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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:glass:d98d13f06191",
    "title": "GLASS",
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    "verified_text": "since roro considerable developments in the glass industry have occurred, both in the glass produced and in the varieties of glass manufactured. in the following article attention is, of necessity, given to the british glass in- dustry. when the war drew attention to the british position in respect of glass generally, it was in the direction of scientific glassware and special glass for certain industries, that the deficiencies were realised. (see also opttical glass.) laboratory glass.—before the war nearly all the glass and glass apparatus used in laboratories throughout the united kingdom was obtained from abroad. the main kinds of glass required for labora- tory purposes may be grouped thus: soft glass for tubing, and for a number of articles and vessels where the highest resistance to chem- ical action is not required; glass highly resistant to chemical action; very hard glass for combustion tubing; glass for thermometers. soft glass.—such a glass must be soft enough to be readily worked in a flame, and must stand prolonged heating without showing the changes in appearance and working qualities generally described as devitrification. before chemical glassware of foreign origin became practically universal in laboratories, vessels and apparatus in great variety were made from lead glass. the advantages claimed for non- lead glass as a material for laboratory apparatus have been proved, and there is no likelihood of a return to lead glass, which, however, can be made of such high resistance to the action of water, and of niany solutions which also abstract alkali from glass, that in some special cases vessels made from it are only surpassed by silica in resistance to chemical change. in the early days of the war it was recognised that there would be a scrious shortage of laboratory vessels. a simple sodium-calcium- silicate glass was unsuitable since tubing made from it is practically useless to workers in laboratories. the immediate advance made was the addition of alumina, either as such, or preferably in the form of felspar. the use of alumina for retarding devitrification and for rendering a glass workable in the flame was known in great britain, and at least three british manufacturers had for some years produced glasses containing various percentages of alumina up to about 10%, a sodium-potassium-cafcium-aluminium-silicate type of glass has most satisfactory gencral properties. arsenic is not permissible, and the only constituent other than those indicated which might be added was a small amount of manganese dioxi<le, to disguise the green colour due to the presence of iron in the material used. the formula given here shows the approximate composition of a batch mixture expressed in percentages of silica and oxides of the metals in the various ingredients of the batch: sios, 68; alo3, 4: cao, 7; keo, 6:5; na,o, 14°5. this yields a good glass, soft enough for flame- working while possessing good durability. use of potash felspar.—it became necessary to conserve supplies of potassium compounds, of which the amounts that could be ap- portioned for use in glass manufacture were sufficient only for the 235 production of certain optical glasses. to some extent nitre was available and was used. potash felspar, which for long had been an ingredient in certain glasses, was a convenient form of aluminium compound for introducing alumina. the amounts of this material employed varied between wide limits, and glasses of good working qualities were obtained. borax.—varying proportions of borax were employed, and in this way sodium-potassium-calcium-aluminium-boro-silicate glasses of good working qualitics and of marked durability were produced, which met many of the requirements of laboratory workers. the boro-silicate glass possessed many desirable properties when the glass was well made and the necessary technical skill had been ac- quired. it failed, however, when used for x-ray tubes. a glass of the gencral type indicated in the formula above is quite suitable for such work, and hence x-ray bulbs and tubing can be made from it in the course of working a pot for a variety of other articles. experience shows that the best type is on the lines of the formula given, and that the presence of notable proportions of the oxides of aluminium and potassium are essential. potash felspar has been mentioned asa convenient source of alumina, and part of the alkalies may be usefully added as nitrates. in general, all the materials of the batch mixture should be as pure as can be obtained commercially, so that the composition of the glass may depart as little as possible from that which it is intended to have, and which has been proved to give satisfactory results. one or two remarks which.are relevant for almost all glasses may be made here, — anhydrous materials.—as far as it is possible to obtain and to store them, all the substances for a batch mixture should be free from water. a glass made from anhydrous materials often differs from one calculated to give the same composition finally, but produced from a wet batch, or from one containing an ingredient having a notable proportion of combined water. in addition to some lack of general stability, the glass from a wet batch may show a greater tendency to devitrification when heated in a flame or by radiation, the amount of water ieft in a glass may be very small, but it affects the behaviour of the glass. ilowever, the action of water to cffect change in glasses either during their production or on subsequently heating them is an advantage in respect of the production of certain coloured glasses and apparently of some opal glasses. ‘ tlomogeneity.—all glasses for laboratory use should be made in such a way as to secure the greatest possible homogencity. as a general rule, the fong-founding so much insisted upon by many experienced glass manufacturers cannot be dispensed with if the nicest possible refinements of a good glass are to be realised. stirring to secure homogeneity is a necessary operation in making optical glass. it is not customary to stir glass for laboratory use, but such glass would be improved by being stirred if it were economically possible. annealing.—the subject of annealing has, in recent years, been given much attention, and several investigations have been carried out. results of much interest and importance have been obtained, dealing with the conditions for removing strain in glass and with the problem of annealing, both from the theoretical and a practical point of view. these results emphasise the importance of thoroughly annealing any glass articles which are required to withstand marked changes of temperature, and of arranging that any vesscls, etc., which in the course of production are re-heated locally, shall be re- annealed. ‘tubing is not customarily annealed as part of the process of manufacture, but for certain purposes, notably with tubes which are to be ground, it is an advantage to anneal them. “ resistance’? glass-~—laboratory glassware, to deserve this description, must possess great stability, and must part with only minute traces of any of its ingredients when it is exposed to the action of the majority of solutions and liquids used in a chemical laboratory. the chicf varicties made can be included in two types: one contain- ing compounds of zinc and the other free from this metal, in neither type is the inclusion of arsenic or antimony considered to be per- missible. the following formulae, illustrative of these two types, give ap- proximate proportions for batch mixtures expressed in percentages of the oxides contained in the various ingredients of a batch:— (a) sioz. ; - 506 (b) sioz. . . 66 bo; . . 8 b03 9 alos . ; - ahos . 2°5 cao 5 zno . 8 mgo i mgo . 5 nad 8 na.o . 9°53 ko 3 adjustments of the proportions given can be made to suit different furnaces and also to fit in with the amount of broken-up glass from previous meltings (cullet), which is incorporated in the batch, of these two types of resistance glass, (a) requires a rather higher temperature in the making and on the whole presents more difhcul- ties than (133). it has also a somewhat higher coefficient of expansion, is less liable to withstand sudden changes of temperature and has been made of very high chemical resistance and of satisfactory be- haviour when quickly heated or cooled through a greater range of temperature than it would usually be exposed to in a laboratory. it 236 is probably fair to give preference, on the whole, to glass of type (b) as inherently more capable of withstanding sudden changes of temperature, and, being the easier to make, there is less likelihood with vessels made from it of mishaps due to imperfect manufacture. whichever class of glass is chosen, all vessels and apparatus made from it need thorough annealing. combustion tubing.—tubing of very hard glass is essential for many laboratory experiments, and is largely used in the analysis of carbon compounds by combustion, but in tubing of various diameters it is required for a number of other purposes. the general composi- tion of kavalier’s combustion tubing is indicated by the following percentages to the nearest whole numbers: sioe, 78; cao, 8; k.0, 12; na:o, 2. glass of this kind served many useful purposes in laboratories, but it was difficult to use in a blowpipe flame. the jena glass which took its place possessed greater plasticity over a longer range of temperature. during the war very hard glass tubing was much needed, and as the result of experiments on a laboratory scale and in glass works, tubing of a tvpe similar to the jena combustion tubing was produced. with regard to hardnessand suitability for work- ing in the flame it fulfils its purpose most satisfactorily. unlike the pre-war glass, it does not show anything like the tendency to become opal when heated for a long time. the following is the composition for a batch mixture, given as for other glasses in the percentage of oxides: sio:, 68-5; boos, 5-5; alo3,6; cao, 8; bao, 6-8; nao, 3:2; k.lo, 2. with this glass there is not much latitude allowable if the full hardness of the glass is to be realised and difficulties in manufacture are to be avoided. the glass requires a high tempera- ture for its successful production. thermometer glass —the manufacture of thermometers of all kinds has been carried on in great britain for many years, and british capillary tubing of high quality and technical perfection made both from lead glass and from various other types of glass, has been in constant demand. jena thermometer tubing was largely used by british thermometer makers. during the war very great numbers of thermometers were called for, the greater proportion being for medical purposes, but many also for scientific and industrial use. manufacturers of glass produced tubing to meet the demand, in lead glass, for the production of which they were ready and pre- eminent, and in other varieties of glass having properties closely similar to two jena glasses of high reputation. one of these can be used for thermometers, capable of standing high temperatures up to about 500° c., and the other is for more general application. the following formulae, given as for other glasses in percentages of oxides and with similar reservations, indicate the nature of batch mixtures for these types of glass: — high temperatures ordinary temperatures sio, . ! . 73°5 si0, . . 67-0 bo; e . a 9:7 3:03 » . 2 es ' alo; . f : 5:8 alo ‘ 7 pe i na.o . ; . ii1-0 cao ; ; 6:5 7nq : : g7 na.o : s 14:6 vessels and apparatus.—scientific glassware may be broadly classified as furnace-made and as lamp-blown. the former is for the most part produced by blowing into moulds molten glass gathered from the furnace on a blowing-iron. before the war, lamp workers for laboratory apparatus were few in number in great britain and were chicfly engaged either in making a comparatively small amount of apparatus to special design or in repair work. glass for such apparatus 1s supplied to the lamp blower in the form of tubing, in the production of which, therefore, there had also been a great development. for glass for miners’ lamps, a glass withstanding rapid changes of tempcrature exceptionally well was necessary, since the lamp glasses are thick and the flame of the lamp may often touch them. there was an urgent demand for them early in the war. it was suc- cessfully met, and such glasses of british make are now produced in large quantities. another glass on similar lines, but differing somewhat in composition, was prepared for the production of chim- neys for incandescent and high-pressure gas illumination, paraffin lamps, etc. in addition to withstanding heat changes well such a glass must be markedly resistant to the chemical action of hot prod- ucts of combustion. both these glasses consist chicfly of alkaline boro-silicates having a high percentage of boric anhydride. they need a high temperature for their successful production in a homo- geneous state. when well founded their low coefficients of ex- pansion render articles made from them highly resistant to sudden variations in temperature over a long range. glass rods for half-watt electric lamps were required, to hold the thicker tungsten wires which support the filament of this metal. they had to be made specially, since no existing glass of british make capable of withstanding heat changes was also sufficiently reliable in respect of not cracking round the sealed-in wires. this glass in most cases involved also the production of special rods to join with it and with the stem of the lamp. other glasses were needed which, while makjng safe joints with ordinary laboratory tubing, etc., would hold platinum, copper, iron or nickel wires. such glasses are often described as sealing-in glass enamels. several of these have been made, and, generally speaking, they are of the type either of a soft glass containing a high percentage of lead, or of one free from lead and containing a notable proportion of a fluoride, such as cryolite. the coefficient of expansion of the glass, in relation to that of the metal wire used, has to be taken into account. jars for preserving fruit and meat—though numbers of these had long been made in great britain, about 80° of the total number used had been obtained from abroad. great increase in the pro- duction of these vessels was required to meet the needs, enhanced as they were by the war, and the necessity for more ecanamic pro- duction ied to a review of methods and to the adoption of new machinery. glassware for medical purposes.——the war caused a great increase in the demand, and very large quantitics of vials, tubes, syringes, graduated measures, etc., had to be made. most of these could be produced from glass, and by methods familiar to manufacturers, but some requirements had to be met by investigation and experi- ment before suitable glass was produced. there was considerable increase during the war in the production of coloured glasses, e.g., for spectacles to protect the eyes of the great numbers of men working at stecl furnaces. coloured glasses in considerable variety were also wanted for other purposes, but in comparatively small amounts. some of them needed investigation and a number of experiments before the conditions for their produc- tion could be determined. progress in the use of machinery.—the greatest advance in the economic production of certain types of glassware was in the direction of the introduction of machinery and minor labour-saving devices which was only rendered practicable by concurrent improvements in the means for assuring a continuous supply of molten glass in a suit- able condition to permit of the machines being run continuously. the common practice in the past was to found the glass in pots in direct-fired furnaces. there has been a gradual tendency for tanks, some of them being of very large capacity, holding as much as 300 tonsof molten glass, to take the place of the older pot furnaces. those glasses which are only required in comparatively small quan- tities or of absolute purity, as in the case of optical glass, certain coloured glasses, and those liable to contamination from furnace gascs, will still have to be pot-founded. automatic machinery.—the development of machinery in glass manufacture has been by gradual evolution. in many american factories, neither the raw materials nor the glass is handled at any stage during the progress of manufacture. conveyors transfer the raw material from the trucks to the storage bin; automatic weighers discharge the requisite quantity of material from the storage bin to a rotary mixer mounted on a trolley; another conveyor transfers the mixed batch to the batch storage bin in close proximity to the charg- ing end of the tank, for the ready release of the batch down a chute at periodic intervals into the tank. lypes of machines.—the types of machines may be conveniently divided into the following groups: pressing machines for the pro- duction of tumblers, meat anil jelly jars, bull’s-eye lenses, tableware and pavement lights; press and blow machines for all types of bottles, and many kinds of food containers; blow machines for electric lamp bulbs, lamp chimneys and similar articles; rolling machines for plate glass, figured and ribbed glass and reinforced sheet for sheet and window glass, and for drawing tubes and rads. there are many other types for miscellaneous purposes, including cracking-off machines for severing the fashioned article from the waste glass, employing multiple fine jets of lame which impinge on the line of severance which is usually started by a short diamond cut at the predetermined point: calibrating machines for accurately dividing measuring devices such as thermometers, burettes, pipettes and cylinders; grinding and polishing machines for preparing and finishing the surface of plate glass; machines for forming the stoppers of bottles and for grinding the seating in the neck of the bottle; flowing devices and feeding machines, to withdraw from the pot or tank, by means of a gathering-iron, a sufficient quantity of molten glass to make the article required. press machines.—a very limited number of types of article can be made with a solid mould. only such as have both an internal and external taper, the diameter being reduced in the direction of the movement of the plunger, are suitable. in all other cases where the ware has external shoulders or ornament, the mould must be hinged. in semi-automatic and fully automatic machines the move- ments of the plunger and mould are operated by compressed air. refractories and pots.—with the introduction of more efficient pot furnaces and tanks in which higher temperatures were reached it soon became evident that the question of refractories would have to be investigated in order that the pots, tank blocks and furnace parts, would stand up to the increased strain which was being put upon them. in so far as concerns the majority of types of optical glass, and, if it were an economical proposition, for other glasses also, pots of a porcelain nature or of a composition approximating in relative pro- portions of alumina and silica to kaolinite have given the most satis- factory results. in connection with the manufacture of optical glass in america for war purposes it was found that a pot of the porcelain tvpe was the best suited to their purpose. in other directions con- “¢goeben” and «“breslau” siderable experimental work has been devoted to the production of pots by the ordinary casting and by the vacuum casting processes, and also of pots from osmose clay. in each case results of great promise have been obtained. the tendency has been to adopt the recuperative principle, in which there are two sets of channels or passages, one for the air supply and the other to carry away the hot products of combustion; the temperature of the air is raised due to interchange of heat by conduction through the common party wall of the channels. as the flow of the secondary air and hot flue gases is constant in direction, there are, therefore, no reversing valves to be operated, as is the case in the regenerative type, and it is claimed that the furnace can be ee at a more even tempcrature in the former than in the atter. : the recuperative type of furnace is producer-gas fired. the furnaces, according to the designer, differ in respect of the disposition of their elements; in one type both the producer and recuperators are situated immediately below the furnace, and both the air pas- sages and hot flue-gas passages are disposed horizontally, whereas in another type the recuperators are at the sides, and the air passages are vertical whilst the flue-gas passages are horizontal. it is claimed for the latter type that glass from a broken pot can be more easily dealt with and is not likely to cause so much damage. oil firing has not been installed to any extent in the glass industry in england, and in very few, if any, cases has the furnace been de- signed specifically for oil fuel. during the first half of 1921 some optical glass furnaces in england were fired with heavy oil. better results were obtained with the heavier grades of oil, and tank furnaces lend themselves more readily to this type of fuel. in the case of pot furnaces the pots are liable to suffer on account of the irregular heating due to localised combustion. asa result of efforts to improve the existing types of oil burners in the direction of better efficiency, etc., several oil burners are now on the market, in some of which atomisation is effected by steam under pressure. in others mechanical means and air pressure are utilised. although more complete atomisation is obtained by the former means, yet the burner utilising air pressure with some mechanical means for assisting atomisation gives more complete combustion, higher tem- peratures and increased cleanliness without discolouration or de- terioration of the glass, due to the effects of the flame coming into contact with it. moreover, with oil fuel the temperatures can be more easily controlled. annealing.—-prior to the war in annealing optical glass an efficient system of well-lagged electrically heated towers ensured a satis- factory result. in other types, however, a primitive, straight- through tunnel (usually coke heated) formed the lehr. it was exceed- ingly draughty and the glass was hurried through in all too short a time. during the war, however, when the annealing needed to be above suspicion, close attention was devoted to the subject of im- roved lehrs. considerable care was exercised to ensure efficiency in this operation. the site was well chosen, the system of heating was considered in relation to the necessity of a variation in the maximum temperature according to the class of ware being annealed, and of a gradual fall in temperature after passing the hottest zone. precautions were taken to prevent draughts sweeping through the lehr and so defeating the object of the operation. [see w. rosenhain, glass ‘icin (1919); hl. t. powell, glass making in england (1923)i. “goeben ” and “ breslau.’—the escape of the two cruisers “ gocben ” and “ breslau ”’ from messina on aug. 6 1914 and their flight to constantinople exercised a large influence on the attitude of turkey. position in aug. 19%4.—when the world war broke out the various naval forces in the mediterranean were as follows:— table li. british forces under vice-adml. sir a. berkeley milne:— baitle cruisers.—\" inflexible,”” ‘‘ indomitable,” ‘ indefatigable ” (8 12-in., 25 knots), ist cruiser sqn., rear-adml. e. c. trou- bridge; “‘ defence\" (4 g-2-in., 10 7-5-in.), “ black prince,\"'; ‘* duke of edinburgh,” ‘‘ warrior \"’ (6 9-2-in., io 6-in., 22 knots). light cruisers.—‘' chatham,” ‘ dublin,” ‘ gloucester,” ‘‘ wey- mouth.” destrovers.—5th flotilla, 16 destroyers. french forces under vice-adml. boue de lapeyrtre: battleships —one dreadnought, six ‘‘lord nelson” type (4 12-in., i2 9-4-in.), nine older battleships. armoured cruisers.—six. destroyers.—24. italian forces:— batileships.— three dreadnoughts, three ‘ tord nelson ” type. austrian forces: — baitleships.-—three dreadnoughts, three “‘ lord nelson ”’ type. german forces under rear-adml. souchon:— battle crutser.—‘‘ goeben ” (10 i1-in., 25 knots). light cruiser.— breslau ”' (12 4-in., 255 knots). 237 the original orders for the mediterranean fleet in the event of war were to concentrate at malta and watch the entrance to the adriatic, but these were overridden by a series of admiralty telegrams. the british fleet was at malta on july 29. on the 30th, adml. milne received instructions that his first task was to assist the french in the transport of their troops and to bring the ‘ goeben ” to action if she attempted to interfere. these instructions were sent without reference to the french command- er-in-chief, who had not asked for assistance, and the two admirals remained unaware of one another’s plans. on july 31 the italian govt. informed the british that it intended to remain neutral, a communication of great import, which did not reach the commander-in-chief. on aug. 1 the “‘ gocben ” and ‘‘ breslau” left brindisi for messina, the rendezvous decided on in 1913 under the terms of the triple alliance. search for the “ goeben.”—on aug. 2, at 2:45 p.m., milne received further orders from home to shadow the “‘ goeben,” watch the entrance to the adriatic and remain near malta him- self. he accordingly took up his station that evening in the “ tnflexible ” off malta, and at 9 p.m. troubridge sailed with the “ indomitable ” and “ indefatigable,” the four armoured cruisers and four destroyers to watch the approach to the adri- atic. about 8 p.m. that evening, milne had been given permis- sion to get in touch with the french admiral, but received no answer to his signals and remained ignorant of the french plans. that night (aug. 2-3) milne heard of the “ goeben’s ” arrival at messina, and, in answer to his request for instructions, was told by the admiralty to maintain his watch on the adriatic, but the ‘‘ goeben ” was his objective and was to be followed and shadowed wherever she went. meanwhile, in messina, souchon had received the warning telegram about midnight aug. 2; he stopped coaling abruptly and put to sea at 1 a.m. aug. 3 with the intention of bombarding the algerian coast. the “‘ chatham ” was ordered to look for the “ goeben ” in messina, and passed through the straits at 7 a.m. (aug. 3), only to find the harbour empty. in order to locate the ‘‘ goeben ” and protect the french route, milne at 9:40 a.m. ordered troubridge, then on his way to the adriatic, to proceed west with the “ indomitable,” “ indefatigable ” and 1st cruiser sqn., leaving the ‘‘ gloucester ” and destroyers to watch the adriatic. this order was modified at 3:18 p.m. (aug. 3), when troubridge was sent back to the adriatic with the rst cruiser sqn., while the battle cruisers went on to the west, with orders to cruise between africa and sardinia. milne was greatly handicapped all this time by his ignorance of the french disposi- tions,.and received no information from home on this point. souchon on his way to the african coast received news at 6 p.m. (aug. 3) of the outbreak of war with france from the italian wireless station at vittoria, but held on his way. the admiralty, having lost sight of the ‘‘ gocben,” assumed that she was on her way to attack the atlantic trade routes, and at 8:30 p.m. (aug. 3) ordered the “ indomitable ” and “ indefatigable ’’ to pro- ceed after her to gibraltar at high speed. they were then south of sicily and went off at 21 knots. “ goeben ” sighted —at 3 a.m. on aug. 4 souchon received from nauen, the great german wireless station, the kaiser’s order to proceed to constantinople. deciding to finish his ven- ture, he went on to the african coast, fired a few salvoes into bone and philippeville at 6 a.m. (aug. 4) and made off. at g:rg a.m. on his way east, he narrowly escaped mecting the french rst sqn., which passed him only 24m. away. then, by a stroke of good luck, the “ indomitable ” and “ indefatiga- ble” on their way westward ran right into him, 4o m. north of bone, at 10:32 a.m. (aug. 4). the battle cruisers turned to the cast and followed him at r1,c00 yards. their guns were loaded and manned, but war was not declared and they did not fire. the day was misty, the “ gocben ”’ was at least two knots faster, and by 4:35 p.xw. was out of sight. the admiralty, where it was thought that the ‘“ goeben ” was going west, asked the foreign office to agree to her being engaged if she attacked french transports, and the order to do so was sent, but did not reach milne till 5 p.m. meanwhile he had received during the eo orahivents milne & {st gc. (nflexible a : aur gu p indomitable ow 1 c.s. 20 pm indefatigable & defence | sey re warrior aug 4 20m. 6 $y | black prince aa “sas duke of edinburgh pee pou tapi gloucester se a th avecseg» goeben & breslau 6.10 pm. pag ug 7\" aug.6t = ©) pantelleria afternoon the news of the italian declaration of neutrality and an order not to approach within six miles of the italian coast. italy in her declaration of neutrality had claimed a six-mile limit, which had been accepted without demur. belligerents were thereby debarred from committing acts of hostility within this limit, but no convention of international law dcebarred them from entering neutral waters. italy had not asked for anything of the sort, and the restriction was cancelled on aug. 6 at 7:46 p.m.; but its immediate effect was to debar milne from passing through messina straits, thus preventing the immediate con- centration of any forces he might station at the two entrances. meanwhile, the ‘‘ indomitable ” and “ indefatigable ” were still going east on the ‘‘ goeben’s ” track, and were between sicily and sardinia when at 6:30 p.m. (aug. 4) they received orders from milne to steer west and go slow, and turning round they abandoned the pursuit. in giving this order milne was evidently influenced, partly by the idea of covering the french transport route, partly by the admiralty injunction against approaching the italian coast. he did not know that the french admiral had his whole fleet guarding the route between france and africa. declaration of war-—the warning telegram reached adml. milne at 7:02 p.m. (aug. 4) stating that the ultimatum would expire at midnight. when hostilities commenced at that hour (aug, 4-5), the “ inflexible ”’ was in malta channel, stecring west to join the “ indomitable ” and “ indefatigable ”; the “goeben ” was approaching messina, and troubridge with the rst cruiser sqn. was about 60 m. west of zante. the “ goeben ” arrived at messina at 4 a.m. on aug. 5 and started to get in coal, but on the protest of the british consul difliculties arose and the work was slow. news of her arrival was sent that forenoon by sir rennell rodd, british ambassador at rome, to london, and though it did not reach milne from london till 5 a.m. on aug. 6, he had already received warning of it from the “ gloucester” at 5:30 p.m. on aug. 5 and also a report from malta. at rr aww. on aug. 5 he was off pantellaria in the straits of malta, and proceeded to bizerta, where the “ indomitable ” was sent in to coal. ‘a still more important piece of information never reached the commander-in-chicl, namely, that at 7 po. (aug. 5) the italian authorities had given souchon 24 hours to leave the port. during the night of aug. 5 milne continued to patrol with the ‘‘ inflexible ” and “ indefatigable ” between bizerta and sardinia, while the “ indomitable ” was coaling at bizerta, and while troubridge’s cruiser squadron was patrolling on the route from messina to the adriatic ready to engage the german ships by moonlight. a maita te, ‘“goeben” and “breslau” soo corfu troubridge 2 oe, noon aug 7\" c.fassere goeben & breslau aug 6! 6.10 p.ni ““goeben ” again fescapes.—about 6 p.m. (aug. 6) milne decided to close the northern entrance of the straits, and at 6:10 p.m. was 15 m. olf cape s. vito (the northwest point of sicily) when the “ gloucester’s ” wireless began to sound. the ‘‘ goe- ben ” and “ breslau ” were leaving messina by the southern entrance. the “ gloucester ” followed them closely, and at 8:30 p.m. capt. john kelly in the “ dublin,” on his way from malta to join troubridge, received orders to attack them. he stecred to intercept them, but the “ goeben ”’ passed him in the night unseen. milne was not conversant with the ticklish state of affairs in turkey, and had merely becn told that the turks were mining the dardanelles. he proceeded therefore at mod- erate speed (15 knots) to malta, arriving there with the battle cruisers at noon on aug. 7, just as the ‘‘ goeben ” was approach- ing cape matapan. he was still uncertain of the exact move- ments of the french, and was still inclined to think of the safety of the western route. germans make for the dardanelles —souchon had been left at liberty to act as he might think fit. he saw nothing but a long spell of inactivity before him at pola, and had decided to proceed to the dardanelles. on leaving messina he made a feint of steering north till about 11 p.m., but the “‘ gloucester ”’ (capt. william kelly) followed him close, signalling his every move. troubridge with the rst cruiser sqn. was off cephalonia at 6:10 p.m. aug. 6, and, thinking souchon was making for the adriatic, steered at first for fano island (at the mouth of the adriatic), but, concluding at midnight that souchon’s first course was a feint, turned round and proceeded south at full speed. he had already informed the commander-in-chief that he would not risk his cruisers in a daylight action with the 1rr-in. guns of the “ goeben,” and had been told that the circumstances would not arise. from the positions signalled by the “ glou- cester,”’ he found that he could not hope to intercept her before daylight. he therefore abandoned the attempt and altered course to the eastward for zante at 3:50 a.m. (aug. 7). like the commander-in-chief, he saw no great danger in the ‘s gocben’s ” course. its vast consequences were beyond their ken. at 4p.m. aug. 7 the “ goeben ” was off cape matapan with the “ gloucester” still clinging doggedly behind. she had engaged the “ breslau” at 1:35 p.m. at 11,500 yds. but had received orders not to follow beyond cape matapan, and turned back at 4 p.m. the “ inflexible ” and ‘ indefatigable ” were then coaling at malta 400 m. away, and it was not till 12:30 a, aug. 8, that they left for the aegean in chase. there was still time to do something, for difficulties had arisen as to the “ goeben’s ” entering the dardanelles and she was stil crutsing goethals—goitre in the aegean, where souchon had arranged for a collier to meet her off the lonely little island of denousa (near naxos). but again an unlucky mischance occurred. a false alarm of war with austria was sent out from the admiralty at noon on aug. 8. milne received it at 1:30 p.m., when he was halfway to greece, and, in accordance with the instructions for war with austria, altered course to the northeast to concentrate the flect off the adriatic. the alarm was cancelled a couple of hours later, but as the admiral was informed that the situation was critical, he continued on his course. at noon on aug. 9 the ‘‘ inflexible ” was 4o m. west of zante, and it was only at 2:50 p.m. that the admiralty sent him an urgent message to resume the chase. he had lost 24 hours, and did not enter the acgean till 3 a.m. on aug. 10. at 5:18 a.m. he passed belopulon light (36° 56’ n., 23° 30’ e.), just as the ‘“* goeben,” 120 m. to the eastward, finished coaling off denousa. she had received orders by wireless through the german s.s. “* general ’’ at smyrna to proceed to constantinople, and shaped course at 5:45 a.m. for the dardanelles. it was too late to cut her off, nor had milne any intelligence of her whereabouts. all that day he was searching for her in the aegean. at 5 p.m. she was olf cape helles. a turkish torpedo boat appeared flying the signal *‘ follow me.” she entered the dardanelles at 16 minutes past 5 on aug. 10. all the hills of gallipoli looked down on her as she passed. milne, still searching for her, re- ceived the news at noon on aug. rr and was ordered to watch the exit. as the “ weymouth ” approached the straits the guns of the forts began to train. at the beginning of this most fateful chapter of accidents lay the unhappy telegram instructing the admiral to protect french transports, which did not need pro- tection. | the escape of the two ships seriously affected the attitude of turkey to the allies. the ‘ goeben ” in particular was very active, and by her operations in the black sea involved turkey in hostilities with russia. in jan. 1918 the ‘ goeben ” and “ breslau ” left the dardanelles and attacked british ships off mudros. the ‘* breslau ” was sunk by a mine, but the ‘ goc- ben,” though damaged, escaped. she was again active in the black sea fleet; and, having been again damaged by a mine, remained crippled in the sea of marmora till located there by the allies after the armistice. bibliogr. apity,— adml. sir berkeley milne, flight of ' goeben’ and “ brestauw”’ (1921); mil ludwig, de fahrtender goebe nund os r breslau (1916); doenitz, die pahrte des breslan im schivarsen ifeer (1917); m. thee l'aventure du goeben (1697) = i 8 core bett, zistory of the greai ie ar; naval operations, vol. 1 (1921). (see also worrld war: bibliograpuy). (avs ds) goethals, george washington (1858- ), american engineer, was born in brooklyn, n.y., june 29 1858. he graduated from west point military academy in 1880 and re- ceived a commission as second lieutenant of engineers. in 1882 he was stationed at cincinnati, where he was engaged in improv- ing the channel of the ohio. later he taught engincering at west point, but returned to cincinnati in 1889. afterwards he was in charge of the construction of the muscle shoals canal on the tennessee and of a canal near chattanooga, tennessee. on the outbreak of the spanish-american war in 1808 he was com- missioned lieutenant-colonel of voluntecrs and appointed chief engineer of the first army corps. in 1900 he was commissioned major in the regular army and three years later was engaged in planning fortifications near newport, rhode island. he was then made a member of the general staff in washington, and in 1905 graduated from the army war college. in 1907 he was appointed by president roosevelt a member of the isthmian canal commission, with the rank of licutenant-colonel, and after- wards became chairman and chief engineer. two years later he was promoted colonel. the work, hitherto in charge of civilian engineers, was re- organised and directed by army engineers subject to the control of the president of the united states. several changes of plan, such as widening the canal, were inaugurated, and after seven years’ labour col. goethals completed his task. on aug. 15 1914 239 the canal was declared open to world commerce (see panama canal). col. goethals was appointed the first civil governor of the canal zone by president wilson in 1914 and in the following year was made major-general. he resigned the governorship in — 1916, and was appointed chairman of the board constituted to report on the adamson eight-hour law. in 1917 he was ap- pointed state engineer of new jersey, but after america’s entry into the world war he was released to serve as manager of the emergency flect corporation. he had little faith in the plan for a wooden fleet, and resigned after three months. toward the close of 1917 he was appointed acting quartermaster-general, united states army, becoming in 1918 chief of the division of purchase, storage and traffic. he was also a member of the war industries board. at his request he was relieved from active service in march 19109. goitre (lat. giftur, the throat).—goitre or derbyshire neck (see 12.191) is a tertm used for abnormal enlargements, usu- ally chronic, of the thyroid gland in the front of the neck. the enlargement may be general and uniform (parenchymatous goitre), or may be localised to one part of the gland or to the isthmus connecting the two halves or lobes. local enlargements are either innocent, which are common, or malignant, which are rare; the innocent growths are known as adenomas (adenomatous goitre) which at first solid may soften down and become liquid- forming cysts; these cystic goitres or bronchoceles contain yellow, glue-like material (colloid); from bleeding into their interior may rapidly enlarge, otherwise they grow slowly, or may exist for many years without increasing in size or causing discomfort. they often arise in parenchymatous goitres. malignant disease commonly starts in an adenoma and is generally a carcinoma which grows slowly but has a special tendency to produce sec- ondary deposits (metastases) in bones. the other form of malig- nant disease, sarcoma, is much rarer, but runs a rapid course. simple goitre—this is usually endemic, i7.¢., occurring in special regions, such as derbyshire, the thames valley, the yorkshire dales, hampshire and sussex, in the neighbourhood of the great lakes in north america, in switzerland, the pyre- nees and some mountainous parts of asia, and is then due to some local condition, especially the water supply. in kashmir col. r. mccarrison correlated it with infection of the drinking water; “ goitre springs ”? and “ wells ” are known, and fish and animals may also be affected in endemic areas. the observation that boiling the water prevents the incidence of goitre and the occurrence of epidemics of acute goitre in schools are compatible with this view. but that this is the only cause is uncertain, for simple goitre can be prevented by the administration of iodine and the water in goitrous regions 1s hard and poor in iodine. goitre may also occur sporadically in areas where it is rare, but is seldom congenital except in endemic regions. it appears most commonly about puberty and is about seven times commoner in females than in males. large goitres may give rise mechan- ically to difficulty of breathing by compressing the windpipe. toxic gottre—the adenomatous enlargement may remain latent without any symptoms for years, and then become active and produce an internal secretion which excites toxic symptoms resembling, but not exactly the same as, those of exophthalmic goitre, protrusion of the eves being absent. the preventive treatment of simple goitre consists in boiling the water, removal from an endemic district, and the administra- tion of iodine, or iodide of potassium, in small doses. but in cases of adenomatous goitre iodine is said to lead to a toxic goitre. exposure to x-rays may reduce the size of the goitre, but by producing adhesions renders surgical removal, should it become necessary, less easy. surgical mee is necessary for pressure symptoms, toxic manifestations, and may be desirable for cos- metic considerations. exophthalmic goitre. (synonyms, graves’ or basedow’s dis- ease.)——-this has very striking symptoms—an enlarged thyroid gland, protrusion of the eves, rapid action of the heart and pal- pitation, tremor, extreme nervousness, wasting, ilushing, sweat- ing and mental irritability. it is indeed the converse of myxoe- dema. the skin may be pigmented, and in bad cases diarrhoea, 240 vomiting and indigestion may be troublesome. ninety per cent, if not more, of the patients are women. the basal metabolism (the minimal production of heat) is raised and this may be con- nected with the wasting and tolerance to cold. there is a struc- tural change in the thyroid, probably due to poisons from the alimentary canal, but it may come on after mental shock or emotion. as a result of the change in the thyroid its internal secretion is altered (dysthyroidism) and causes the nervous symptoms. the disease is usually chronic; more than half the patients recover and others improve but do not become abso- lutely normal. acute infections, such as influenza, are likely to prove fatal. in a few instances the morbid activity of the thy- roid gland is followed by atrophy and myxoedema. treatment.—the patients should live a simple life in fresh, country air, avoid much protein (meaty) food, stuffy rooms and excitement. bromides, quinine hydrobromate, belladonna, digitalis and x-rays or radium to the gland should be em- ployed. if these measures fail, and the case is severe, operative removal of part of the gland or ligature of some of its arteries should be undertaken; the operative mortality of excision of half the gland is now about five per cent. iodine in the form of lugol’s solution improves the patient’s condition so that opera- tion can be more safely undertaken. (h. ro.) gokhale, gopal krishna (1866-1915), indian politician, was born at kolhapur of a humble chitpavan brahman family. graduating at the elphinstone college, bombay, in 1884, he joined, as professor of history and political economy, the group of teachers at the fergusson college, poona, pledged to serve for 20 years ona merely nominal salary. he remained on the staff finally as principal, until 1902. throwing himself fervently into politics, he was associated with the indian national congress from its start, and became for some years its joint secretary. in 1897 he paid the first of several visits to england, and gave evidence before the royal commission on indian expenditure. from then onwards he specialised as a critic of indian official finance. in 1902 he be- came a member of the bombay legislature and was elected in 1902 to represent the non-official members thereof in the vicere- gal legislature. his persuasive eloquence, close reasoning, accu- rate knowledge of the subjects discussed, and instincts of states- manship won him the indian leadership, and lord curzon recog- nised his earnest patriotism by nominating him for the c.le. in(1904). consulting him freely in reference to his projected constitu- tional reforms, lord morley wrote of him to the viceroy as appreciating executive responsibility and having an eye for the tactics of common sense (recollections, vol. 2, p. 181, 1917). he was fiercely assailed by the extremist section, which never succeeded in his lifetime in capturing the congress machinery. in 1905 he became president of that body, on the occasion of its meeting at benares. in the same year he founded at poona his servants of india society, whose members take vows of poverty and lifelong service to their country in a religious spirit. in the enlarged viceregal legislature set up in 1910 gokhale was the commanding indian figure. his quickness in debate, the attrac- tive literary style of his speeches, his studied moderation, and the care which he took to master his subjects, made him a most effective critic of the govt. though he indignantly disclaimed the title of the leader of an opposition party. besides his brilliant handling of general topics, and more par- ticularly of the annual budgets, he promoted measures for com- pulsory education on a basis of local option, but did not sur- vive to see this principle introduced from 1918 onwards in all the large provinces. though his last years were clouded by illness he went to south africa to acquaint himself at first hand with the grievances of indians in that country. his last public duty was to serve as a member of the indian public services commis- sion 1912-5. his death at poona feb. 19 1915 was a severe blow to the constitutional party at a critical moment in india’s political history. his last political testament, entrusted on his death-bed to the aga khan, was published in aug. 1t917, and outlined plans of reform based on provincial autonomy. gokhale—gold gokhale’s intense patriotism, powerful grasp of facts and great industry raised him head and shoulders above his contem- poraries; and his moderation, invariable courtesy and lofty per- sonal character marked him out as one of the last and greatest of the old school of congress politicians before the age of non- co-operation.",
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