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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:f h h libraries:26f6e79ca153",
    "title": "(F. H. H.) LIBRARIES",
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    "verified_text": "this article is concerned with the main developments of the public library service and with certain special aspects of library work since 1910. i. great britain and ireland great as was the advance achieved during the last quarter of the 19th century, and especially under the influence of andrew carnegie during the years 1900-10, a still greater advance took place after 1910, and especially from 1918 onwards. up to the jatter date the service had suffered in two main respects, namely, the id. rate limit which, except in the great cities, prevented anything like adequate expenditure on books and salaries, and the practical inapplicability of the libraries act in the smaller centres of population. these difficulties had been set forth with vigour and persistence by the library association, and in 1915 the position was restated by professor w. g. s. adams in a report libraries published by the carnegie united kingdom trust, which showed that the great majority of public libraries were utterly unable to provide an adequate service on the 1d. rate, and that the only hope for rural areas and the smaller towns lay in the establish- ment of a co-operative system. acting on this report the carnegie trustees set up a number of circulating systems on a regional basis.1 the county was the most hopeful unit, and during the years 1915-8 a number of county councils, through their education committees, and with the aid of substantial trust grants, set up experimental schemes under which, from a central store, collections were sent out on periodic loan to villages where they were as a rule housed in the schools and administered by the schoolmaster. the earliest schemes were those of staffordshire, cardiganshire, carnarvon- shire, perthshire. as the county authority then had no power to levy a library rate, the whole cost was borne by the trust. legislation.—the success of the experiment was immediate and convincing. in the education (scotland) act 1918 it was provided (clause 5) that the county education authority should have powers to levy a library rate. in england and wales the principle’ was recognised by the public libraries amendment act of 1919 by which county councils were empowered to levy a rate, entrusting the administrative arrangements to their edu- cation committees. the same powers were set up in northern ireland by the public libraries act of 1924, and in the irish free state by the local government act of 1925. after the passing of these acts the system spread with great rapidity under the encouragement of the carnegie trustees (who expended altogether £310,300 during the period ro1sg—25), and by the end of 1925 the only administrative counties which had not received trust grants were: in england, westmoreland, hampshire (isle of wight)—both of which, however, had less ambitious schemes, not under the 1919 act—rutland, lincoln- shire (the holland division) and scilly; in wales, carmarthen- shire; in scotland, argyll. in ireland there were schemes in three of the northern counties, and 14 of the southern counties. the system began with the distribution of boxes of books to villages. within so years in several counties the motor-van library had displaced the box; co-operation with municipal libraries had begun; sets of books were provided for all organised adult classes; special collections (e.g., for teachers, agricultural- ists, students of local history, etc.) had been made; in a few cases, on the basis of differential rating, small libraries of the municipal type were set up in semi-urban areas too large to be served on the purely circulating system. the act of 1919, besides establishing the county as a library unit, removed the rate-limit in england and wales. in scotland in 1920 the limit was raised to three pence. in ireland the same extension was sanctioned in 1920, with a further extension to 6d. for county boroughs. the majority of municipal libraries took greater or less advantage of their new freedom, but there was much leeway to make good, and up to 1926 insufficient provision for book purchase and salaries was still common. the american library in 1926 was spending roughly four to five times as much per head as the average british library. perhaps the most hope- ful sign was a tendency on the part of the weaker hbranes to co-operate with the new and vigorous county systems, or with other neighbouring boroughs. the central library for studenis.—apart from the borough and the county service, the chief important development is the establishment of a national lending library of serious books,— known as the central library for students—as a reserve io the local services which, under the most favourable conditions, must always find a difficulty in meeting the needs of specialist readers. l the idea in itself was not a new one. the principle was already embodied in voluntary schemes in dorsetshire, in yorkshire (under the auspices of the yorkshire village library), and had been tried in scotland as early as the middle of the 17th century; in indiana, u.s.a., as early as 1816. the trustees, however, for the first time in great britain systematised the principle by the adoption of the ‘county authority as the administrative unit. several attempts to set up rural services based upon a central borough library came to nothing. 707 this library was started in 10917, largely to supply organised adult education classes, but in 1925 it also served 235 borough and 47 county libraries; with a stock of roughly 31,000 books, the issues from the three depots (london, dunfermline, dublin) totalled approximately 54,000. the library has been financed chiefly by the carnegie trust with substantial contributions from the cassel trust, the thomas wall trust, and the united service fund and a comparatively small revenue from the vol- untary subscriptions of borrowing libraries. its sponsors have stated a case for a government subsidy, the library being capa- ble of becoming in a real sense the keystone of the national lending service. co-operation with special libraries —thanks to grants from the carnegie trust, many special libraries agreed during 1922-5 to place their collections (rare and irreplaceable works excepted) at the disposal of the central library—a step of great importance towards a systematic inter-loan service. this policy of co-ordi- nation was advanced a further stage in 1925 by the establish- ment of the association of special libraries and information bureaux, and the initiation by the association of university teachers of a tentative system of exchange between university libraries. the carnegie trustees prepared a fresh report, issued in 1924. which surveyed the situation during the period 1921-3. it showed that the smaller borough libraries were still financially embarrassed, and indicated the desirability of co-operation between them and the county service. similar conclusions emerged in the report of the adult education committee appointed by the president of the board of education (1921-3). accord- ingly, in 1924, the president of the board set up a departmental public libraries committee, under the chairmanship of sir fred- eric kenyon, director of the british museum, and representing both librarianship and education. this committee was expected to report towards the end of 1926 or the beginning of 1927. librartanship.—the pressing importance of raising the stand- ard of education among public librarians received continuous attention from the library association and the carnegie trustees. there was a strong fecling in the profession against the appoint- ment of persons over 16 years of age, which automatically excluded university graduates; moreover, up to i9g19 and even afterwards salarics were too low to induce university graduates in any numbers to enter the service. in that year, however, with the aid of a carnegie trust grant, a school of librarianship was set up in university college, london, and since that date the number of students taking librarianship as a post-graduate course has appreciably increased. summer schools have been successfully established both by the school and by the library association, and a number of chief librarians have arranged special courses for their junior staffs. library committees in the united kingdom were still, however, very far behind those of the united states in their appreciation of the importance of a high standard of general education in the ranks of librarianship, matriculation being normally the maximum requirement, with the understanding that promotion would depend upon the taking of the certificates of the library association (see 16.560), building developments and equipment-——the progress of library building was seriously interrupted by the world war, comparatively few libraries having been erected since 1914. the carnegie trust m 1917 ceased to make grants and in 1925 de- cided to consider no further applications. between 1914 and 1926, however, existing promises were honoured in 26 cases, the more important being those made to barrow-in-furness, nottingham (two branches), barking, bethnal green, ipswich, york, gates- head, exeter. the total sum expended by the trust on public library buildings in 1914-26 was £295,600. in every case the modern system known as “open access’ was adopted, and stress was laid upon accommodation for children. great improve- ments were effected in design, with the object of securing better lighting, more effective supervision and the greater convenience of public and staff. card catalogue and subject-lists have almost entirely taken the place of printed catalogues. there was a steady tendency to make the library, as in the united states, a 708 more vital and potent factor in communal life, by developing the practice of giving lecture courses illustrative of the use and resources of the stock, of supplying schools with loan collections, and by co-operating generally with education authorities, of admitting non-residents to the reference room and (on payment of a small subscription) to the use of the lending department, and of giving special facilities to teachers and students. library policy has, in fact, become far more liberal than it was before the war. of the greatest importance to business men and stu- dents has been the establishment in great city libraries, since 191g, of commercial and technical departments, notably those of birmingham, manchester, liverpool and glasgow. the ma- chinery of distribution, through branches, with the aid of union catalogues, was greatly developed (e.g., especially in glasgow). national libraries-—since 1910 two new national libraries have come into existence, the national library of wales, on a splendid site just outside aberystwyth and the national library of scotland, formerly the advocates’ library (see 16.5 57 7c), in edinburgh. the former is a magnificent building begun in ro1t, opened in rors. it was not yet complete in 1926, but it al- ready housed a splendid collection of books, manuscripts, his- toric papers, etc. it had the finest welsh collection in existence and was strong in other celtic languages. its printed books numbered 450,000. it was erected by funds subscribed by the welsh people themselves with a pound-for-pound government grant. the faculty of advocates presented their historic library to the nation in 1923, and it was duly vestecl in trustees by act of parliament in 1925, having reccived a generous endowment of £100,000 [rom sir alexander grant. the advocates retain the law section. the copyright privilege is enjoyed by both these libraries. between 1910-26 considerable development took place in the british museum library. the accommodation for readers was increased by the addition of a reserve reading-room in the north- ern extension. there was also an extension of storage room, and a scheme for increasing the book-stack was initiated. the length of shelving grew to some 55 miles. of the other copyright libra- ries, plans were prepared for increased accommodation in the bodleian library and the library of the university of cambridge, but financial difficulties prevented progress. the same difficulty confronted the library of trinity college, dublin. as regards the last-named, the reluctance of irish publishers, after the recognition of the irish free state, to send books to the copy- right libraries in great britain seemcd likely to imperil the copy- right privilege; the right was, however, confirmed. the national library of ireland was closed for some time «luring the period of political unrest, but was subsequently reopened. il. the united states the county system.—aas in great britain, the most distinc- tive development in the united states since 1910—though not so widespread as in great britain—has been the attempt to deal with the needs of rural areas. the county system began in indiana in 1816; wyoming legislated in 1886. travelling libraries were established in new york, wisconsin and michigan between 1890 and 1900. ohio and maryland adopted the county system in 1898; wisconsin and oregon in tgor and 1903. alter 1910, how- ever, the system was put upon an entirely new level of efficiency in california, where there were in 1925 no less than 42 county schemes holding jointly 2,500,000 books, with a total annual income of $1,250,000. the system was greatly strengthened by the existence of the fine state library in sacramento, which acts as a kind of clearing-house (with a union catalogue) and central reserve for the whole state. in a single year (1924) county libraries borrowed no less than 37,000 volumes for special readers. it is remarkable that by 1926 some 60 independent town libraries had voluntarily merged themselves in their respective county systems, thus greatly add- ing to the service of books upon which their readers might draw, and reducing their expenditure. the local centres are as a rule upon a more elaborate scale than their british counterparts: they have small, but admirably arranged, reading-rooms, perma- libraries hent collections, and paid librarians, the circulating system being, except in the case of very remote centres, only supple- mentary. a different system obtains, e¢.g.,in the state of massa- chusetts and other eastern states, where the unit is the town- ship, and the whole machinery is based upon a central office in the department of education. by 1926 the county systems had been established by statute in 29 states, but schemes were in operation in only 200 counties out of 2,064. there is, however, no doubt that under the influence of the carnegie corporation of new york, supported by the fine example of california, the scheme is likely to spread rapidly.! municipal service.—there has also been great progress in the municipal library service which, though of the same general type as its british counterpart, has shown itself considerably more elastic. several magnificent libraries, including those of detroit, san francisco and cleveland, have recently been erected. librarianship.—the profession of librarianship is better paid and more highly esteemed than in the united kingdom, be- tween 1887 and 1919 no less than 15 schools of librarianship were founded, the more important being the new york state hbrary school at albany, the pratt institute school at brooklyn, the carnegie library school at pittsburgh and the drexel institute school at philadelphia. the profession is largely in the hands of women, though most of the senior posts in the large cities are still held by men. in 1921 nearly half the students in the library schools were college graduates. the american library associa- tion (membership nearly 7,000) is an active and efficient body founded in 1876, with headquarters in chicago. it represents both the united states and canada. it issues select bibliog- raphies, a specimen catalogue, reading courses (etc.) and, with the aid of subsidies from the carnegie corporation of new york, has undertaken important inquiries into the training of libra- rians, and the relation of the public library to adult education. some 60 committees were at work in 1925 upon important prob- iems of various kinds. the association in 1924 established a library school in paris with the aid of funds from the american committee for devastated france. in 1923 a calculation showed that, as regards places having not less than 1,000 inhabitants, 53°5° ) of the population had access to public library facilities,’ of which more than half owed their buildings mainly to andrew carnegie. in the more active citv systems, ¢.g., at cleveland (which in 1925 opened a magnifi- cent new building on the most modern lines at a cost of over $4,000,000 and which spends at the rate of rather more than $1r-25 per head), in new york city, at detroit, chicago, pitts- burgh, boston, newark, indianapolis, brooklyn, all kinds of developments have been devised with the object of bringing the service into the closest contact with the life of the community. a great feature is made of commercial and technological collec- tions; juvenile departments (usually under specially trained assistants), service to schools, library clubs for adolescents, service by telephone, teachers’ libraries, music departments— all these illustrate the tendency to departmental specialisation which is making the public library a real factor in civic life. in the new cleveland library the arrangement of book stacks and reading rooms gives a concrete illustration of this important development. the system of distribution through branches and sub-branches, in shops, factorics and public buildings of many kinds, is likewise designed to bring the communal stock directly to the service of the public. the public library has in fact be- come the intelligence bureau of the community. the library of congress —the library of congress is the pinnacle of the whole structure. unlike the british museum, this library, under reasonable safeguards, lends the rarer books which state, municipal and county libraries do not possess. there is, in fact, a recognised inter-loan system, working up- wards from the village to the federal library, under which any reader may as a rule obtain access to any publication which 'see i]. c. long, county library service (1925). 2 sec c. c. williamson, tramming for library service (1923). iw. s. learned, the american public library (1924). liby a—liege exists in the country. in this scheme the universities and many specialist libraries participate. of the greatest importance in this connection is the national card-index system operated by the library of congress, which supplies (at a very low price, and yet on a self-supporting basis) accession cards, fully regis- tered and annotated, to any library in the country. several thousand libraries buy these cards, and thus tend gradually to standardise their systems of cataloguing and classification. special libraries the chief development is the tendency, both in the united kingdom, and in the united states, towards systematic co-ordi- nation with a view to greater accessibility of special resources both on the inter-loan basis and for the benefit of the general public. the american association of special libraries was formed in rto900, and has issued a directory. ‘the formation of a corresponding british association has already been recorded, and a similar directory was begun by this body in 1926. in great britain, during t910-26 there was a great develop- ment of scientific, technical and commercial libraries and bureaux of information. the scientific and research associations, large commercial and manufacturing firms, and the great industrial groups, awakencd to the necessity of having well-organised up-to-date collections for the use of their officials. ‘the same movement has developed in america, probably to an even larger extent, though in that country the public library has, until recently, undertaken a larger proportion of this kind of service. of great importance in this connection are compilations like the world list of scientific periodicals, the subject index of pertodi- cals, both started since iors. mercantile murine—reference may also be made to efforts on behalf of sailors in the mercantile marine. the british sailors society has attempted this service for more than a cen- tury. since 1920 it has revived and developed its arrangements under the stimulus of a carnegie trust subsidy. the seafarers’ education service (founded 1920), also with the aid of a trust grant, and contributions from the owners and the men’s unions, has succeeded in placing substantial jibraries of a more advanced kind upon 1s0 ships. the carnegie corporation of new york has similarly financed the american merchant marine library asso- ciation. in great britain a svstem of supply to lighthouses and lightships was initiated by the carnegie trust with the aid of the public authorities concerned. libraries for the blind, ctc—in great britain the needs of the blind have been met by the establishment of the national library for the blind in london, founded in 1882. the present building was opened in 1916, and a large extension was begun in 1925, the total cost being roughly £50,000. books in moon or braille type are lent freely to public libraries, and individual readers. a sectional library for deaf education was set up in the library of the university of manchester in 1920. hospital collections are distributed under the auspices of the red cross society. a collection for the use of nurses and health visitors has been set up by the college of nursing (1921). the libraries of most of the learned societies were financially embarrassed during and after the world war, but since about 1921 they have been doing their utmost to make up arrears of book purchase, binding and cataloguing. (j. m. m.) libya (sce 16.578)}.—on the occupation of tripolitania and cyrenaica (benghazi) by the italians in ror1—-2 libya (libia italiana) was adopted as the common designation of the two colonies. (see cyrenaica; trifolitanla.) lichnowsky, karl max, prince (1860- ), german diplomatist, was born march 8 1860 at kreuzenort in upper silesia. he entered the german foreign office in 1884 and from 1904 to 1911 held secretarial posts in different german embassies abroad. in 1912 he was sent to london as ambassador, and re- mained at that post until the outbreak of the world war. he took part in the negotiations for a convention with great britain regarding the baghdad railway and various colonial questions, which was initialled on june 12 1914. lichnowsky was con- vinced that for years the relations between germany and great 799 britain had been mismanaged and misunderstood by the foreign office in berlin, and, in particular, he believed that bethmann hollweg and his advisers failed to appreciate the pacific attitude and intentions of sir edward grev and the british govt. during the crisis that ended in the world war. he embodied his views in the pamphlet entitled afeine londoner afission, which he circulated privately in manuscript among his german friends. this document came into the hands of an opponent of the war, capt. von beerfelde, who was the means of its being published, without authorisation, in 1918. the publication exercised a very prejudicial effect upon the german war spirit and there were loud demands among the conservatives and national liberals for the prosecution of the author. the prussian upper house, of which lichnowsky was a member, passed a resolution exclud- ing him from that assembly. it became impossible for him to live in germany, and he sought refuge in switzerland. liebermann, max (1847- ), german painter, was born in berlin july 20 1847. he studied from 1869-73 at the school of art in weimar, from 1873-8 at the paris academy under munkaczy, then for a short time in barbizon with millet, in holland, and finally from 1878-84 at the munich academy. in 1898 he was appointed a professor at the university of berlin. he became the chief exponent of the impressionist school of painting in germany and the leader of the “ secession.” lieber- mann won the grand prix at paris in 1889 and received gold medals at venice, berlin, vienna, dresden, munich and antwerp. he became president of the berlin academy, a member of the brussels, dresden, milan, munich, steckholm and weimar academies and a corresponding member of the institute of france. his chief pictures are “ jesus among the scribes ” (1859); “jam makers” (1879); “ women plucking geese ” (1894); ‘* samson and delilah 7’ (1002); “f the board of hamburg professors ” (1906); portraits of f. maunann, gerhart haupt- mann, dehmel and ed. meyer. see c. h. rosenhagen, afax liebermann (1900). liebknecht, karl (1871-10919), german politician, was born in leipzig aug. 13 1871. the son of wilhelm liebknecht (see 16.592), he qualified as a lawyer, and speedily became a prominent member of the extreme left wing of the socialist party. after serving a sentence of 18 months’ imprisonment for high treason, in 1908 he was elected to the prussian chamber of deputies, and in tor2 entered the reichstag as a social dem- ocrat. not long after the outbreak of the world war he was expelled from the social democratic party on account of his violent opposition to the policy of the government and the successive votes of credit, and formed a faction of his own, die sosialdemokratische arbettsgemciuschaft. arrested again in 1916 on a charge of high treason he was sentenced to four years’ penal servitude; he was reprieved, however, on the eve of the revolu- tion in oct. 1918. ife at once became the leader of the sparta- cists, and was largely responsible for that party’s insurrection in jan. 1919. during the rioting he was arrested; and while being conveyed from military headquarters in the west end of berlin to the prison at moabit on jan. 15, he was shot down by his escort while, as was subsequently alleged, he was attempting to escape. his associate, ss pucmouie) perished the same night. liege, belgium (see 16.503), with a population in 1921 of 165,096, has been much improved in recent years, and has grown rapidly; it is a clean, prosperous and well-built city, and is the centre of the iron and armament manufacture of belgium and of a coal-mining district. ‘the production of zinc and of motor-cars has also become important. of the 56 blast furnaces in the country in 1925 li¢ge had 20. there is also a large cattle market. suburbs have arisen on the heights to the north, and a circular boulevard has been laid out with connecting roads. a number of houses near the university were destroyed by bombardment and by fires started after the german entry, and the bridges over the meuse were blown up by the belgians in their retreat; but the town as a whole, being an important centre, was spared by the germans. the place de l’ universite has been renamed place du 20 aott, in remembrance of the burning of houses and shooting 710 of 18 persons as they escaped from the fires, by the germans. the place verte is now place du marechal foch. liege was the first large town captured during the war. the valiant defence of its powerful ring of forts delayed the german advance for a. week and caused the enemy heavy losses. a number of the citizens were deported in 1916 during the german occupation. the city has since been granted the cross of the legion of hon- our, and a representation of the perron liegeois, which sym- bolises the liberty of liege, has been reproduced on a postage stamp. the forts were repaired by the krupp company in 1914-5 (see belgium, invasion of). life: see biology. lifts: see elevators and escalators. liggett, hunter (1857- ), american soldier, was born at reading, pa., march 21 1857. he graduated from the u.s. military academy in 1879, and saw service in the west against the indians. in the spanish-american war in 1898 he served on the staff of the adjutant-general, and later was in the philip- pines where, as major of volunteers he served for three years. in 1902 he was appointed a major in the regular army and spent several years with the dept. of the lakes and at fort leaven- worth. in 1909 he attended the war college, and on graduating in 1910 was appointed a director there, and in 1913 president, becoming brigadier-general in the same year. from rots to 1917 he was again in the philippines, being for one year com- mander of the department. in 1917 he was made major-general and commander of the western dept., but in sept. went to france as commander of the gist div. of the american expe- ditionary force. he was at the second battle of the marne, at st. mihiel! and in the argonne commanding the i. army corps and later the i. army, and commanded the iti. army of occu- pation on the rhine. in r9r9 he was commander of the western div., and in 1920 commander of the ix. corps area, retiring march 21 1g2t. lighting: sce illumination engineering. lightning: sce atmospheric electricity. light railways, military.—these are 60 cm. gauge rail- ways laid with steel rails, weighing 20 lb. to the linear yard of rail, on sleepers weighing from 11 to 223 lb. each, according to the weight of the rolling stock used, and laid 2 ft.6in. apart on a ballast track, the ballast consisting of sand, gravel, mine carth or burnt clay. rolling stock.—the rolling stock consists of three types of wagon: 1. low-sided four-wheeled trucks with capacity of four tons. 2. flat bogie wagons with carrying capacity of eight tons. 3. bogie well wagons with carrying capacity of to tons. the latter being used almost entirely for transporting heavy ammunition. motive power.—the motive power consists of: i. six-wheeled, coupled locomotives weighing up to 14 tons. capacity 60 h.p., and capable of hauling 65 tons up a gradient of i in 40. ao roukwhee coupled locomotives weighing up to eight tons, capacity 35 h.p., and capable of hauling 40 tons up a gradient of t in 40. 3 petrol tractors weighing up to four tons and capable of hauling a load of 14 tons up a gradient of i 1n 40; these petrol tractors have two gears, the speed on the low gear being about four miles and on the high gear 10 m. per hour. during the latter part of the world war 1917-8 light rail- ways were very extensively used on the western front for trans- porting supplies to the smaller supply depets away from the standard gauge railways, and ammunition to the heavy gun and howitzer positions. during 1917-8, 1,780 m. of light railway were laid but only about half of this was ever used. while the war was stationary light railways were of very great service to the armies, but as soon as a retreat or a continued advance took place they soon became out of action. they are not economical, the maintenance alone during 1917 being on an average 15 men per mile, which, as the lines became consolidated was reduced to five men per mile. the average effective haul of a locomotive was 23 train m. per day, and that of a tractor was 20 train m. per day. the average coal consumption per locomotive was 62 lb. of coal per effective train mile and the average petrol con- sumption per tractor was -56 gal. of petrol per effective train lift >=bima mile. the average loaded wagon mile per day per effective was 4-25: with the advance in sept. 1918, light railways were of great assistance in getting forward ammunition and evacuating the wounded. they were joined on to the german 60 cm. railways which had not been destroyed, but they were soon left behind and the armies relied entirely on the standard gauge railways and road transport. light railways, when worked to their maximum capacity carry, on an average, about 140 tons of supplies per mile of track per day, according to the grading of the line, and the cost in man power for operating purposes only, as compared with a standard gauge railway, is as 3-45 to 1 per m., and cost in man power for construction as 2-2 to 4-7. an extension to light railways, known as “foreways,” and used for carrying supplies from the end of the light railways up to the trenches, consisted of 60 cm. gauge track laid on an unballasted formation; the rails weighing about 9 ib. per linear yard of rail on sleepers weighing 8 lb. and spaced 3 ft. apart, centre to centre; on these lines, flat-topped, four-wheel trollies were pushed by two men during the night right up to the communica- tion trenches. early on in the war the armies objected to these foreways being laid with steel rails urging that the noise of steel wheels grinding on steel rails would attract enemy fire. the first of these lines were made of pitch pine rails nailed on to wooden sleepers; but the friction between stcel wheels and wood- en rails was so great that the trollies were continually being derailed. (d. l.) lille {see 16.685), the fifth largest town in france, had a population of 200,952 in 1921. about 1,000 houses were de- stroyed by german guns in 1914, and during the german occu- pation a munition dump on the southeast ramparts blew up causing much damage. the old church of st. margaret was partially and the hetel de ville completely destroyed. before their departure the germans blew up several of the town bridges. the palais des beaux arts, from which many works of art were removed in 1914, has been reconstructed. lille was made the seat of a bishop in 1913. before the war lille provided some four-fifths of the french production of cotton and linen fabrics and yarn, and both industries were in a flourishing condition, but the war caused immense loss; only one flax spinning mill was in a condition to resume work soon after the armistice, and it is computed that two-thirds of the total number of spindles were lost. their replacement, however, was practically com- pleted by 1924, and the industry gradually recovered, though handicapped by scarcity of labour and yarn and the high price of the latter. the war period.—lille was first reached by advance german patrols in aug. 1914. it was afterwards re-occupied by the french, but they retired again early in oct., the serious defence of the city not being part of the general plan of campaign. after several days’ bombardment the germans entered on oct. 12 1914 and remained till oct. 1918, when they were outflanked by the allied capture of neighbouring towns. the deportation of a large number of citizens in 1916 was the culminating point of tyranny suffered by the people of lille under german rule. the city was a favourite resort for german officers on leave, as it was not shelled by the allies, although it was within range of the guns.. | lima, peeru (see 16.689).—during the 20 years ending in 1926, and particularly since 1920, the city of lima has experi- enced a series of modernising influences. the population, in- cluding that of callao, was in 1926 estimated at 250,000 and was slowly rising. many of the narrow streets radiating from plaza mayor, the heart of the city, have been paved, and new business houses have been erected, including one of the finest hotels in south america. large sums have provided modern sanitation, waterworks and sewerage. in the fxposition and other newer parts of lima, avenues and boulevards radiate from attractive circles and modern parks; there are thousands of ornamental trees, and many fine residences face these modern streets and boulevards. seaside resorts at la punta, chorrillos, liman von sanders—liquid air miraflores and ancon are growing, and electric car lines and motor vehicles link them with lima. the educational system has made marked progress under revised laws. the general increase of peruvian cotton, sugar, sheep-farming, petroleum, mining and new irrigated areas is the basis of this progress. revised taxation provides several million dollars annually for highway construction. a motor-car in 1925 succeeded in making the trip over the trail from lima to arequipa. automobiles can now be operated from lima to piura. cement, cotton and other lima industries are increasing their output, while land values in the capital and suburbs have more than doubled in a decade. liman von sanders, otto (1855- ), german soldier, was born in stolp, prussia, feb. 17 1855. entering the german army in 1874, he held various posts in the cavalry and in 1913 he was sent to turkey as leader of a german military mission. his appointment as commander of the i. turkish army was annulled on account of russian protests, but he remained in- spector of the turkish army. made a prussian general in jan. 1914, in nov. of the same year he was given the chief command of the turkish troops in the caucasus. in march 1915, as commander of the v. turkish army, he successfully opposed the british and french attacks on the dardanelles and the peninsula of gallipoli. in 1918 von sanders succeeded von der goltz as leader of the turkish forces in the middle east, and was thus in command in syria and palestine when general allenby was victorious there. von sanders escaped capture, but after the armistice he gave himself up to the allies and was interned until aug. ro1rg. he gave an account of his experiences in turkey in fiinf jahre turket (1920). lindau, paul (1839-1919), german dramatist and novelist (see 16.717), published in 10909 a collection of short stories der held des tages. a volume of memoirs, under the title nur erinnerungen, appeared in 1917. he died in berlin jan. 31 19109. his elder brother, rupdolph lindau, died in 1910. lindenthal, gustav (1850- ), american engineer, was born at briinn, austria, may 21 1850, and was educated there, and at vienna. having been engaged in railway and bridge work in austria and switzerland, he went to the united states in 1871. he was engineer at the centennial exposition, philadelphia, from 1874 to 1877, after which date he practised in pittsburgh as consulting engineer in railway and bridge con- struction till 1890, when he moved to new york city. he was commissioner of bridges for the city of new york, 1902-3. he designed and acted as consulting engineer for the steel arch bridge spanning the east river at hell gate. this bridge, known as heli gate bridge, was commenced nov. 1914, and opened for traffic march 1917. with its approaches, it is about 34 m. in length, and contains the longest steel arch in the world (1,017 feet). its cost was approximately $18,500,000. lindley, nathaniel lindley, baron (1828-1921), english judge (see 16.719), died at norwich dec. 9 1921. lindsay, nicholas vachel (18709- }, american writer, was born at springfield, ill., nov. 10 1879. in 1897 he entered hiram college, o., but left after three years to study art in chicago and new york. for several winters he was a y.m.c.a. lecturer, and during 1909-10 lectured for the anti- saloon league in his native state. meanwhile he had begun during the summers a series of wanderings on foot which carried him through many states, reciting or singing his own verses like an ancient minstrel and delivering an occasional lecture, receiv- ing in return food and lodging. in 1920 he visited england, where he gave recitals. many of his poems have the true ballad ring, and are very popular. his works include general william booth enters into iteaven, and other poems (1913); the congo, and other poems (1914); adventures while preaching the gospel of beauty (1914, prose); the art of the moving picture (1915, prose); a handy guide for beggars (1916, prose); the chinese nightingale, and other poems (1917); the golden book of springfield (1920, prose); the golden whales of california, and other rhymes in the american language (1920); going-to-the-sun (1923); and going-to-the-stars (1926), the two latter being illus- trated by the author. 7tl lindsay, norman (1879- ), australian artist, was born at creswick, victoria, feb. 23 1879. he began to draw for a melbourne newspaper at 16, and in 1901 moved to new south wales where he afterwards lived. he joined the staff of the syd- ney bulletin, and became its chief cartoonist, a post which he retained for many years. his chief characteristics as a cartoonist are imaginative power, grim strength, marked individuality of style and a certain coarseness. all of these qualities are appar- ent in his illustrations to theocritus, boccaccio, casanova and petronius, the best of which have been collected in the pen drawings of norman lindsay (1918). as an etcher he shows extraordinary facility in the treatment of flesh and massed figures; and he also achieved distinction as a painter in oils and water colours, a lithographer, an engraver and a maker of model ships. in 1925 an exhibition of his paintings was held at the leicester galleries, london. lindsey, benjamin barr (1869- ), american judge, was born at jackson, tenn., nov. 25 1869. he was educated in the public schools and attended notre dame (indiana) university and the southwestern baptist university, jackson, tennessee. at the age of 16 he began to earn his livelihood in denver, continuing his studies in a law office. he was admitted to the colorado bar in 1894. in jan. 1899 he was appointed public guardian and administrator of denver. he was instrumental in securing the passage of the colorado juvenile court law of april 12 1899, which gradually changed the whole system of dealing with juvenile offenders in denver, the change including the estab- lishment of a juvenile court conducted solely in the interest of children. he was appointed judge of that court in dec. 1g00, to which he has since been elected for ten consecutive terms. be- cause of his championship of juvenile courts, he earned for him- self the name of “ the father of the juvenile court.” he was also the author of the first parental laws in the united states making the juvenile court a parental and family court as well, and alsoof the “ chancery court procedure” in dealing with adult offenders. he wrote problems of the children (1903); the beast (with harvey o’higgins) (1910); children in bondage (with george creel) (1914); pan germanism in america (1919); the doughboy’s religion (with harvey o’higgins) (1920); the re- volt of modern youth (with wainwright evans) (1925); cfhild- hood, crime and the movies (1926) and a large number of bro- chures dealing with problems of juvenile delinquency, domestic relations and crime. (see children’s courts.) linseed: see oils and fats. liquid air.—an intensely cold, blue, somewhat magnetic liquid having a density nearly equal to that of water is obtained by subjecting compressed air to the action of intense cold. at atmospheric pressure, air liquefies at a temperature of —191-4° centigrade. the properties of bodies plunged into it are greatly altered; e.g., flowers and other delicate objects become exceed- ingly brittle and lead becomes hard, elastic and sonorous. catlletet process.—-many unsuccessful attempts to liquefy air were made before m. louis cailletet, of chatillon-sur-seine, announced to the french academy, in dec. 1877, that he had liquefied air by a process in which cooled, compressed air, pre- viously freed from carbon dioxide and moisture, was caused to issue from a nozzle into a receiver so as to expand suddenly; the receiver was made of glass and liquefaction was apparent from the formation of a mist. pictet process —at the same time, m. raoul pictet, of geneva, working independently, made known his success, achieved by using a cascade or successive temperature-fall process. he obtained a temperature of about —65°c. by the expansion of sulphur dioxide around an arrangement of tubes in which carbon dioxide was being liquefied and then using the resulting liquid to obtain a temperature of about —130°c. around a tube con- veying compressed air to a nozzle whence the air issued. other processes ——by both these processes, liquid air was obtained but only to evaporate almost as soon as it was formed. the next achievement was the production of liquid air in quan- tities large enough to be collected. the importance of using a temperature as low as possible to effect liquefaction was more 712 fully appreciated and mm. olszewski and wroblewski of cra- cow used ethvlene instead of carbon dioxide in their cascade process and obtained a temperature low enough to effect lique- faction without final expansion of the compressed air. another cascade process, carried out at the cryogenic laboratory of leyden, under the direction of prof. kamerlingh-onnes, made use of a temperature of —150°c., obtained by using methyl chloride and ethylene. during a long period of experiments, prof. dewar made large quantities of liquid air; he usually ob- tained the successive falls in temperature by means of liquid carbon dioxide and ethylene. the cascade processes were complicated and too costly for com- mercial use and were abandoned in favour of improved expansion methods. as early as 1887, mr. c. w. siemens obtained provisional protection for an invention for obtaining very low temperatures by causing cooled compressed air to expand in an engine; the cold air thus produced was used to cool the compressed air on its way to the engine, a cold intensifying effect being thus obtained. no complete patent specification was filed and nothing further seems to have been done by the inventor. an apparatus of this type was patented, however, by m. ernest solvey of brussels (british specification no. 13466 of 1885). it comprised an annular chamber in which compressed air expanded while doing work on a piston fitted in an extension of the outer wall of the annular chamber; this chamber was protected by a jacket packed with a thick layer of non-conducting material. it was assumed that, by the ccld-intensifying effect ob- tained, as in siemens’ apparatus, liquefaction of the air would be effected. in practice, however, this did not take place. the difficul- ties of lubricating and working the engine and the inefticiency of the jacket prevented attaining a temperature below about —95°c. linde process —a process depending on reduction of tem- perature during expansion, but not employing an expansion engine was invented by prof. carl linde, of munich. the ap- paratus, described in british specification no. 12528 of 1895, comprises an air compressor communicating with a cooling coil through which the compressed air passes on its way to a reversed- flow heat interchanger, having two tubes of different diameters and about 300 ft. long; one tube is inserted in the other so as to leave an annular space between them and then both are coiled helically. the convolutions are separated from one another and from the outer casing by raw sheep’s wool. cooled, compressed air passes through the inner coil and issues past a regulating valve into an expansion vessel, whence it flows back, through the annular space between the coils, to the compressor. this cycle of operations is repeated until the cold-intensifying effect of the interchanger becomes so g.eat that some of the compressed air is liquefied, as it passes the regulating valve, and collects in the expansion vessel. : hampson process——in his patent specification no. 10165 of 18903 mr. w. hampson describes an apparatus in which compressed air is passed through a long pipe and expanded to a lower pressure to return in its expanded state over the pipe in such a way as to intensify the cooling produced by the expansion. claude process—an ingenious process, invented by m. georges claude of paris, employs an expansion engine working in association with a reversed-ilow heat interchanger and a liquefying chamber. pure, cold air at a pressure of about 4o atmospheres passes through the central pipe of the interchanger, and the greater part of this air is led to the expansion engine and expands thercin to a pressure of about four atmospheres, while doing external work. the air leaves the engine at a tem- perature not substantially lower than —140°c., the critical point for air, enters the lower part of the liquefying chamber, circulates around a series of vertical tubes therein and is led away through the outer annular space in the heat interchanger. the smaller part of the pure, cooled, compressed air passes into the upper part of the liquefving chamber, flows through its tubes and is cooled and liquefied, the liquid air falling into the lower part of the chamber, whence it 1s withdrawn. by this means, the compressed air is not allowed to liquefy in the expan- sion engine, which can be worked satisfactorily, lubrication being effected, when necessary, by means of petroleum ether. in a modification, compound expansion is employed, an additional expansion cylinder with its corresponding liquefying chamber being provided. according to m. claude (comptes rendus, liquor control vol. 142, p. 1335), the output of liquid air may be as much as 0:66 litre per horse-power hour in the single expansion and 0°85 in the compound process. manufacture of oxygenthe most important use of liquid air is in the manufacture of large quantities of commercially pure oxygen. prof. linde, in his british patent specification no. 12528 of 1895, describes a process and apparatus, working in association with his liquefying apparatus, for obtaining oxygen from the liquid air by fractional evaporation, the nitrogen being driven off first, since its boiling-point is about —194°c. while that of oxygen is —182-5°c., at atmospheric pressure. the products were substantially pure oxygen and nitrogen mixed with a rather large quantity of oxygen. the purer the oxygen obtained the less was the yield. to remedy this disadvantage, prof. linde, in a later improvement, treated the liquid air in a rectifying column and completed the process of separating the oxygen and nitrogen by a fractional evaporation. other gascs.—since the introduction of linde’s process for obtaining oxygen, numerous inventions have been patented for obtaining oxygen, nitrogen, argon, helium, neon, xenon and krypton from the air. in the processes of m. claude and la societe air liquide, the air is not liquefied as a whole but in such a way that it yields two liquid portions, one rich in oxygen and the other very rich in nitrogen; each of these liquid portions is rectified so as to obtain oxygen and nitrogen of a high degree of purity. for further information the reader is referred to the reports on the cross-action in the chancery division and the court of appeal between british liquid air co., ltd. and brit- ish oxygen co., ltd. (reports of patent cases, 1908, pp. 218-44; 577-614). liquid air is applicable for cooling objects which are required to be hooped and for fitting metal tubes into a tube plate having holes too small to receive the tubes. the use of liquid air as a motive fluid has been often proposed. an early use of liquid air was in the preparation of explosives, some of which were used during the construction of the simplon tunnel. liquid air has also been used in mine rescue apparatus. bibliography.—]. a. ewing, the mechanical production of cold (1908); h. giese, die verflussigung der luft und thre zerlegung (1909); g, claude, liguid air and oxygen nitrogen, trans. by ht. e. p, cottrell (1913). (t. e. l.)",
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