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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:g t b boxing:a37e28623831",
    "title": "(G. T. B.) BOXING",
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    "verified_text": "in 1910, though france was beginning to cultivate it as a spectacular sport, the old indigenous kicking game of la savate having fallen into disrepute, boxing was hardly known at all outside the english-speaking countries. in 1926 it was a cosmopolitan game, familiar to all the western nations and actually gaining a foothold here and there in the east. dur- ing the period since 1910 it has become a real national sport, a game pursued for its own sake, in great britain and in america, where although the number of amateur practitioners is still in- significant, the chief professional contests are the most crowd- compelling of popular spectacles. the adoption of boxing as a recognised form of askieal train- ing in the services for officers and men alike, while millions of men were being called to the colours as the world war ran its course, has been the principal factor in a revival of intelligent interest, which has not only vastly increased the number of ama- teur boxers in great britain, but has also raised the status of the professional. though it has not quite succeeded in throwing off its disreputable adherents, boxing is now generally admitted, except by a very few puritanical moralists, to deserve the praise given to it; in a letter to tommy burns, for a time the world’s heavyweight champion, father bernard vaughan said ‘‘ boxing is an education—you learn self-control, to give and to take, to punish and be punished, smiling all the time.” the average professional glove fighter is now almost always a decent citizen, and for such experts as driscoll, basham, wells, summers, britt, frank moran, mcfarland and tom gibbons, to name only a few out of many, those who knew them well had a real regard and no little respect. some great boxers.—as regards technique, however, it cannot be said that any notable advance was made during the period in question. it is true that the best amateur form reached the pro- fessional championship standard. outstanding amateurs, such as the cricketer, j. h. w. t. douglas, who had the best of a private trial with burns when the latter was still champion, and john hopley, the cambridge university heavy-weight, would certainly have attained the highest honours, if they had made boxing their profession. hopley’s hitting power and other physi- cal gifts for the game were equal to those possessed by any holder of the world’s heavy-weight championship, with the exception of jeffries. the amateur boxing association cham- pionships were sometimes made stepping stones to a profes- sional career, and several of those who adopted this plan did very well indeed in the professional ranks. but, generally speaking, the best professional boxers of the period, especially as regards the heavier divisions, were not quite as good as those of the previous generations. jeffries, fitz- simmons, corbett, sharkey and ruhlin were a quintette of great heavy-weights, especially jeffries, each of whom combined un- gusual skill with extraordinary punching power and the real fight- ing temperament. they were succeeded by four very formidable coloured fighters, johnson, langford, mcvea and jeannette, of whom the first-named was not much inferior to peter jackson— a “‘whitesportsman ” and the first negro heavy-weight of all time—though the jeffries he beat at reno, in a fight that proved a provocation to racial riots all over america, was only the husk of the fiormer world’s champion. the contest at havana in which johnson lost his title to willard was unquestionably a “ frame-up,” though riotous living had not taken the keen edge off the negro’s amazing artistry in what the old connoisseurs of the prize ring called ‘ milling on the retreat.” it isa debatable point whether dempsey, who knocked out willard, when the latter was untrained and past his prime, in three rounds, is the equal of any of the great heavy-weights mentioned above. comparisons are unsatisfactory because the - 420 modern heavy-weight adopts a more intensive style than his predecessors, attempting to obtain a decision from the first, in- stead of using the preliminary rounds to test his opponent’s methods and get an insight into his plan of campaign. but, whenever he was held for three or four rounds, dempscy relapsed into mediocrity. as regards middle-weights, america has not produced a stanley ketchel or even a papke in recent years, and among the smaller men who have held championships mcfar- land, a graceful exponent of the classic style, and attell, have probably not been equalled, much less surpassed. it is only in the lighter divisions that british and french boxers have reached the american standard, even in a period when, as has been suggested, championship form on the american side of the atlantic showed a certain falling off. wells, the most interesting and popular of the english heavy-weights, lacked the well-fortified physique and fighting temperament which are required for success, and was easily beaten by two second-rate americans. carpentier, for 10 years the most picturesque figure in the european ring, would not have been much more than a “ pork and beaner ” (i.¢., a fighter of preliminary bouts who just exists by his profession) if he had been born in america. during his career he fought 12 americans and was decisively defeated by seven of them, and was lucky to get the decision over four of the others, his only clear-cut victory being over levinsky, a rather indifferent light-heavy-weight. gun-boat ‘smith, a second-rate american heavy-weight, whom he met in london in 1914, was winning when he was disqualified. in all the contests between american and european boxers in the heaviest divisions the superior skill of the former in in-fighting, when the body is the objective of the attack, has proved a decisive factor. among the little men, however, great britain and france have held their own fairly well. ledoux, a pocket ihercules and criqui, a glove fighter of genius handicapped by wounds received in the war, were two french boxers who were, for a time, in the world’s championship class. britain has had in driscoll and wilde, two real prodigies who were for years supreme at their weights. driscoll was by general consent the perfect stylist, the boxer’s boxer, in fact, whose method in its graceful effectiveness, severity and economy of exertion, will always be remembered as a classic model. wilde, on the other hand, was an eccentric genius, who made the most of a physique which, like that of fitzsimmons, seemed expressly invented to get the maximum hitting punch for the minimum weight. in america, the melting pot of racial types, such freaks of physique are far more common than in the european countries, where the human body is more or iess standardised, and they are scientifically utilised for securing extraordinary results in various athletic feats. that is yet another reason why america produces so many men with a special aptitude for pugilism. mentally, as well as physically, wilde was very much of a /usus naiurac, for he kept his celtic temperament on ice, so to speak, and he could control his nervous system in such a way as to be indifferent to the most painful punishment. control of bexing.—in great britain amateur boxing is ad- mirably organised, the executive of the amateur boxing asso- ciation consisting of men with a personal experience of the game and having its welfare at heart. on the professional side, howe ever, no effective organisation yet exists with the power to (1) rule out the unscrupulous promoter and the incompetent referee and (2) suspend the unfair boxer and insist that championship holders should mect an approved challenger within a reasonable limit of time. it is to be regretted that the national sporting club, though it has been a great influence for good, has not been able to establish itself as the final authority. the lonsdale championship belts, each of which is worth £500, are much sought after and can only be won in the club arena. the boxer who wins one of them three times becomes its owner and is also entitled to a pension of £1 a week after reaching the age of 50. outside pro- moters, however, are able to offer such large purses that the club is unable to secure control of all the british championship con- tests, at the various weights. however, a british board of con- trol is now in being and is gradually strengthening its position, boxing especially as regards the selection of referees, but it is unlikely to attain the authority of the government commission which absolutely controls professional boxing in the state of new york and can put any promoter or boxer out of the game, if such a course scems warranted. _ the financial side-—during the period the problem of the big purse presented itself in a form that would have seemed incredible in the days of tom sayers and john heenan, who fought the most famous contest ever decided on english soil for stakes lim- ited to £200. in 1887, when kilrain and jem smith fought with the bare fists in france for a sum slightly exceeding £2,000, it was generally believed that the limit had been reached. it was so until 1906, when joe gans and battling nelson were matched for the light-weight championship of the world, and announced their intention of accepting the best bid for a much-discussed contest which, owing to the former’s superlative skill and the latter’s extraordinary power of endurance, created as much interest as a fight between leading heavy-weights. it was then that tex rickard, a successful mining prospector who was then in alaska, looking for an opportunity of investing his gains profitably, startled american promoters of boxing shows by offering a purse of $20,000, provided the contest took place in a small mining town in nevada. tex rickard believed that huge profits could be made by staging bond fide champion- ship contests in open-air arenas constructed for the purpose, and making such arrangements that every ticket-holder would be sure of his (or her) seat, and an uninterrupted view of the boxing, while at the same time there would be no danger of a disturbance at the conclusion of a contest which had aroused the passions of the spectators. it isin the few minutes immediately following the decision that violence is to be feared; for a single combat between partisans may act as the powder in 2 cap, and bring about a vast explosion. at the fights arranged at jersey city by this capable impre- sario there were, as a rule, in addition to 500 police, 1,000 to 1,200 firemen, ushers, sellers of refreshments, etc., all of whom were stalwart men able, if necessary, to suppress disorder by physical force. rickard and his chief assistant were always able to secure the co-operation of those in charge of the various means of transport, and the charting and selling of the seats were carried out in such a way as to win the confidence of the public and avoid the necessity of using ticket agencies. at his first promotion, the gans-nelson contest, which was a fight to a finish, lasting 42 rounds, the gate money amounted to nearly $70,000 and the promoter’s net profit exceeded $10,000. in subsequent ventures, all of which seem to have shown a very substantial profit, these figures were greatly exceeded. the following list illustrates the surprising vogue of the big purse in the united states since the famous johnson-jeffries encounter:— gate receipts date place combatants xeno, nevada new york toledo, ohio jersey city new york jersey city new york new york jersey city shelby, mont. jersey city new york new york new york jersey city july 4 1910 march 25 1916 july 4 1919 oct. 12 1920 johnson-j effries willard-moran dempsey- willard carpentier- levinsky dempsey- brennan dempsey- carpentier leonard-kansas britton-leonard leonard-tendler ldempsey-gibbons firpo-willard leonard-tendler dundee-criqui dempsey-f irpo wells-l-irpo $270,755 151,524 452,522 120,000 dec. 14 1920 200,000 july 2 1921 1,626,580 126,768 130,265 367,862 201,485 390,837 452,648 134,416 1,188,822 700,000 feb. 10 1922 june 25 1922 july 27 1922 july 4 1923 july 12 1923 july 23 1923 july 26 1923 sept. 14 1923 sept. ii 1924 rickard himself has said that he will not be content till he owns an enclosure which will seat 250,coo spectators comfort- ably and give them all a clear view of the boxing. he believes that such enclosures will be built in the near future, not only in the great american centres of population, but also in such cities as buenos aires, berlin, vienna and paris. the enormous boxing expansion of motor traffic, moreover, will tend, at any rate in the united states, to the staging of crowd-compelling contests in places where lumber and labour are available to build a tem- porary arena at a reasonable cost, though world’s championship fights, especially when, as in the case of dempsey’s contests with carpentier and firpo, an american champion, mects a foreign challenger and spectators are drawn from both sides of the at- lantic, or from both halves of the double continent, will have to take place in new york or some other seaboard city. c. b. cochran’s promotions.—in england, though the remu- neration of the successful boxer has greatly increased since 1910, nothing approaching the higher american figures has yet been recorded. in the boxing boom which followed the world war, c. b. cochran, who was one of the bidders for the carpentier- dempsey contest, became a serious rival to the national sport- ing club and raised the market price of a number of rather in- different boxers. a consummate showman, he conceived the idea, and certainly realised it, of giving boxing shows which should be as well conducted as a theatrical performance. in his book of reminiscences entitled the secrets of a showman (1925) he gives the full financial details of some of these ventures. the contest between wilde and the american bantam-weight moore, which was won by the former after an amazing display of skill, hitting power and stamina, was perhaps the most interesting of his promotions, which were never mere money-making affairs. the purse for this contest, which took place at olympia, amount- ed to £5,000 and the total receipts were £14,205 8s. 6d. beckett 2. m’goorty at the same arena brought a gate of £18,680 4s. od. and beckett ». carpentier at the holborn stadium, for which the former reccived £3,000 and the latter £5,000, brought close on £30,000, which is probably the english record, though it must have been nearly equalled by the figures for the absurd car- pentier-lewis encounter at olympia. the cochran boxing shows, some of which were watched by the prince of walcs, might almost be described as social func- tions, and they reculled the great days of the old prize ring, when men fought with the naked fists for 50 or 100 guineas a side in the presence of all the social celebrities of the day. at these well-conducted modern spectacles a small proportion, never more than 1°, were women. in france, where purses have never yet approached the english maximum, the number of women attending a contest in which a popular favourite, such as car- penticr or criqui in their prime, is engaged, is apt to be very large. the same phenomenon has been noticed in italy and spain, and the latin-american countries. it is all largely a question of national temperament, and the horror of sceing bloodshed, which is thought to be a characteristic of northern races, is not likely to prevent women, who are in the habit of attending bull fights, from watching boxing matches. as regards ring-side crowds, some keen observers are of opin- ion that the huge open air assemblies now common in amcrica will never be scenin england. english people, they say, will pack a covered arena as big as the albert hall, london, to see a championship fight just as, previously, they would crowd into a boxing booth. but boxing or wrestling matches staged in an open space have not proved attractive, a case in point being the failure to pay expenses of the much-advertised heavy-weight contest between tom gibbons, at the time dempsey’s most formidable rival, and jack bloomfield, then the british heavy- weight champion, which took place in the wembley stadium, an arena capable of accommodating more than 100,000 spectators. qur ancestors, however, were quite willing to watch pugilists fighting in a ficld, despite the vagaries of the climate, and pos- terity may recover that lost predilection. effect of big purses ——whcethcer it is true to say that big purses and small personalities go together in the modern prize ring is a question worth asking, not easily answered. ‘the fact that a successful boxer, if only he be reasonably thrifty, as many are in these latter days, can amass a competence, while being the subject of hero worship and living in the full glare of publicity, has cer- tainly persuaded young men of a better type than the translated, but not transmuted, navvies and butchers of the old days to a421 adopt boxing as a temporary profession. it is especially so in amcrica, where the boxer of high repute is now almost always a quite intelligent person, who makes a keen study of his craft, lives decently, and behaves as a civilised member of the com- munity. the many failures of english boxers, when meeting american champions in the ring, have been the result, in nine cases out of ten, of their intellectual inferiority, and the lack of moral self- discipline that goes with it as a general rule. more than once england has had heavy-weight champions who had every physi- cal requisite for the game, yet failed to make the most and best of themselves owing to their inability to learn from bitter expe- rience, much less from experimental work in the gymnasium, or their unwillingness to keep fit between one special preparation for a fight and the next. the old bruiser type, whose chief asset was an insensitiveness to pain, still survives in england, but he has long since been scrapped as useless in america. it is recorded of deaf burke, that famous pugilist of a century ago, that he was so ignorant as to be unable to tell the time, and when a friend, well aware of the fact, would ask ‘‘ what’s o’clock, deaf’un? ” he would pull out his fine gold watch, turn its face to the inquirer, and reply ‘“ who would ha’ thought it was that time? ” even the more intelligent english boxers still limit their ambitions to becoming publicans or bookmakers when their fighting days are over, whereas the american champion as a rule looks forward to entcring upon a business career, in which he is frequently successful. large purses, it would seem, bring into the ring young men of brains as well as brawn, who are capable of perfecting their technique by taking thought to it and have the mental resources that enable them to endure with patience the tedious regime of training and practice year after year. but, once a championship has been achieved, they do not fight often enough to develop their gifts to the fullest extent. a world’s champion finds it now so easy to make a large income by exhibition work on the music hall stage, by film acting, etc., that he will not risk the loss of his title until he is compelled to do so by the force of public opinion. ‘the no-decision contest, which ts so popular in america, enables him to keep up his form, but the practice of choosing opponents whom he is certain of beating tends to prevent any improvement in technique. moreover, exhibition work of any kind has a debilitating effect and may tend to an utterly unexpected cdefeat, as happened when siki, a third-rate senegambian fighter, disposed of car- pentier in a few rounds. dempsey, who fought more than 40 contests in the year preceding the victory over willard, which gave him the world’s heavy-weight championship, is hardly the equal of the great glove fighters of the jeffries era. he is a mechanical boxer with little variety of attack who relics for victory on-hard hitting (never straight) at close quarters, and he ‘“‘ explodes” after the fifth or sixth round. on his actual form, after becoming champion, he cannot be put in the same class as peter jackson, fitzsimmons, corbett and sharkey. but if he had lived up to the adage that fighting is the best preparation for a fight, as fitzsimmons did throughout his long carcer, he might have improved his boxing technique in such a way as to have been ranked with the four great heavy-weights who are tnentioned above. wills, again, though easily the‘best negro heavy-weight of post-war days, could not have beaten jack johnson, whose ability was never really plumbed, sam langford or sam mcvea. on the whole, big purses, though they have in- directly raised the standard of boxing in general, in the manner described, have not made for a superlative degree of proficiency in the heavier divisions. we have not seen among the middle- weights, for example, a boxer equal to stanley ketchel or papke since their day. a cosmopolitan profession.—professional boxing now reccives recruits from many countries and races, the old idea that only men of english or irish descent could excel at it having long since been confuted. this point may be made clear by consider- ing the list of world’s champions at the beginning of 1925, and their racial derivation. 422 heavy-weight . dempsey a complex mixture of polish, irish, scotch, and red indian light-heavy-weight . mctigue irish middle-weight . greb german descent welter- weight . walker irish (northern) light-weight . leonard jew feather-w eight dundee italian bantam-weight . martin italian fly-weight . . villa filipino the latin physique, which does not accumulate internal fat , per- haps as a result of frugal eating and a racial preference for wines rather than malted liquors, is admirably adapted for a gnme that requires a high degree of stamina. no oriental boxer has, as yet, reached the highest class, though indians, japanese and chinese are occasionally seen in minor contests, but there seems no reason why the eastern races, which have produced so many fine wrestlers, should not learn to excel in the sister-art in course of time. india has sent us some very skilful amateur boxers. a proof that boxing is rapidly becoming popular in the latin countries is found in the way renderings, often very comical in appearance, of english technical terms have been adapted into the french, italian and spanish languages. outside the british is., however, there are few amateur boxers of merit. even in america those who take up the game for the game’s sake are vastly inferior, both in quality and quantity, to the increasing multitude of made-in-fngland amateurs. ‘there is no annual competition there comparable with the english amateur boxing association championships, and there is nothing equivalent to the flourishing boxing clubs at oxford and cambridge in the great american universities. if the american athlete thinks he can excel in such an exacting man-to-man game, nine times in ten he adopts it as a professional vocation. and in france, though the brilliant victories of carpentier gave rise to a tem- porary craze for what was significantly styled “‘ byronic box- ing,” fencing has now regained its old position as the gentle- man’s art of self-defence, an indispensable accomplishment. in the scandinavian countries, however, and in germany, there is a real enthusiasm for amateur boxing. denmark pro- duces excellent amateurs, and her representative teams have done very well in matches against teams selected by the amateur boxing association. such amateur international matches are a new development and are certain to become more numerous and more popular as spectacles in the near future. the impetus to boxing in germany was given by returned prisoners of war who had acquired the rudiments of the game in concentration camps. two sailors, breitenstracter and prenzel, who were captured at the beginning of the war and learned to box fairly well in the large internment camp at douglas, isle of man, were the pioneers of professional boxing in germany. they started travelling box- ing booths, and whenever demonstrations of the art were given, ex-prisoners of war attended in large numbers, and local clubs were formed. the popular impression that the excellence of the british soldier as a fighting man was due to his training in boxing greatly helped the new form of athletic propaganda, and bliich- er’s approval of pugilism was a stock quotation in many favour- able newspaper articles. professional boxing shows have become very popular, especially in berlin where they are rigorously con- trolled by a boxers’ union, the verband deutscher faustkdmpfer, and a promoters’ association, the verband der boxkampf un- iernchmer. for a few appearances on a berlin stage with sparring partners dempsey received $50,000 and all the travelling ex- penses of himself and his camp from london. to-day amateur boxing clubs exist in every german city and town and when the problem of obtaining competent instructors is solved, there can be little doubt that skilled exponents will be produced. bibliography.—j. driscoll, text-baok of boxing (1921) www eet the art of boxing (1923); t. c. wignall, the story of as (192 3); j. j. corbett, zhe roar of the crowd (1925 ): (ee. b. qo.) boyle, john j. (1851-1917), american sculptor (see aoa dicd in new york feb. 10 1917. ile was made an associate member of the national academy of design in 1910, and re- ceived a silver medal at the panama-pacific exposition, san francisco, 1915. boy le—boy scouts boylesve, rene (1867— ), pen name of rene tardiveau, french novelist, was born april 14 1867 at la have-descartes (indre-et-loire). he began his education at the jesuit college of poitiers, and passed from there to tours. he completed his studies at the faculte de lettres of paris, the faculte de droit and the school of political science. his output as a novelist is con- siderable but he has paid more attention to style and to the development of an agreeable descriptive talent than to charac- terisation and psychology. among his works are:—le parfum des iles borromees (1899); le bel avenir (1905); la marchande de petits pains pour les canards (1913); le bonheur & cing sous (1917); le carrosse aux deux lezards verts (1921). boy scouts. the boy scout movement, which was estab- lished in 1g08 in the british is., extends to-day to every civi- lised country in the world. ideals and method —yvhe aim of the movement is the promo- tion of good citizenship among the rising generation. the method adopted is that of active self-expression and the desire to learn on the part of the boy, rather than his passive reception of instruction. the scope is unlimited by class, creed, colour or political distinctions. the movement is non-military, non- political, non-class and interdenominational. honour is made the high ideal for the boys. the scout law, on which the movement hinges, and which is binding on every scout, was taken from the code of the knights. every boy, on joining the movement, makes the following promise :— i promise on my honour to do my best— to do my duty to god and the king to help other people at all times to obey the scout law, administration and training —the administration of the movement is decentralised, each county in great britain having at its head a county commissioner responsible to headquarters. under him are district commissioners, local associations and scout troops, the troop numbering from 20 to about 40 boys is divided into patrols of 6 or 8, each under its own boy leader. the troop is purposely kept small in numbers in order that the scoutmaster may have personal knowledge of each of his boys and so develop the individual character. the movement is subdivided into three groups:— 1. rovers—t.e., scouts of 17 years and over. 2. boy scouts and sea scouts—from 11 to j re 3. wolf cubs—juniors from 8 to ii. the principles underlying the training are identical for each group, but the details differ to suit the different stages of development. the training is carried out generally under four main headings:— i. character and intelligence. 2. skill and handicraft. 3. physical health and self-care. 4. the practice of service for others and for the state. the activities and practices of scouting are framed to develop in (1), (2) and (3) the efficient individual and then to harness this individuality for the good of the community, ?.e., (4) citizen- ship. the training is carried out mainly through activities in the open air, and the attributes of frontiersmen, backwoodsmen and explorers are held up as examples for scouts to emulate. military training is not employed as being contrary to the ideals of pcace and educationally wrong. through an extensive system of badges for proficiency the boys are encouraged to develop their natural gifts, to become all round handy-men, and to specialise in those subjects which are likely to help them after- wards in making a career. through the daily “ good turn ” they are gradually led on to the practice of service for others and so to unselfish citizenship. progress and resulfs—¥rom a trial experimental camp in 1907 the movement has spread with remarkable rap‘dity to every part of the world. in 1908 the handbook, scoutiig for boys, was published in fortnightly parts. by ro10 the move- ment in the british empire numbered over 123,000 members and had been taken up in many foreign countries. in 1912 the aims and methods of the movement were inquired into by the privy boy scouts council and a royal charter of incorporation granted. over 100,000 scouts served in his majesty’s forces during the world war, 10,000 of whom gave their lives. those who were under serving age carried out public duties at home, one notable service being that of coastwatchers, in place of the coastguards- men who were called up for service ailoat. this service was maintained by boy scouts from the outbreak of the war until after the declaration of peace, some 23,000 boys in all taking their turn at it. the movement, though hampered by the loss of practically every able-bodied scoutmaster, managed not only to hold its own, but to increase steadily in numbers throughout the years of war. numbers of troops were carried on entirely by their patrol leaders and courts of honour, without the help of officers, in 1920 an international meeting or jamborce was held at olympia, london, in which scouts of 26 nations took part. as a result of this meeting an international council was formed, with a bureau in london. a second international jamboree took place in 1924 at copenhagen, at which 33 nations were represented. the fundamental principles, the scout promise and law, are in every country identical with those of the parent movement, the details of training differing slightly here and there to suit climatic and temperamental differences. the scout movement in 1925 extended to every corner of the world, and numbered nearly 2,000,000 members. of these, some 700,000 belonged to the united states. brbliography.—sir r. s, s. baden-powell, yarns for boy scouts (1910), scouting for boys (1916), wolf cubs’ itandbook (1916), aids to scoutmastership (1920), what scouts can de (1921) and rovering to success (1922). secalso the publications and reports of the boy scout association. cr. b.-p.) united states —the boy scouts of america was incorporated in 1910 and chartered in 1916 under act of congress. boy scouts are organised in patrols, 8 boys or less to a patrol, under the direction of an older boy, 2 to 4 patrols to a troop. each troop is under the charge of a scoutmaster, who must be an adult american citizen, and one or more assistant scoutmasters. troops are organised in connection with schools, churches and other institutions, or under the auspices of groups of represen- tative citizens. for each troop there is a supervising group of adults known as a troop committee. where there are two or more troops in 4 community, their activities are directed and supervised by a local council. the national council is made up of representatives from these local councils and other distin- guished men from every state in the union. this body mects annually in new york city, where the council has its adminis- trative and executive headquarters. the purpose of the boy scouts of america as stated in its constitution is “to promote through organisation, and co- operation with other agencies, the ability of boys to do things for themselves and others, to train them in scout-craft, and to teach them patriotism, courage, self-reliance and kindred vir- tues, using the methods which are now in common use by boy scouts, by placing emphasis upon the scout oath and law for character development, citizenship training and physical fit- ness.”” ‘the movement is non-sectarian and non-partisan. the motto of the organisation is: ‘‘ be prepared.’”?’ membership in april 1926 was 769,717 registered scouts, 157,429 scout officials, 23,646 troops, 661 local councils. the boy scouts of america publish three handbooks, for pro- fessional leaders, for scoutmasters and for boys. the hand- book for boys has been immensely popular among all interested in out-of-door activities. thirty-four editions were printed between 1911 and 1926, totalling 3,000,000 copies. nearly 80 merit badge pamphlets are published, forming an excellent voca- tional library at modest cost; a manual on nautical scouting; several pamphlets on citizenship training and co-operation with churches; and some half a hundred other general and technical pamphlets. three monthly magazines are also published. boys’ life, which is for all boys everywhere, is particularly successful and steadily increasing in popularity. over 312,000 boy scouts spend a week or more in camp each 423 summer. in 1925 there were over 3,300 camps, not including week-end and winter camps. rigid standards of safety and health are maintained by the a.b.c. grading system, and regu- lar inspections are made by the national staff. trained water- front leaders, boats and safety devices justify the camp dept. in maintaining that a boy is safer in camp than on the streets. in camp each summer some 15,000 boys are taught to swim. the national court of honor has made over 1,100 awards to boy scouts for life saving; 69 gold medals have been presented for rescues made at the extreme risk of the scout’s own life. more than 1,300,000 merit badges were awarded before jan. 1 1926. over 194,000 were won in 1925. these are awarded for proficiency in various activities, including several practical vocations. the emphasis is on doing, rather than text-book knowledge. in 1924 the representative boy scouts of america troop won the world scout championship in competition with scout troops from 33 other nations at the international jamboree in copenhagen. the national council holds a conference annuaily. regional conferences, in each of the 12 regions into which the scout field is divided, are also held annually. biennially the scout execu- tives of the movement hold a national conference. professional leaders number about one to every 171 volunteer workers. over 50° of scout troops are organised through the churches of america, and practically every denomination has endorsed the movement and is using the programme. committees have been organised to promote the work among boys of catholic, protestant and jewish faiths. an important feature of scout work is the training courses for the 162,000 scout leaders. these are conducted not only by local scout councils, but in connection with colleges, normal schools and theological seminaries. nearly 300 such courses were conducted in 1925 for scoutmuasters, involving a minimum of 16 ‘hours of work. certificates are awarded to students who complete the course. the national headquarters are at 200 fifth ave., new york city. (j. e. w.) the girt scout movement in march ro12 mrs. juliette low organised in savannah, ga., a group of girl guides, similar to the organisation developed in england by lt.-gen. sir robert and lady baden-powell. on june ro 1915 the organisation was incor- porated and its name changed to girl scouts. the national headquarters are in new york city. in april 1926 the number of girl scouts (including officers) was about 119,000. the pur- pose is to instil patriotism, to arouse the spirit of helpfulness and to develop character, largely through outdoor group activity. the slogan is “‘ do a good turn daily.’”” each member promises: “on my honour, i will try to do my duty to god and my coun- try, to help others at all times, to obey the scout laws.”’ these laws require a girl scout to be trustworthy, loyal, helpful, friendly, courteous, kind to animals, obedient, cheerful, thrifty and clean in thought, word and deed. the age limit was fixed from 10 to 18 years; but later a separate division was formed for little girls, known as brownies or junior scouts, and another division for mature girls, known as citizen scouts. the unit is a patrol of 8 girls, who choose from their number a leader. one or more patrols form a troop, with a captain at least 21 years old and one or more lieutenants at least 18 years old approved by the national headquarters. the official magazine is the american girl, a monthly publication. camp fire girls-—another organisation, wholly distinct, is the camp fire girls, for girls over twelve, founded in 1912 to promote the ideals of the “ home, health and citizenship.”? the training stimulates love of being out of doors and an interest in simple handicrafts like block-printing and weaving. the work of the organisation is financed by the dues earned by the girls themselves. the slogan is give service.”? there were 158,000 members in 1926 in the united states and 2,000 in great britain. an alhed junior organisation is the blue birds. the official organ is everygirl’s mfagasine. the headquarters of the camp fire girls are in new york city. 424 bracquemond, felix (1833-1014), french painter (see 4.369), died in paris oct. 29 1914. bradbury, john swanwick bradbury, ist baron (1872—- _—+), british civil servant, was born at winsford, chesh- ire, sept. 23 1872, and educated at the manchester grammar school and brasenose college, oxford. he entered the civil service in 1896. beginning in the colonial office, he was soon transferred to the treasury. in 1911 he was appointed a member of the national health insurance commission, but in 1913 re- turned to the treasury as joint permanent secretary. in that capacity it fell to his lot to sign the currency notes issued by the govt. when gold was withdrawn from circulation on the outbreak of the world war. he was made k.c.b. in 1913, and in 1919 was appointed chief british representative on the reparations com- mission. he resigned the post at the beginning of 1925 when he was raised to the peerage as baron bradbury of winsford. in july of the same year, following upon the report of the royal commission on food prices, he was chosen chairman of the food council that was set up. braddon, mary elizabeth (1837-1915), british novelist (see 4.369), died at richmond, surrey, feb. 4 1915. among her latest novels were the green curtain (ror1)and miranda (1913). her son, william babington maxwell, born june 4 1866, became known as a novelist and writer. bradford (sce 4.370) had a population of 279,767 in t9o01, and of 285,979 in 1921. in 1923 it was estimated at 290,800. the board of control for wool, formed in 1917, was housed in the great northern hotel there. since 1918 the city has re- turned four members to parliament. in 1920 the diocese of brad- ford was formed from those of ripon and wakefield and the parish church of st. peter was made the cathedral. the parish of thornbury was formed in 1912, and a church, st. margaret, was built. bradley, francis herbert (1846-1924), british philoso- pher, was educated at university college, oxford, subsequently becoming a fellow of merton college. his £tiical studies (1876) were mainly critical, but bis prinvciples of logic (1883) showed that idealism had at last found an english-speaking champion. what hegel had done in germany, bradley did in england, and once and for all established the supremacy of idealism over realism, in dialectical controversy. appearance and reality (1893) is said by prof. sorley to have exerted more influence upon english-speaking countries than any other philosophical treatise of his generation. in revising the principics of logie in 1922, bradley found much to correct. his mind seemed to be moving to a new viewpoint. but he was too old to press his ideas to their logical consequenccs. bradley was neither a legitimate descendant from the hobbes- locke-hume school of english philosophy, nor was he able, like william james, to contribute a hard technique. what he did, and what none of his contemporaries could do, was to bring to philosophy a unique intelligence, a brillant style and a number of new criteria. there have been philosophers more profound, but none has arisen who played more gaily with the formulas of the past. in june 1924 he was, belatedly, admitted to the order of merit, and on sept. 18 he died. bradley, henry (1845-1923), british philologist, was porn at manchester, eng., dec. 3 1845. he was educated at chester- field grammar school, became a teacher and later a clerk in a commercial house in sheffield. at the same time he wrote a little for the literary reviews, and this work brought him to london. there he worked for the athenaeum and the academy, and through f. york powell was introduced to the new luglish dictionary, then in preparation and this became his life-work. he succeeded sir james murray as senior editor on the latter's death in r9r5 and remained on this undertaking until his death he worked with skeat on certain chaucerian studies, and published several works of his own, notably the afaking of english (1904). his eminence as a scholar was recognised throughout the learned world, and at oxford by the degrce of d. litt., ror4, and a fellowship at magdalen college, 1916. he died at oxford may 23 1923. bracquemond—brandeis braga, theophilo (1843-1924), portuguese writer and politician, was born at punta delgada, in the azores, feb. 24 - 1843. educated at the university of coimbra, he began writing at an early age, publishing his first volume of poems in 1859. his written works fall into three groups: poetic, historic and philosophic. the first includes some six volumes of poems, pub- lished between 1859 and 1868; in the second are four important works, including his greatest literary work, the history of portuguese literature, published in 20 volumes between 1870 and 1881. in philosophy he was a positivist, as is shown in his six principal philosophical works. braga did not take up active politics till about 1909. he was elected deputy for lisbon in aug. of that year, and in oct. 1910, when the new-born portuguese republic was faced with the difficult task of political reconstruction, this man of unques- tionable attainments and irreproachable character was selected as first provisional president. he remained in office till the elec- tion of dr. arriaga as first constitutional president, aug. 24 1911, and when arriaga resigned on may 27 1915 braga’s services were again requisitioned, and he returned to the presi- dency for the remainder of the term. he died jan. 24 1924. bragg, sir william henry (1862- ), british physi- cist, was born at wigtown, cumberland, july 2 1862, and was e:lucated at king william’s college, isle of man, and trinity collere, cambridge. in 1886 he was appointed professor of mathematics and physics in the university of adelaide, south australia, where he carried out his earlier researches in radio- activity. in 1909 he was appointed cavendish professor at leeds university and in tq15 quain professor of physics in the university of london. his researches upon various radio-active phenomena and his power of lucid exposition brought recogni- tion from scientific bodies both at home and abroad; in 1906 he was elected a fellow of the royal society; in 1915 he received the nobel prize for physics and the barnard gold meda] (co- lumbia university), both of which distinctions he shared with his son william john bragg (b. 18go). the joint work of father and son went far toward elucidating the arrangements of atoms and crystals, an achievement ren- dered possible by their development of the x-ray spectrometer. during the world war sir william bragg acted in an advisory capacity to the british admiralty especially with regard to the problem of submarine detection. he was created k.b.e. in 1920. in the same year he was elected an honorary fellow of trinity college, cambridge, and was president of the physical society of london. in 1923 he was appointed fullerian protes- sor of chemistry at the royal institution and director of davy- faraday research laboratory. in addition to many publica- tions, chiefly upon radio-activity in the philosophical magazine and the proceedings of the royal society, he also wrote the world of sound (1920); and concerning the nature of things (1925). (see crystallography). braila (sce 4.391).—one of the three danubian ports of rumania, briila has seen considerable development since 1910. the danube below the town has been deepened and the naviga- tion shortened by canalisation by the danube commission. the minimum depth of the sulina branch is 183 {t. with 12 to 28 ft. in the docks of briila, which accommodate 20 steamers and 29 laden barges. briila is a comparatively modern town and fully a quarter of the site of some 148 ac. is closely built over. in may 1921 an arrangement was made for poland to use the port as czechoslovakia uses trieste. in jan. 1917 the russians evacu- ated briila, after destroying the granaries, and it was occupied by the germans and bulgarians. a branch office of the american red cross, which did valuable work in rumania, was estab- lished there after the armistice, and in r919 and 1920 there was great activity in the port; large quantities of goods accumulated owing to the lack of transport. (see danube). brake: see motor vehicles. brandeis, louis dembitz (1856- ), american jurist, was born in louisville, ky., nov. 13 1856. he was educated in the public schools of his native city and at the annen realschule, dresden, germany. he graduated from the harvard law school brandl—branting in 1877, was admitted to the bar in 1878, and practised in boston from 1879 to 1916. he was much interested in labour legislation, acting as counsel for the people in cases concerning the powcr of the govt. to fix hours of labour and a minimum wage in several states. in 1910 he was counsel for mr. glavis in the ballinger- pinchot investigation in congress; in 1910-1 was counsel for the shippers before the interstate commerce commission in the advance freight-rate case; and in 1913-4 was special counsel for the commission in the second advance freight-rate case. in jan. 1916 he was appointed by president wilson associate justice of the supreme court, being the first jew to attain this position. he was the author of other people’s amfoney (new york, 1914) and business as a profession (boston, 1914), besides numerous articles on public franchise, business efficiency, labour and trusts. brandl, alois (1855- }, german scholar, was born at innsbruck, austria, june 21 1855. he studied at innsbruck, vienna, berlin and london and in 1881 was appointed lecturer on english philology in vienna. he was successively professor in prague, gettingen, strasbourg and berlin. he became presi- dent of the german shakespeare society in 1903 and chairman of the verein fiir deutschitum im austande (association of ger- mans abroad) from 1899-1903. he was also co-editor of quelle und forschungen, of palaestra, of the shakespeare annual and of the archives for the study of \\fodern languages. in 1903 he be- came a member of the prussian and viennese academies of science. brandl’s chief works are: b. ft. brockes (1878); thomas of ercel- doune (1881); s, t. coleridge und die fingtische romantik (1886); ges- chichie der alt-englischen literatur und die englische volkspoesie (1892- 1903); w. shakspeare (1894); quellen des weltlichen drantas in feng- land vor shakspeare (1833); and the valuable geographie der ait- englischen dialekte (1915). branting, karl hjalmar (1860-1925), swedish states- man, was born in stockholm nov. 23 1860, the son of lars ga- - briel branting, head of the central gymnastic institute, stock- holm, and emma georgii. branting was educated at the beskow school and passed his student examination in 1877. both at school and university he took a great interest in astronomy and from 1878-80 and 1882-3 he was secretary at the observatory of stockholm. he continued his scientific studies at uppsala university, where he came under the radical iniluences which were instrumental in forming the students’ union ‘ verdandi.” this union produced several of sweden’s more noted radical politicians. about the same time he joined the labour move- ment to which he henceforward devoted his whole life. in 1884 branting associated himself with the radical news- paper 7iden and shortly afterwards became editor. in 1886 he worked on the socialdemokralen, a newspaper started in 1885. in 1887 he was mile editor and held this post, except for some short intervals, till r9o17. from that time onwards he devoted himself entirely to parliamentary and political work. as the responsible editor of the soctaldemokraten he was sentenced in 1888 to 3} months imprisonment for libel. between 1887-90 and 1892-6, he was obliged, for economic reasons, to combine his editorship of soctaldemokraten with work on the liberal newspaper dagens nyheter, and his genius for journalism and his good education very quickly placed him in the first rank of swedish publicists. | when the social democratic labour party was formed in 1889, branting was generally considered the greatest intellectual force in the movement. even at that time he combined a social- istic outlook with a marked capacity for practical politics. te considered it vitally important that the theoretical tendencies of the labour movement should be in line with the socialistic ideas promulgated by karl marx. above all he wished to make of the movement a power which, on the one side, would be useful to the working classes in their economic struggle, and on the other of service to political democracy. it must be acknow]- edged that it is chiefly due to branting that the swedish trade- union movement has always been of a pronounced social demo- cratic character and as an organisation still keeps in close touch 425 with the social democratic party. at the time the party was formed there was a demand, strongly supported by liberal middle class opinion, for adult, equal and direct suffrage. the first task of the new party was to broaden the basis of this de- mand and to mobilise the working classes in support of it. thus branting soon became the most influential leader in the fran- chise movement. as early as 1890 he linked up the policy of the labour party with that of the progressive middle class party and made co-operation between them possible. the result was a liberal socialist government in 1917, and in rgr8 the consti- tutional reform which facilitated the spread of social democracy throughout sweden. although branting had been the most prominent figure in the labour party in sweden ever since its formation, it was not until 1907 that he became its leader. as early as 1897 he was a mem- ber of the second chamber where till 1902 he was the only social democrat. at that time the most pressing political problem, with the exception of the franchise reform, was the question of the separation of norway from the swedish crown. in face of a powerful chauvinistic group, branting, strongly supported by the labour party, demanded a peaceful settlement between the two countries, and his contributions to the cause of peace when the union was dissolved in t90s5, together with his valuable work in the same cause during and after the world war, quali- fied him for the nobel prize which was awarded him in 1921. during the world war he energetically supported the demand for sirict neutrality on the part of sweden, although he displayed a marked sympathy for the westcrn powers, owing to his con- viction that their policy, if successful, would hasten the advent of truly democratic and peaceful progress. within the international socialist ranks branting had early attracted attention, and at the end of the war when it became necessary again to mobilise international social democracy, great hopes were placed on his ability to re-unite all those whom the war had placed in opposite camps. a worthy attempt had been made in this direction in 1917 at the swedish-dutch con- ference known as the stockholm conference. branting who presided was the dominating personality. he was honoured with the chairmanship of the first post-war conference of the socialist international, held in bern 1910, and he helcl a leading position in the permanent international commission which was to complete the work of reconstruction within the international. at the same time branting’s great abilitics were needed for official work connected with forcign politics. ile was conse- quently appointed delegate to the peace conference in paris in the spring of 1919 and at the negotiations concerning aaland rorg-21. after the entry of sweden into the league of nations, branting was the first representative of his country on the league assemblies, and in 1922 was made a member of the council. there he won the respect of all for his integrity and impartiality. his aim was to make the league a truly demo- cratic alliance of the nations, a real instrument for peace. al- though he disapproved strongly of the imperialist and militarist germany during the war, he was a warm friend of the demo- cratic germany which arose from the ashes of the world war. ilis great desire was that the new germany, as a member of the league of nations, should have an opportunity of contributing towards peaceful development in the world. during the corfu affair he was the courageous and far-seeing champion of right that he had always been. his defence of the council of ambassadors on this occasion gained for him the sympathy and gratitude of the whole world. in the handling of the english-turkish conflict over mosul branting’s influence was no less significant. he was appointed reporter to the council, a task he accomplished with an impar- tiality acknowledged by all. in the swedish parliament the question of constitutional reform and natural defence interested him keenly. on the latter question branting took the view that from the military standpoint sweden should confine herself to a “ neutrality defence.”? the total disarmament tendencies which now and again appeared in the social democratic party had in him an irreconcilable opponent. 426 his ministerial career began in 1917, when the liberal socialist ministry was formed, with the liberal leader, professor nils eden, as premier. branting accepted the post of minister of finance, but resigned after a few months on account of illness. when the liberal-socialist coalition broke up on account of differences over the communal rates question in the spring of 1920, branting undertook the task of forming sweden’s first social democratic ministry. the parliamentary elections in the autumn of the same year made it impossible for him to carry on the government, but after a fresh election in the autumn of 1921 the parliamentary situation was such that he was again placed at the head of a government in which he filled the posts of prime minister and minister for foreign affairs. this government remained in power until april 1923, when it was forced to resign after a defeat over the unemployment relief question. after the elections in the autumn of 1924 branting formed his third min- istry. but his health was failing and shortly after his condition was so serious that he was forced to resign the premiership, but remained in the government as minister without portfolio. ile died in stockholm feb. 24 1925. during his long life journalism and politics had claimed so much of his time and energy, that he had no opportunity of en- riching either the social or political literature of his country with any notable or comprehensive writings. in 1906 he pub- lished a work of some importance entitled the age of social democracy. this, however, was not an original work, but an adaptation of a danish publication of the same name. some small pamphlets are all that bear his name. branting was mar- ried to the authoress, anna branting, nee jaderin. (s. h.*) brassey, thomas brassey, ist eart (1836-1918), british politician (see 4.435), was created an earl in 1911, and died in london feb. 23 1918. he was succeeded by his son, thomas allnutt brassey (1863-1919), who before his father’s death was known as viscount hythe. the second earl had been, since rgto, the editor of the naval annual, founded by his father, and lke him was much interested in imperial questions. he was largely instrumental in raising a considerable sum of money for the en- dowment of the university of oxford, to which he belonged. his works include the case for devolution, 1913. we died in london nov. 12 rorg and, as he left no children, the earldom became extinct. bratianu, jon (1864— ), rumanian statesman, was born at florica, rumania, on aug. 20 1864, the son of jon c. bratianu (see 4.436). he was educated at the polytechnic school in paris and on returning to rumania took up a position as engineer on the state railways. in 1895 he joined the liberal party, and was elected a deputy. in the following year he was appointed minis- ter of public works in the cabinet presided over by d. sturza (see 25.1051) whom he succeeded as prime minister and chief of the libcral party when the latter retired in 1909. he re- mained in power until jan. ro11, when he resigned, but in 1973, after the signature of the treaty of bucharest, he again formed acabinet. at the opening of the world war bratianu was in power and it was his govt. that guided rumania’s destinies throughout the period. te resigned on jan. 29 1918 following the decision of the military command to conclude an armistice with the germans. in dec. 1918, however, he was again called to power following upon the decision of gen. coanda’s govt. to denounce the separate peace signed with the central powers. bratianu was chicf rumanian delegate at the peace con- ference in paris, but he refused to sign the treaty of versailles, as a protest against the division of the banat of temesvar be- tween rumania and yugoslavia, whereas bratianu, in accord- ance with the treaty of alliance concluded between rumania and the allies in 1916 claimed that province entirely for rumania. in consequence he resigned and remained in opposition until jan. 1922, when he became prime minister again. bratianu followed closcly the policy of consolidation inaugurated by his father, and most of the chief reforms, such as the introduction of universal suffrage, agrarian reform and the settlement of the jewish question, were enacted during the period when he was in power. (g. bo.) brassey—brauner bratislava or pressburg (see 22.290), the chief danubian port of czechoslovakia, had a population in 1921 of 93,180. before the war it was largely dependent on vienna, but after the creation of the czechoslovakian republic its development was actively pushed forward. the daily capacity of the port increased from 400 tons in 1919 to 2,100 tons in march rgat. the scheme of development aims at the creation of a harbour containing large docks capable of dealing with 3,000,000 tons a year, with a free zone equipped with bonded warehouses and factories. ‘the work made good progress in 1924 and 65,000,000 crowns were set aside for the improvements of port works. new quays and railway sidings were constructed, and the winter harbour was deepened. bratislava is the seat of the international danube commis- sion, which, under the treaty of versailles, controls navigation on the river danube. its annual orient fair is of importance; the town is developing into an important distributing centre for balkan trade. its industries include glass grinding and the manufacture of mineral oil, explosives, leather, and edible and industrial fats. in rg9r9 the slovak komenskelo university was opened. a summer service with prague was maintained in 1924 and 1925. (see danube.) braun, karl ferdinand (1850-1918), german physicist, was born at fulda on june 6 1850 and was educated at marburg and berlin. in 1877 he was appointed a professor at marburg and after other university appointments at strasbourg, karls- ruhe and tiibingen, became in 1895 professor of physics and director of the physical institute at strasbourg. he pursued important researches concerning the electrical phenomena of cathode rays and the problems connected with the foundations of wireless telegraphy. in 1009 he received, with marconi, the nobel prize for physics. he died in new york april 20 1918. braun, lily (1865-1916), german socialist and writer, was born at halberstadt july 2 1865. ‘the daughter of gen. von kretschmann, she was brought up in an atmosphere of prussian militarism, but. was nevertheless drawn to the socialist move- ment, and married a socialistic professor, georg von gizycki. he died in 1895 and the following year she married heinrich braun, a socialist writer and politician. in connection with her interest in socialism she visited england and met leading mem- bers of the fabian society. much of her written work deals with the place of women in politics, for example die frauenfrage (1901); frauenarbert und hauswirtschaft (1901); and die politik und die frauen (1904). ler outstanding work, however, is her memoiren einer sozialistin, published in two volumes, lehrjahre and aampfjahre (1gto and 1911). cast in the form of a novel, this work was largely autobiographical, and gave a striking account of the growth of the german social democratic move- ment at the end of the roth century. among her other books are die liebesbricfe einer marquise (1912); and lebensucher (1915). she died at zehlendorf, near berlin, aug. 9 1916. brauner, bohuslav (1855- ), czech chemist, was born may 81855 at prague. ile studied chemistry at prague and also under bunsen at heidelberg and roscoe in manchester, where, in 1881, he was elected berkeley fellow of owens col- luge. in 1883 he was appointed lecturer and in 1890 professor of chemistry at the czech university of prague. brauner de- voted himself mainly to the ficld of modern inorganic chemistry, with special reference to the grouping of the clements in mende- leyev’s periodic system, and did important work on the atomic weights and chemistry of the rare elements. he became a fellow of the bohemian scientific society, a member of the czech acad- emy, and a corresponding member of the american academy of science. the results of his extensive chemical research have been issued in numerous publications, the chief of which are as follows: ox finorescence (1877); on the atomic werght of bervilium (1878 and 1881); contributions to the chemistry of the rare farihs (1882 and 1883); on the atomic weight ef certum (1885); expertimental studies on the periodic law (1889); on the volumetric determination of tellurium (1890); on the constitution of certain metallic chle- vides (1889); observations on argon (1895); a method of preparing argon in large quantities (1895); revision of the atomic weight of cerium (1903). brazil brazil (see 4.438), a republic of south america which covers an area of 3,291,416 square miles. the population, according to the census of sept. 1 1920, was 30,635,605—an increase of over 13,000,000, or 77%, since 1900, which is largely attributable to immigration. the federal district, comprising the city of rio de janeiro and suburbs, had 1,157,873 inhabitants; other towns of over 100,000 inhabitants were sao paulo, 579,033; bahia (sio salvador) 283,422; pernambuco (recife), 238,843; para (belem), 236,402; and porto alegre, 179,263. i. political history the electoral defeat of ruy barbosa in the presidential elec- tion of march 1910 by hermes da fonseca was followed later in the year by revolutionary outbreaks in the north and at rio de janeiro. on the night of nov. 22 the crews of the two new dread- noughts ‘‘ minas geraes ”’ and ‘‘ sao paulo ” mutinied, threat- ened to bombard the city and demanded reforms. the revolt spread to other naval units, and when the president delayed a reply fire was opened on the city; this was followed by a grant of the mutineers’ demands and a general amnesty, which brought about a general surrender of the ships. the defeat of the marine corps at cobras island in rio harbour on dec. to was the end of the revolt, which resulted in many reforms in naval adminis- tration. the presidency of hermes da fonseca was marked by :— (2) the amicable settlement, largely through the offices of baron rio branco, the minister for foreign affairs, of several boundary disputes, whereby brazil's territory was increased; (b) increased budget deficits, intensified by the rapid decline in the price of coffee and rubber and by the reduction of exports and imports with a consequent falling off in customs receipts; (c) the widespread rebellion of unemployed rubber collectors in ceara under padre cicero; (d) the culmination of a series of minor financial, industrial and commercial troubles in a grave national crisis in 1914; the govern- ment was unable to mect the demands for money by local and for- eign contractors, and in october announced a funding scheme, es oe interest on most foreign loans became payable in script for three years and the redemption of the majority of securities was postponed for 13 years. war period.—president wenceslao braz, who succeeded hermes da fonseca in 1914, was greatly assisted in his efforts to restore national prosperity by overseas demand, notably from the united states, for brazilian products. by the end of tors the high prices received for coffee began to affect the national exchequer so favourably that, with a reduction in expend- iture, 2 small surplus was shown in the budget. in 1916 pros- perity was definitely restored, and, for the remaining years of the world war, optimism prevailed in commerce and finance, and was reflected in the comparative quiet of internal politics. in foreign relations progress was made towards a consolidation of understandings with argentina and chile (known as the a.b.c. entente); a treaty was ratified by brazil in oct. 1916 by which these three countries undertook to submit differences to arbitration, and to avoid open hostilities until an appointed arbitral committee had given a decision. the remaining two years of wenceslao braz’s presidency were years of increased prosperity and with that a feeling that assertion should take the place of the almost passive part brazil had hitherto taken in international affairs. a series of war incidents (during which popular sympathies were with france, italy and great britain) intensified this feel- ing; and the sinking of the brazilian s.s. ‘‘ parana ” off the coast of france by a german submarine on april 3 1917 provided an opportunity for satisfying national ambition. three days later the united states formally declared war on germany, and from that date brazil did not hesitate as to her attitude. on april 10 the german minister at rio de janciro was handed his pass- ports. during the crisis dr. lauro miiller, the foreign minister, who was of german descent, resigned, and his place was taken by nilo pecanha, a former president. rupture with germany did not involve immediate abandonment of neutrality, for, despite fairly widespread anti-german demonstrations, the passing of a bill on may 29 authorising a revocation of the declared neutrality, and the seizure of german shipping in 427 brazilian waters, it was not until after the sinking of another brazilian vessel, the s.s. ‘‘ macao,” that a state of war was formally declared on oct. 26 1917. brazil sent physicians and aviators to france; several destroy- ers and other smaller vessels went on active service. the means of equipping an army for european service were lacking, how- ever, and the important naval units required overhauling. but the will to help was shown, not only by the provision of raw ma- terials, commodities and merchant shipping, but by the passing in dec. 1917 of a military law by which all citizens between the ages of 21 and 30 were made subject to selective draft. the years 1917 and 1918, up to the cessation of hostilities, were notable for their prosperity and for a considerable development in jocal industries, largely owing to the war and the measures taken for its prosecution. german banks were placed under control in nov. 1917, and decrees were passed for the encour- agement of national industries and schemes for industrial devel- opment. brazil was forced, for the first time in her history, to recognise the necessity of making herself independent of much of the foreign assistance upon which she had been accustomed to rely. goods manufactured at home began to take the place of european articles, and the predominance of the united states in the import trade began to be felt. the steady economic prog- ress of this period affected the political life of the country, in that there were no noteworthy incidents apart from activities and legislation made necessary by the war. post-war period.—in 10918 there was no contest for the presi- dency, the only candidate being sr. rodrigues alves, who had been president from 1902-6. considerable confusion was caused in nov. and dec. t918 when it was found that alves was un- able, through illness, to assume office and therefore unable to sign legislative measures or assist congress in fulfilling its duties. alves died on jan. 15 to1tg without having assumed oflice; his place was taken by dr. epitacio da silva pessoa, who was elected (during his absence in paris as chief of the brazilian delegation to the peace conference) by a large majority over barbosa. the year t91g was the record year for brazilian foreign trade, but from may 1920 a downward tendency showed itself. in brazil the balance of foreign trade acts as the barometer of the country’s prosperity, and on prosperity depends peaceful polit- ical life. the minister of finance, dr. homero baptista, was unable to devise measures adequate to meet the difficulties into which national finances drifted, although the government author- ised the issue of large quantities of paper money. fluctuations in exchange, and a rapid increase in the cost of living, brought strong criticism of the government and added to the existing tension. during this period dr. epitacio pessoa introduced an ambitious scheme to provide a series of great dams for the storage of flood-waters to safeguard the states of cear4, parahyba and rio grande do norte against the periodic droughts which have retarded their economic progress. it was recognised that such a scheme must, if successful, enrich brazil; but the moment for its initiation was considered to be inopportune. the visit of the king and queen of the belgians during sept. and oct. 1920 helped momentarily to distract attention from the serious finan- cial problems to be faced. another notable event was the signing by the president, on sept. 3 of the same year, of a decree repeal- ing the act of banishment of the imperial brazilian family of dec. 21 1889; the remains of dom pedro ii. and the empress were brought from portugal to brazil in jan. 1921, accompanied by the conde d’eu, son-in-law of the emperor. diplomatic relations with germany were formally renewed in dec. 1920. the financial crisis continued throughout the years 1921-2 and was the subject of much oratorical recrimination during the presidential election of 1922, when dr. arturo bernardes, president of the state of minas geraes, was elected to succeed dr. epitacio pessoa, whose administration was accused of having brought the country from prosperity to the verge of ruin. fol- lowers of the defeated candidate nilo pecanha attempted to create disaffection in the army and navy, and on july 5 the gar- rison in a fort of rio de janeiro harbour was led to revolt by a son of ex-president hermes da fonseca. pessoa showed 428 great firmness, during his last months of office, in suppressing the revolt, which, in itself, caused very little damage; but as a consequence many people feared to come to rio de janeiro for the exhibition that had been organised to celebrate, on sept. 7 1922, the centenary of brazil’s independence. the centenary exhibition was notable in that special missions, representing countries interested in brazil and amounting in all to some 300 persons, were accredited. the first south american olympic games were held in rio de janeiro in recognition of the event; the exhibition closed in dec., having proved very successful. the presidency of dr. arturo bernardes, 1922-6, was one of the most trying in brazilian history. it was characterised by a strong policy of attempted retrenchment and reform, which caused considerable hostility amongst the elements thereby affected. the year 1923 was, on the whole, a quiet one. a press law, introduced with a view to stamping out libel, was received with indignant protests from the newspapers. the most dis- quieting event was a wordy quarrel with argentina regarding a proposed conference on armaments; the bitterness caused by this controversy, as reflected in the press of both countrics, went a long way towards dispersing the good feeling that had been growing during the preceding five years. the year closed with the suppression of a rebellion in the state of rio grande do sul through the intervention of the federal govt., and it was real'sed that president bernardes was progressing in his efforts for reform. finance still remained the worst problem to be faced, and in his efforts to do this the president invited a mission of british finan- cial experts to investigate and report upon the state of brazil's finances. early in 1924 the report of the mission was published; it recommended drastic economies and retrenchment, the devel- opment of national industry, the freeing of industrial under- takings from state control, and the necessity for the influx of foreign capital. these proposals were welcomed by the president and his finance minister although they did not please the public. on july 5 10924 a serious revolutionary movement broke out in the state of s40 paulo, attributed to general military discon- tent and hostility toward the reginre of president bernardes. the leader of the rebels was general isidoro dias lopes, whose efforts were directed towards dcposing the president. to this end the rebel forces occupied the city of sio paulo, hoping there- by to attract the main body of the federal army and thus leave the capital unprotected. but the president retained a strong force, augmented by recruiting, in rio de janciro, and sent detachments in increasing numbers to surround the rebels. from july 9-27 sdo paulo was held against the federal forces, but the withdrawal of the insurgents at the end of the month was a signal for the general collapse of the movement. in the north there was a revolt on july 26 of federal troops at para; out- breaks were also reported at manaos, sergipe, amazonas and bahia, but all were quickly suppressed; the federal districts and state of rio de janeiro remained quiet. on nov. 4 the crew of the dreadnought “ sao paulo ” mutinied, seized the ship and proceeded to montevideo, whence it was restored to the brazilian government by the uruguayan authorities. early in 1925 order had been so successfully restored by the federal govt. that president bernardes was again able to turn his atten- tion to the readjustment of the finances, broadly in accordance with the recommendations of the british financial mission. the year 1925 showed a small though steady progress. the revolutionary movement of july 1924 was responsible for many isolated manifestations of unrest, and in a few places minor conflicts took place; the country had not returned to a normal state by the end of the year. trade and commerce easily adapted themselves to the changed conditions, which had but little effect on commercial life. political troubles have not, as a rule, greatly affected traders in brazil, although serious trade depressions have considerably affected politics. in 1925 the annual deficit was again reduced, and it was believed that the efforts of the president to restore financial normality would, if continued, be successful. sr. washington luiz was elected on march 1 1926 to succeed dr. arturo bernardes in the presidency. the speech in which the president-elect declared his policy indicated that, brazil with few modifications, he proposed to continue the reconstruc- tive efforts that had been begun by his predecessor. as a signatory of the treaty of versailles, brazil was not only one of the original members of the league of nations, but the first latin-american republic to become a member, having also a non-permanent seat on the council. in 1921 dr. gastao da cunha was nominated as president of the league, and in 1923 brazil, while showing her anxiety to be elected to permanent membership of the council, was satished with dr. epitacio pes- soa’s appointment as judge of the permanent court of inter- national justice. by a decree of march 12 1924 a permanent representation with the league of nations was organised, con- sisting of a representative equivalent in status to ambassador with a staff of secretaries. in march 1926 the brazilian demand for permanent representation on the council of the league, expressed by her representative at geneva, caused a postpone- ment of the admission of germany to permanent membership of the council, the view of brazil being that if further permanent seats were to be created, she also was entitled to one, as the senior representative of latin-america. it was found impossible to reconcile these differences and in june 1926 the representative of brazil gave official notice of the withdrawal of his country from the league, this withdrawal to take effect on june 13 1928. defence-—the navy in 1920 comprised two battleships of dread- nought type, two cruisers, three light cruisers, 10 destroyers, three submarines and various auxiliary vessels. five destroyers and three large submarines were under construction. the navy is manned by approximately 900 officers, 100 cadets and 10,000 ratings. a naval mission from the united states arrived in 1922, and under its guid- ance many administrative improvements were etfected by 1925. there is a naval floating dock for ships up to 23,000 tons; three dry docks at rio de janciro, one of which accommodates dreadnoughts; and repair docks at pare and ladario de matto grosso. under the military law of 1923 every brazilian between 21 and 44 years of age is liable for service, which consists of two years with the colours, seven in the first-line reserve, seven in the second line and eight in the national guard. the strength of the army in 1925 was 40,390 maximum; the first line mobilisation is estimated to yield 500,000 officers and men. a french military mission, from 1919-25 effected improvements in discipline, armaments and efficiency. there is also a gendarmerie of 26,000. air forces were, by 1924, divided between army and navy, each possessing its own flying branches. naval aviation was centred at a base in rio de janciro harbour; a new and larger base was in course of construction at hha do governador. in 1924 the navy possessed 25 aircraft for instructional purposes, and 43 for service use. naval tlying personnel consisted of a director, 35 qualified pilots and 450 other ranks. army aircraft consisted of about 70 machines, with 14 administrative officers, 15 pilots, ii observers and over 600 other ranks. education.—elementary education is free but not compulsory. secondary and university education are administered by the federal and states governments; primary, by states and municipalities, by decree, a federal university was established in rio de janeiro in 1915, comprising faculties of medicine and law and a polytechnic school. the federal ministry of agriculture and the states govern- ments have under their immediate inspection and direction many agricultural colleges. ii. financial and economic history the world war gravely affected brazil’s financial position. foreign sources for borrowing were closed, trade was interrupted in 1914-5 with a corresponding fall in customs receipts, and internal borrowing largely replaced foreign. again, from 1919-22 there was an economic crisis (which had not ended in 1925) caused by over- importation and speculation, over-exportation on consignment and the inability of brazilian exporters to retain markets gained during the period 1915-8; in addition, the federal govt. in 1920 re- newed the payment of interest abroad, while little foreign capital was available. government bonds and paper money were issued, and budget deficits became the rule; from 1914-8 the internal debt increased by over 100,000,000 milreis, and the foreign debt by £{12,000,000. the total federal indebtedness (calculated at 6d. to the milreis) on dec. 31 1924 was nearly £300,000,000 of which about one-half was foreign. the following table shows the revenue and expenditure for each year from 1920-5:— balance, £ revenue, £ expenditure, £ 41,638,000 41,243,000 + 445,000 22,936,000 24,503,000 — 1,933,000 28,903,000 42,992,000 — 14,089,000 28,175,000 33,220,000 — 5,045,000 44,106,000 36,335,000 — 2,229,000 34,623,000 35,611,000 ~— q88,000 1estimate. brazil production and indusiryy.—the main crop is coffee, cf which brazil produces four-fifths of the world’s supply. more than half of this is grown in the state of s40 paulo; the remainder is mainly from the states of minas geraes, rio de janeiro and espirito santo. the coffee crop fluctuates greatly in the 5,000,- ooo ac. under cultivation, but the total steadily increased, until the years 1920-5 showed an annual average of 12,000,000 bags of 60 kilos (132 lbs.) each. the value of the coffee crop to brazil may be estimated from its share of total exports, which increased from 50% in 1913 to about 75% in 1925. a constant effort is made to maintain a good price by encouraging consumption through propaganda abroad, and by means of “ valorisation ”’ (see 6.647, coffee convention scheme of 1907), which was again resorted to in 1917. the federal govt. bought stocks of coffee at firm prices, to be released for sale as and when prices became remunerative; this policy was continued in modified form up to 1925. every confidence has been officially expressed that coffee plague (ascribed to a minute beetle of the stephanoderes type) could be combated, and that the measures devised to this end by the government committee under dr. arthur neiva in 1925 were efficacious. cotton is native to brazil and can be grown in all parts of the republic. the best lands are in the centre and along the northeast coast to the mouth of the amazon, whence the finest varieties are equal to the egyptian. annual production averages 130,000 metric tons, of which the greater part is shipped to eng- land. in 1920-1 the question of the culture of cotton was much in evidence. in 192t mr. arno pearse, secretary of the feclera- tion of master cotton spinners, arrived with experts from england to study the problem. from this visit, and the inter- national cotton conference held in nov. the same year, it was made evident that brazil’s potentialities were great, but that better methods of seed-producing, planting and grading were essential. since the presidential decree of march 27 1920 the federal govt. has encouraged and facilitated such enterprise. stock raising has made considerable progress, notably in the states of rio grande do sul, minas geraes, parand4, sao paulo, rio de janeiro, matto grosso and goyaz. the world war gave a great impetus to cattle breeding and its derived industries. in 1914 only one ton of frozen meat, valued at £40, was exported; in 1917 this had increased to 66,400 tons, valued at £3,000,000; by 1923 exports of frozen and chilled beef amounted to 76,829 metric tons, valued at nearly £2,000,000, and of hides and skins 62,000 metric tons, valued at £3,626,000. a census of livestock, taken in 1920, showed some 34,000,000 oxen, 5,000,000 horses, 1,800 asses and mules, 7,000,000 sheep, 5,000,000 goats and 16,000,000 pigs: the greatest numbers were in rio grande do sul and minas geraes. the industry has been modernised and is encouraged by the federal govt.; packing plants of the latest design and efficiency are in operation and the treatment of by-products has received increased attention. after 1910 the rubber industry suffered severely from foreign competition, notably from the far east. in 1910 brazil exported 38,547 metric tons, valued at {£25,000,000; exports then fell steadily, both in quantity and value, until in 1923 only 17,030 metric tons valued at £1,713,990 were exported; 1924-5 showed little difference, and the prospects generally were not encourag- ing. sugar is produced largely in the states of pernambuco, rio de janeiro and minas geraes. there are some 200 sugar factories in the country with an average annual production of 480,000 tons. from 1884 the export steadily declined, touching the minimum in 1912; after that date there was an increase reaching its maximum in 1g2r with 252,110 metric tons, but falling in 1923 to 153,710 metric tons. the introduction of modern machinery is gradually making sugar one of the principal sources of national wealth. tobacco is grown in bahia, rio grande do sul and other states. the bahia product (85% of the whole brazilian crop) is of good quality and finds a ready market abroad. brazil is the second tobacco producing country in the world, its annual production approximating 100,000 tons. the lumber industry, with its derived products (fibre and wood- pulp for paper-making), has progressed in parane. other im- 429 portant agricultural products are cacao, nuts, wool, caranauba wax, bran, rice, wheat, manioc flour, herba matte and beans. mineral wealth.—brazil is known to be rich in minerals, but they have been little exploited. iron ore is abundant, especially in minas geraes, and contains a high percentage of hematite. large quantities of manganese were exported to the united states during the war. since 1919 much attention has been directed to investigating the commercial possibilities of petro- leum deposits. wolfram and tin are found at encruzilhada. brazil is one of the few world sources of mica. a small amount of gold is produced, the average annual value of the output approximating £650,000; copper is found in parahyba and bahia. coal of rather poor quality exists in santa catharina and rio grande do sul. bauxite, chromite, lead, nickel, diamonds and other precious stones are also found. natural gas has been dis- covered at graminha. the ministry of agriculture has a geo- logical branch, which undertakes surveys and the preparation of geological maps. manufacturing industry—local manufactures of every de- scription developed considerably after 1910. the difficulties of importation during the world war stimulated home manufac- ture, and from 1916 onwards great progress was made. sdo paulo is the chief industrial centre. cheap hydroelectric power was made available in limited quantities in rio de janeiro, sao paulo and minas geraes; the development of water-power re- sources is of immense importance to the home manufacturer. the textile industry is the most important; from 1921-4 it accounted for 40% of the total production of manufactured articles, and in 1925 there were altogether some 300 spinning and weaving mills in operation. the whole of the native textile output is sold in brazil, supplying 80% of the fabrics in use. the tanning industry, with its derived manufactures of boots, shoes, leggings, slippers and sandals, supplies a large percentage of the home demand for footwear. brazilian manufacturing industries are encouraged by heavy import duties, from which the federal govt. derives the greater part of its revenues; with- out this tariff they could not easily compete with foreign goods. _ foreign trade.—the following tables show the value of the for- eign trade of brazil between 1911-24, and the percentage trade with certain countries in 1913-9-24:— years imports i9gti-5 = (an- nual <aver- | age) . . | £49,795,000 | £61,538,000 | £111,333,000 1916-20 (an- nual aver- age)... | 68,175,600 83,653,300 151,828,900 ig2i . | 60,468,000 58,587,000 119,055,000 1922 . . 48,641,000 68,578,000 117,219,000 1923 ~ ; 909,543,000 73,184,000 | 123,727,000 1924 . | 68,949,000 95,103,000 164,052,000 proportion of total imports and exports by the following countries 1924 191g 1913 imports|exports|imports exports imports;exports per per per per per per cent | cent | cent | cent |; cent ss es tn, | es ff bef) ce country “united king- dom . ; 24:2 3°4 15 8 24°5 15 u.sias..2 23°70 42°8 50 42 15°5 32°5 germany 12-2 6-6 oe _ a i4 france . 7 12-1 3°55 22 fe) to immigration and labour conditions.—immigration is of vital im- portance to the development of so scantily peopled a country as brazil, and it is encouraged and facilitated by various schemes of the federal government. the years 1910-3 showed a steady increase in the numbers of immigrants, which, however, fell from 192,000 in 1913 to an annual average of 39,728 for the period 1914-9, rising again in the post-war period to 86,967 in 1923. immigrants are mostly from portugal, italy and spain. the labour question as understood in europe exists only to a limited extent in brazil. trade unions exist but are badly organised. the enormous size of the country, the lack of communications, and, outside the federal district and sado paulo, the sparse population, render combined action difficult and completely ineffective; notwithstanding these 430 factors, however, strikes grew in numbers and extent. in 1923 a decree was published creating a national council of labour to act in an advisory capacity to the government. it began by considering hours of work, arbitration, insurance and other problems directly affecting workers, and in 1924 suggested that the 1918 law of accidents should be amended, in view of the prevalence of accidents (125,000 per annum) and the unsatisfactory state of employers’ liability under the 1918 law. communications.—brazilian railways have developed as a series of independent systems because of the wide separation of populated centres: thus pernambuco is the focus of one system, bahia, rio de janeiro, santos, para and rio grande do sul of others. the lack of transport facilities hinders economic progress; communication with the vast outlying district is slow and difficult, but apart from this the existing transport facilities are inadequate to deal satisfactorily with the output of the great productive zones. the extent of lines in operation on dec. 31 1924 was officially stated as 31,310 km. (approx. 19,570 m.); there were over 2,000 km. under construction, and plans were approved for nearly 10,000 km. more. the need for railway development is recognised by the federal govt., but financial difficulties have greatly hindered progress. the lines in the interior running north and south are slowly being connected to afford communication independent of the sea; connection has been made from natal to maceid, and from rio de janeiro north to victoria, and south to the uruguayan frontier, where connection was made in 1913 with the central uruguayan railway for montevideo. con- struction was not limited to the coastal region; for example in 1916 an important line was completed between itapura and porto esper- anca, near corumbae on the bolivian frontier; this reduced the time from rio to corumba from six or more weeks’ travelling by water to six days by rail. many other minor schemes were carried out or are being planned. the federal govt. operates 25% and has leased a further 25% of the lines. many electrification schemes are planned or have been completed, notably in the state of sio paulo. the development of telegraphic communication with the interior was largely the work of the brazilian army. in 1924 there were 50,000 m. with more than 1,000 offices; more than half o the systems belong to the government. wireless telegraphy progressed after 1910 and communication is maintained from manaos to the interior of amazonas and the acre district. over 40 stations existed in 1923 and a powerful station was planned and commenced in that year to establish radio-communication with the rest of the world; on sept. § 1923 the brazilian press began to receive a news service by wireless from france. in 1924 brazil was connected with europe by three submarine cables, with the united states of america by two, and with the river plate by two; connection was established with monrovia (liberia) in 1911. the high cost of transport and lack of adequate means of communication have caused a constant deficit in post-office administration since 1840; in 1922 there were over 4,000 post offices in the republic. civil aviation had made little progress. the budget law of 1925 authorised the issue of regulations governing aviation in brazil. a company was formed in 1925 mainly with the object of mail carrying. at the end of 1922 the brazilian mercantile marine consisted of 556 steamers with a total gross tonnage of 522,663, and 107 sailing vessels of 41,535 gross tons; half the total tonnage belonged to the government- owned cia. lloyd brazileiro, which extended its foreign service, after having acquired 15 of the 45 german ships interned during the war. the river systems are largely used for transport purposes, notably the amazon, which is navigable up to iquitos, banking.—efforts to stabilise foreign exchange resulted in the creation during penna’s presidency (1906-10) of a conversion fund (caixa de conversio), which, though effective in its early years, was unable, partly through lack of continuity in its original policy, to stop fluctuations after the outbreak of the world war. the caixa issued, from time to tire, notes based upon a gold deposit, the maximum, on feb. 12 1913, amounting to 420,924,300f000. the first set-back to its policy was the raising in 1912 of the rate of ex- change to 16d. in 1914-5, trade depression, speculation, and war conditions also had an adverse effect, and the caixa became in- debted to the treasury by increasing amounts annually, until on dec. § 1917 it was closed; by 1919 there were still 20,” - 1,610$000 of its notes in circulation, a drop of over 60,000,000 milreis. t he budget law of 1920 suspended its functions, which were taken over in 1921 by the guaranteed caixa de amoriisa cio. vy a contract of april 24 1923 the federal government authorised the bank of brazil to become a bank of issue for 50 years; thus the issue of currency no longer lies with the federal government. paper money in i914 amounted to 980,000,0c00f000 and in 1925 to 3,000,000,000$000. banking transactions showed a stcady increase, particularly those of national banks: in 1921 they amounted to 11,302,604,000$000 and in 1924 to an estimate of 16,000,000,000%000. bipliography.—p. denis, brazil (1911); f. bennett, forty years in brazil (1914); g. j. bruce, brazil and the brazilians (1915); c. 5. cooper, the brazilians and their country (1919); w. h. koebel, the great south lands (1919); j. c. oakenfull, brazil: past, present and future (1920); m. r. wright, the new brazil (1920) 5 j.c: oakenfull, brazil: a century of independence, 1822-1922 (1922): w. h. koebel, south america (1923); t. roosevelt, through the brazilian: weiderness (1924). | | = . bread making see also: diario ofictal (1910, etc.); a. boyle, the brazilian green book (1918); reporis of the department of overseas trade on the economic and financial conditions in brazil (h.m. stationery office, 1919, etc.); wleman’s brazilian year book; the annario ibero americano (1923, etc.); pan-american union, reports of pan- american conferences, (c, du.)",
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