de la poer (1870- ), british soldicr, was born aug. 12 1870, a son of gen. sir c. gough, and joined the 16th lancers in 1889. in 1911 he became brigadier- gencral commanding the iii. cavalry brigade at the curragh, where his attitude with regard to ulster and the use of the troops in 1914 caused a grave political crisis (see englisir history). ile took his brigade to france in aug. of that year, and after suc- cessive promotions was given command of the newly constituted v. army; with this he played an important part in the battle of the somme. in 1917 he was for some time in charge of the ypres offensive, where his conduct of the operations received consider- able criticism. the brunt of the great german offensive of march ro18 fell on his troops, who were unable to withstand the pressure and fell back with heavy loss in personnel and material. gough’s dispositions under circumstances of the utmost difficulty were appropriate, and responsibility for the disaster did not rest with him; nevertheless he was deprived of his command by the government—punished, as was commonly said, for the failings of 1917, that had now been amply balanced. in 1910 he was for some months head of the british mission to the baltic states. gouin, sir lomer (1861— ), canadian politician, was born at grondines, quebec, march 19 1861. educated at laval and mcgill universities, he was called to the bar in 1884, and became q.c.in 1900. in 1897 he was elected to the quebec legis- lature and from 1905 to 1920 was prime minister and attorney- general of the province. he declined to join sir robert borden’s coalition ministry, subsequently declaring his allegiance to the liberal opposition. knighted in 1908, gouin received the k.c.m.g. in 1913. sir lomer was included in the cabinet formed in 1921 by mr. mackenzie king, as minister of justice. he was one of the canadian representatives at the fourth assem- bly of the league of nations at geneva, when he succeeded in obtaining an interpretation of article 10 of the covenant in the form of a resolution. in 1924 he attended the imperial and economic councils in london as one of canada’s representa- tives, but later in the year retired from politics. gouin’s first wife (d. 1904) was a daughter of honore mercier, a former premier of quebec. gouraud, henri joseph etienne (1867- ), french gencral, was born at paris on nov. 17 1867. he entered st. cyr in 1888, and was commissioned to the infantry in 1890. in 1894 he was seconded for duty under the colonial administration; and thereafter he gained much experience of active service in the french sudan, in which he served almost continuously for two years. in roo4 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel, made com- mandant of the chari (congo) territory, and an officer of the legion of honour. in 1907 he was promoted colonel. he next served in morocco, where he remained until the outbreak of the world war. on sept. 17 1914 gouraud was promoted temporary general of division, and the following jan. was appointed commander of the colonial army corps. on feb. 15 1915 he was made a substantive general of division. in may he replaced d’amade as commander of the force in gallipoli, where he was so badly wounded that his right arm had to be amputated. he was awarded the medaille militaire on july 10 1915. on recovering from his wound he went to italy in charge of a mission, and then in dec. 1915 he was appointed to command the iv. army. a year later he was sent temporarily, as commissioner general, to morocco; but he again took command of the iv. army in june 1917. from tors to the summer of 1918 the sector of the iv. army was relatively quict, save for one moment in the spring of tgt7 in which it was drawn into the ambit of nivelle’s offensive gourmont—government on the aisne, and at that time gouraud was in morocco. thus, when on july 15 1918 the germans launched their last offensive on the champagne front, gouraud had had little executive expe- ricnce as an army commander in battle, and before the “‘ zero ” day petain had had some difficulty in convincing him of the necessity of a “ coil spring ” defence. but when the time came gouraud carried out its principles admirably, and brought the germans’ last effort to a standstill in his battle zone. gouraud was awarded the grand cross of the legion of hlonour on dec. 28 1918. in oct. 1919 he became high commissioner in syria and commander-in-chicf in the levant. ie was succeeded by gen- eral weygand in 1923 and was appointed military governor of paris. gourmont, remy de (1858-1015), french writer, was born at bazoches-in-houlme (orne) april 4 1858. he was descended from a family of painters and engravers well known in the rs5th and 16th centuries, and on his mother’s side from the poct mal- herbe. he settled in paris in 1883, and entered the bibliotheque nationale. in april 1891, however, he was requested to leave, after he had published an article in the ifercure de france en- titled ‘‘ le joujou patriotisme.” he continued to contribute to this periodical and to numerous other papers. his work, which is of great variety and extent, is remarkable for its bold and flexible ideas and great erudition, and his wide range of subject is shown by sixtine, a “roman de la vie cerebrale,” his esthetique de la langue frangaise, 2 notable essay on language and phraseology to his series of promenaudes litleraires and his notorious lettres a2? amazone. he died in paris sept. 27 191s. in addition to the works mentioned above he wrote: le pelerin du silence (1896), le livre des masques (1896-8), le probleme du style (1902), physique de l’amour (1903) and pendant la guerre (1917).",
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