ENGLISH LITERATURE

it must remain for a remoter posterity to pass final judgment upon the english literature of ror1-26; to decide which (if any) of the authors then living were really great; to discern with certitude the trends and the characteristic colour of the age. i. introduction among those who lived through the period, it was a common opinion that it was not an age “ of giants’; that the poets were not as great as browning or tennyson, nor any of the novelists as eminent as dickens, thackeray or fielding. that opinion, as yet, can only be tentative; in the ultimate, reputations are decided by the permanent, as contrasted with the topical, appeal to the human mind and heart; and it may be that to posterity all the writers of the age will seem to have qualities and a tone in common which were not evident to themselves. it certainly does appear to us that there was a harmoniousness, a shared adven- turousness, curiosity and delight, general in the elizabethan age; that the puritan, the cavalier and the ‘‘ metaphysical ”’ groups may be clearly distinguished in the next age, all three having much in common; and that the reaction against religious, english literature political and aesthetic excess produced in the 18th century a set of compromises and conventions on the basis of which men worked easily, confidently, with agreed assumptions and agreed aims. yet we see these things more positively than our fathers did, and we cannot be sure. tendencies in literature —if there is foundation for the gen- eral view that there is a defect of passion in the most recent english literature and a lack of major achievements, the reasons must certainly be found in the state of thought and of what passes for thought. men’s views about the universe, the purpose of life and the nature and destiny of the soul must profoundly influence their works of art, as well as their other actions, how- ever frequent may be the antinomy between their proclaimed theories and their obscure but obstinate impulses. there can be no doubt that the period under review was, at least in what are called “‘ intellectual circles,” a period of confusion and conflict, of doubt manifesting itself here in energetic pessimism, here in fatigue and apathy, here in blind hedonism, here in a desperate search for new creeds, sometimes brutally pagan. the monstrous calamity of the war forced the perennial problem of evil upon the attention of those who would have been disturbed by no lesser, or less spectacular, shock; evolutionary science and comparative mythology had continued to sap the foundations of popular religion and were as yet imperfectly reconciled by contemporary thought in what a bishop has de- scribed as “ the provisional correlation ” of christian truth with the latest developments of knowledge or hypothesis; the social reforming enthusiasm and the belicf in automatic progress of the victorian age had weakened and in the reaction the imagination brooded upon the prospect of an ice age and the imperfectibility of man. meanwhile, the mass of questions asked ever since the feudal and catholic system broke up were reinforced by a new chorus disputing the fundamentals of traditional morality. ‘“ why should i? ” was the dominant note, accompanied by a subtler ‘‘ why shouldn’t i? ”’; and often neither awaited an answer. those who dislike what they regard as the “ pollution of pure literature” by didacticism, propaganda, controversy may well find subject for complaint in modern english literature. when a whole set of dogmas is generally accepted both artist and audience may take them for granted, whether forgetting them, building on them or artistically embroidering them. artists in such an age may sing like birds; where all are in disagreement, or at least perpetually worrying, harshness will creep into the song. at best, argument has its day; even the great genius of voltaire and rousseau cannot keep the bulk of their works alive; and those moderns whose plays and stories are coloured by argument, which is negative rather than positive, are handi- capped, not merely by the ephemeral nature of the argument, but by the lowering effect of their views upon their general tempera- ment, their capacity for ardent joy, fierce passion and acute grief. il. fiction conrad and george moore.—politics, popularised science, psycho-analysis and their results are powerfully present in a large proportion of the most intelligent modern novels, and the novel, grown polymorphous, 1s the characteristic medium of the age. just as the pre-raphaelites segregated themselves behind the arras in flight from the smoke of the first industrial age, so certain modern novelists have declined to be affected by the smoke of modern controversy. amongst novelists, since mere- dith and stevenson died, joseph conrad and george moore were signal examples of the kind of artist who can build a raft for himself and escape from the topical welter. conrad had his religion and his morality, “afew simple maxims,” a code of honour and fidelity. he did not shrink from the major problems either; he was perennially occupied with the difficulties of conduct, the mystery of evil, the veil over the face of destiny. yet, as an artist, he did not primarily set out a sublimated journalist, to mingle art with conversion or subversion, to add his word to the babel of tongues discussing property, sex, the multiple self and spiritualism. his views were manifest and set; so were his doubts; he wrote to record what he saw of magnificence, even in 1007 the form and visage of tempest and terror, in the most beautiful language he could find; he was an artist in characterisation, in construction, in his treatment of the visible and invisible world. of conrad's last works, the rover (1923) was a prelude to the posthumous suspense (1925), the torso of what might have been a great book, set in the mediterranean, with napoleon in elba a shadow imminent over the action. he died in 1924, a pole by birth, a seaman by training, who had achieved miracles in a tongue not his own and left a long series of tales, from almayer’s folly (1805) to suspense, mainly concerned with the sea, par- ticularly the east indian seas (with the psychology of conspira- tors as a strong secondary interest), written with such scrupulous art, such power of description and suggestion, such a march of sound, such chivalry of spirit, that it is difficult to conceive of them as tarnishing with time. george moore, in his latest vears, modified his manner and took new materials. his irish trilogy, ave, se/ve, vale (1911-4), might be classed, by some of the friends whose words and deeds it records, with “ fiction”; at least it does indicate his aims. politics and religion may be and are touched on here, but they are raw material for art, for witty, graceful and tuneful writing; and the desire to create a finely shaped and phrased work is never subordinate to a desire to inform the reader. in the brook rerith (1916) and heloise and -lbelurd (1921), moore took historical events and settings and made of them stories like tapestries, in the evenness of their flow and the carefulness of their execution. a touch of pre-raphaelitism may be detected in them, and some affinity with pater’s one long story, but few artists have owed less, in an obvious way, to their predecessors than moore, and the ease and translucency of his english, in its latest developments, was unique in our time. the prose flowed like conversation, but no conversation was ever so well shaped and worded. other leading novelists—apart from these, the outstanding novelists of their generation were h. g. wells, john galswor- thy and arnold bennett. ultimately, wells is not likely to be thought of primarily as a novelist, and he himself has stated that he has dedicated himself to journalism rather than art. he was the rousseau, as shaw was the voltaire, of his time; he used a great variety of forms to communicate his opinions about the problems of the day and the morrow, to inculcate his enthusiasm for the physical sciences and to awaken the human race to the great possibilities before it, should it but be in- fected with his ardour for racial reconstruction, a more heroic (or alternatively more comfortable) life, and for the exploration of the worlds around and within us. as a workman and a poet in prose, he never excelled his early short stories and ‘‘ scientihc romances,” in which extreme assumptions led up to ingenious and seemingly inevitable chains of consequence. nor did any of his later novels, in which sexual romance, contempo- rary politics, satire and utopian preaching are mingled, betray quite the same care or contain quite such fine sustained passages of description as tono-bungay (1900). but mr. briiling sees tt through (1916) was a remarkable record of the effect of the war upon one man’s mind, and the undying fire (1919), a very striking and successful modernisation of the arguments canvassed in the book of job and in afemoriam. he was tireless as a tractarian and amongst the most astonishing by-products of his great energy and zeal was an outline of history (1919-20), unique among such compilations for the raciness of its narration and the ingenuity of its summary of all the world’s annals since the ball of fire first began to cool. the salvaging of civilisation (192£) was one of his titles; a man who believes that to be his mission and the dissemination of opinion on a variety of subjects the best means to the end, is too pre- occupied to write great novels or careful prose. the reforming, or at least the protesting, bias was strong also in the novels of john galsworthy. the forsyte saga (1922), a collection of novels, early and late, about one respectable family, was the crown of all his work. for all his air of detachment galsworthy could not help presenting the respectable and com- placent incompletely; more humour might have led to more 1008 truth; so even might a less acutely sensitive humanitarianism. but the achievement of his presentation of the moeurs of south kensington and of country houses cannot be denied; much is there that must be recognised as very faithful record; his char- acters often lead an independent life, and his writing at its best, if uniformly quiet, is extremely good. in arnold bennett the propagandist instinct was much weaker, though the reporting proclivity was strong. his later, like his earlier, novels varied greatly in importance. he was never slipshod and dull, but in some of his books the chief interest lay in brilliant journalistic descriptions of superficial aspects of “‘ west-end life,” some were light-hearted farces, and the best were jong meditated and profoundly ‘‘ understanding ” stories about real human beings, stories in which all his talents were brought into play, but all kept subordinate to his genius. the chief of his later books, a worthy successor to clayianger (1910) and the old wives’ tale (1908) was riceyman steps (1923). in this book mr. bennett did for his physical and social background, clerken- well, what he had long ago done for the five towns. the place | is known as a place long lived in; the pages are full of pictures ranging from the itogarthian genre to the whistlerian nocturne; yet all is seen through the eyes of the characters, the miserly bookseller and his wife and especially elsie, the brave and lonely maid-of-all-work. a younger group—among the younger novelists, hugh walpole, compton mackenzie, rose macaulay, e. m. delafield, sheila kave-smith, francis brett-young, virginia woolf and margaret kennedy were widely read. d. hl. lawrence, brooding like many of them over the mysteries of sex and expounding vaguely prophetic things, showed great descriptive power and a gift for sentences like lightnings. walter de la mare in afemoirs of a midget (1921) wrote a long modern fairy tale, like a poet's wood, full of flowers and insects, with a candle-light window at the end of a path and the constellations glittering in the dark sky overhead. ii. belloc’s the four men (to12) was remarkable for its sussex walks, its gay dialogue and its songs. e. m. forster’s a passage to india (1924) was the most notable book of a maturing and slowly-working novelist, a book in which the artist brooded over the whole surface of indian and anglo-indian life, showing the general through the particular. david gar- nett’s lady into fox (1923) and i[ugh de selincourt’s the cricket match (1925) were short books beautifully composed. among short-story writers w. w. jacobs lost none of his old cunning and katherine mansfield, cut off in her youth, came, in bliss and the garden party, nearer to tchekhov than any of his many disciples. may sinclair, j. d. beresford, lk. i’. benson, leo myers, r. h. mottram, aldous huxley, p. g. wodehouse, frank swinnerton and many other names might be added to the list of the novelists who, during the period, produced novels com- petent or more than competent. ill, poetry tt is conceivable that in later retrospect the war years and the years immediately preceding and following the war will be held in literature to be chiefly remarkable for their poetry. there may have been few long poems of great note, but a very large volume of good lyric poetry by a very large number of writers was produced. bridges and hardy.—one of the most extraordinary phenom- ena of the period was the continued fertility of the older poets. when nearly cighty, the poet laureate, robert bridges, produced a new volume of poems, ociober and other poems (1920), a col- lection which showed no waning of his technical powers, experimental curiosity and gift of observation, and (more un- usual still) no slackening of his emotional ardour. perhaps the finest of all our landscape poets, and certainly one of the most careful and cunning artists who has ever worked with english words and english rhythms, he stands out conspicuously also by virtue of his perennial freshness and energy, an energy mani- fested, moreover, in these later years in the compilation of a noble wartime anthology, the spirit of man (1916), and of various papers on prosody and pure english. english literature as dr. bridges at oxford, so mr. thomas hardy at dor- chester continued to command the astonished admiration of his juniors. mr. harcly, turning to verse in his old age after a long, and nobly productive, servitude to the novel, did not attempt to emulate the vast enterprise of the dynasts (1906), a panorama of the napoleonic era, with the fates and the pities and the ironies brooding over it. but he followed up his three earlier volumes of lyric and narrative poems, a series of volumes beginning with satires of circumstance (1914) and culminating in human shows (1925). grim little tragedies, tender memories of the beloved dead and wessex scenes long vanished, hard clear etchings of landscape, sea and shingle, down and puddled lane, bare tree and shivering bird; many of these written in extreme old age, surpassed the best of mr. hardy’s previous work. these poems were marked by a great and seemingly spontaneous gift of metrical invention, a power of emotion which enabled the poet to incorporate the most unmanageable words in the movement of his music and a quick sensitiveness, a capacity for suffering and pure joy, rare in the old. doughty and others—another prolific veteran was c. m. doughty (d.1926), author of travels in arabia deserta (1888), one of the greatest books of the kind in any language, who followed up his dawn in britain (1906), with a series of long poems. the clouds (1912), the cliffs (1909); the titans (1916) and afansoul (1920), epical dramas and dramatic epics in which archaism and topicality, naivete and sublimity are strangely mingled, are interspersed with massive passages in which the imagination ranges over all time; and in which the tongue, albeit with something of the accents of chaucer and spenser, speaks with prophetic force of imagery; and with other passages which to any one but an idolator must seem bathetic. sir william watson published one volume during, and one after, the war in which, whilst not equalling his major achieve- ments, he showed that his talents for pithy yet magniloquent statement and for the careful polishing of verse remained un- impaired. maurice hewlett (d.1923) devoted his last years mainly to poetry. his song of the plow (1916), perhaps the finest of all his works and certainly one of the few memorable long poems of the period, was a racy, vigorous, picturesque summary of english history from the point of view of “ ilodge.”’ his village wife's lament (1918), a very poignant ballad of the effect of the war on the same kind of community, was a pendant to it. laurence binyon, of the other poets of that generation, perhaps wrote the most impressive volume of war poetry, the four years (1919), in which the meditations and agonies and exaltations of the humanitarian and the patriot in face of the great calamity are expressed with power and dignity. noble poetry inspired by the war was also among the last work of herbert trench (d.1923) and alice meynell (d.1922), mrs. meynell’s little book a father of women (1917) displaying rigid restraint, perfection of workmanship and concentrated emotion, which have been characteristics of her work, both in prose and verse, throughout her career. a similar frugality was manifest in a. fe. housman’s last poems (1922), its author’s first collection of poems since a shropshire lad (18096), of a gener- ation before. a few of the new poems surpassed the finest of the old for beauty of imagery and cadence, and the book was received with enthusiasm by the larger public and with reverent admiration by mr. ifousman’s fellow artists. gilbert murray continued to add to his beautiful translations from euripides. one volume, which contained some excellent epigrams and some spirited poems of the war, was all that the period added to the poetical works of rudyard kipling. there remain a large number of poets whose reputations were not fully established in rorr, or who emerged during or after the war. the most notable progress among the former was made by walter de la mare, whose early books were followed by the listeners (1912), peacock pie (1913) and others, including a two-volume collection in 1920. this poet usually inhabits provinces which he has made his own: woods haunted by fairies, midnight gardens and heaths haunted by ghosts, desolate shores haunted by memory. his imagination broods intensely over english literature these, making the least flutter, tap or bird’s cry momentous; or it returns to the happy or unhappy places of childhood, to the aunt’s placid parlour, the cobwebbed shrubbery, the nursery, the populous countries of grimm and andersen. the exquisite melody and felicity of his most typical work would give him a high place among english poets; vet what is called the ‘‘ major ”’ note is not absent from his work, in which one suddenly en- counters some profound allegory of man’s bewilderment in the universal struggle, or some casual flung phrase iike:— when music sounds all that i was i am ere to this haunt of brooding dust i came. the slow, vivid, sunlit stvle of t. sturge moore was again seen at its best in the sea ts kind (1914); g. k. chesterton, with “ lepanto,” the songs in the flying inn (19:4) and a few comic poems intensified his readers’ regret that he should find so little time- for verse; hilaire belloc added a few beautiful lyrics, notably “ tarantella,” to the small body of his serious verse; and w. h. davies almost annually delighted his admirers with a little collection of nature lyrics, of which the best achieved a simple perfection, and the worst had a certain peculiar charm. alfred noyes, with the two first volumes of the torch bearers (1922-5), opened an ambitious epic of human intellectual de- velopment. these two “ covered ” astronomy and geology; both were very readable, no small merit in along poem, and contained fine passages, as well as being permeated by a faith and resolu- tion not common in these years. masefield and brooke.—in 1911 there broke upon the world john masefield’s the everlasting mercy, a sensational story of conversion written in vigorous octosyllabics. it had, as lively narrative work usually has, a great success; and the author followed it up with a series of long poems on rural and marine tragedies. dauber (1913) was probably the best of them, but there were good things in all, especially the genre pictures in the widow in the bye street (1912). of his shorter poems “ biography,” a series of vivid pictures from memory and august ror4,’’ were notable. several of the best poets of their generation died in the war. rupert brooke (d.1915), by virtue of his beauty, radiant person- ality and talents, became, when his rorg and other poems (1915) were published, the general symbol of youth that went into the furnace. his maturer work showed grace, wit, intellectual curi- osity and a growing perception of the chief goods of life; his five famous war sonnets, his manifesto and testament, remain intact in their brightness and nobility, though perpetually quoted and even misapplied. james elroy flecker (d.1915) died of consumption at davos, cut off from home by a ring of battle-grounds. his collected poems (1916) show that he had outgrown early affectation and uncertain- ty, achieved a style, pictorial and euphonious, of his own, and se- cured his grasp upon his deepest loves and most personal dreams. the east, which fascinated and repelled him, inspired many of his best things; it was also the source of his posthumous drama hassan (1922), which was produced at his majesty’s in 1923. this is an imperfectly constructed tale of haroun and baghdad, with elements of farce and romantic comedy inter- woven with dreadful tragedy, against a gorgeously spectacular background of moonlight and minarets, persian hangings, silver fountains, ballets and processions of torturers and troops. wilfred owen, killed in 1918, was unknown in life. his poems (1920) were very interesting for their technical use of assonance; but his technical genius, however remarkable, was less so than the magnitude of his vision and the arclour of his spirit, which produced unforgettable pictures of physical battle and of the torture of man crucified in the trenches. charles h. sorley (d.1915) was another boy who was killed on the verge of great- ness; and julian grenfell (d.1915), professional soldier and fine boxer, went to his death with the finest song of the war on his lips, into battle (1915). edward thomas (d.1917) had had a strange career. before 1914 he was known as a voluminous writer and journalist whose hackwork was scattered with fine descriptions of nature, but whom no one thought of as a poet. under the stimulus of the 1009 american poct, robert frost, he turned, in his last two fertile years, to the making of poetry, nature poetry unique in its kind. ife knew the south of england intimately; he had learned to love any sight a man may see leaning over a gate: trampled mud, a stack of sprouting swedes, a stone roller overgrown by nettles. exact observation and record of landscape could go no farther than this; but his pocms (1920) would not be as fine as they are were it not for their faltering music and the positive, if quiet and melancholy, personality which suffuses them all. poets of the war period.—siegfried sassoon, robert graves and robert nichols all came into notice during the war as writers of powerful and “ realistic’ poems describing it. sur- viving, they all developed interestingly. graves first wrote charming songs of a fanciful nature, then curious poems in which the ballad was (as it were) crossed by psycho-analysis; nichols, in his later work, employed, on themes of nature and love, an eloquence from which most modern writers too fastidiously shrink; sassoon, quietly expcrimenting, searching his own heart and noting the ugly, the pretty and the comic aspects of the human panoramas, actual and historic, prepared himself for what may prove a very interesting and significant future. ralph hodgson (poems, 1917) was always a poct of slender production, but his “ song of honour” (a successful competitor with c. smart’s song fo david, 1895), ‘“ the bull” and “ eve” are among the best-loved poems of the time. edmund blunden, mainly a recorder of rural scenes in the tradition of morland and constable, showed a very individual talent, and john freeman must be singled out for the beauty of his rhythms, his spiritual strength and his landscape;! d. ii. lawrence (especially birds, beasts and flowers, 1923) for his hard graphic power and ap- prehension of the crude forces of nature. amongst others who, in few poems or many, have beautifully registered moments and moods, have dreamed or reflected, are lascelles abercrombie, gordon bottomley, a. ¥y. campbell, john drinkwater, edward davison, frank kendon, harold monro, edward shanks, w. j. turner, dorothy wellesley and victoria sackville-west. the irish poetical movement (sce irrisu literature) begun in the previous generation by “ ae ” (george russell) and w. b. yeats, showed signs of exhaustion. ‘ae ”’ wrote little; mr. yeats in his later poems escaped from “ the celtic twilight ”’, abandoned the celtic myths and discarded the languorous manner of his early triumphs for a hard, bare style in which, used for describing the outer world and the inner, he wrote poems often obscure but always full of thought, which many held to be his finest. thomas macdonagh and joseph plunkett, who died after the easter week rebellion of 1916, had written good lyrics; joseph campbell, seumas o’sullivan anda few others didas much; but the most notable ‘‘ new” poet of the period was james stephens, author of the delightful prose fantasy the crock of gold (1912). it is impossible to close this survey, however, without a reference to certain deliberate “‘ movements” conducted by poets who held a strong conviction that the main poetic tradition had petrified, as that of the 18th century petrified. it is doubt- fully profitable for an artist to write in violent reaction against other artists; to determine to treat of “ new ” subjects because others are too conventional in their themes, or to produce some- thing as unlike “regular” poetry as possible because others grind their organs too mechanically. much of the “ free verse ”’ both in england and elsewhere has been marked by a cold- blooded intellectualism, a bookishness (though of a new kind) and an excessive preoccupation with the technique of expression that are acverse to the production of poetry. great poets do not flaunt banners proclaiming themselves imagists, cubists, vorticists or, for the matter of that, psycho-analysts; the tech- nique of poetry is a means to an end, and propaganda or the conveying of information an incidental matter. where such writers, undoubtedly gifted, as richard aldington, f. s. flint 1blunden and freeman were awarded the hawrhornden prize, founded by miss alice warrender in 1otg for imaginative work by young writers, the other recipients during the period being edward shanks, romer wilson, david garnett and r. h. mottram. toto and their american confreres succeed with thcir “‘ free verse ” there is nothing unorthodox about them: music is music, truth truth, accuracy accuracy, sincerity sincerity and some of /es jeunes waste time throwing bricks at imaginary aunt sallies who maintain that poetry must rhyme, that line patterns must be “regular” and that aeroplanes and complexes are taboo in literature. it is not for us to decide which of our poets, if any, rank with the greatest. if there be a malady which prevents any of them from so ranking it will not be cured by taking thought, still less by incorporating chemical formulae into verse, or by innovations of technique or typography; as thinker, as religious or irreligious man, the poet is partly the child of his age; and whatever he be his strength must partly reside in the response that his age can give him. iv. criticism the publication of works of pure scholarship, and new editions with critical apparatus, was seriously afiected by the expenses of production during the war and post-war periods. nevertheless, a considerable number of important standard editions, especially through the university presses, were published, notably prof. grierson’s donne (oxford, 1912), the first volumes of c. h. her- ford’s and percy simpson’s ben jonson (1925), some volumes of the cambridge shakespeare (a new text embodying the results of the bibliographical researches of a. w. pollard and j. dover wilson (1920) and r. w. chapman’s exhaustive jane austen (1923). the cambridge history of english literature (1907-16) was brought to a conclusion and prof. oliver elton published his massive survey of modern english literature (1912 and 1920). prof. caroline spurgeon’s five hundred years of chaucer criticism and allusion (1925), in three volumes, was an out- standing example of the specialised literary research work which is largely superseding the older kind of academic criticism. gosse and saintsbury—among critical studies of a less ency- clopaedic kind, the most substantial were done by the older men, notably sir edmund gosse and george saintsbury. sir edmund gosse, enjoying an indian summer, produced numerous volumes of collected papers in which he illuminated authors and move- ments, ancient and modern, english and foreign, incorporating anecdote and personal sidelights with incomparable ease and grace, and delighting his readers by the suppleness, wit and pictorial brightness of his clear and idiomatic stvle. most memorable perhaps, were the essays in which, with consummate skill, he etched the appearances, manners and habits of thought of men and women, celebrities and oddities, whom he had known. the most important of his later publications was the life of algernon charles swinburne (1917), a model of brillant por- traiture, compact narrative and sane criticism. mr. george saintsbury, who retired from his edinburgh profes- sorship in 1915, completed his edition of the minor caroline poets (1905-21) added a history of english prose rhythm (1912), a history of the french novel (1917-9) and the pearce of the augustans (1916) to the prodigious pile of his historical works; and made delightful use of his vast erudition and full- stored memory in several miscellanies including two about wine. at oxford sir walter raleigh and at cambridge sir arthur quiller-couch lectured brilliantly and published the best of their lectures. standard lives of keats and byron were pro- duced by sir sidney colvin and ethel colburn mayne; and theoretical treatises of a high order were percy lubbock’s the craft of fiction (1921) and geoffrey scott’s the architecture of humanism (1914). the death of arthur clutton-brock, in 1924, prematurely removed one of the most luminous and sensible of the literary journalists, publishing short criticisms regularly in newspapers and periodicals, who abounded in the period. others who did good critical work were edward garnett, a notable discoverer of talent, john freeman, lascelles aber- crombie, harold nicolson, gerald gould, r. ellis roberts, arthur macdowall, robert lynd, t. sturge moore, j. b. priestley, osbert burdett, lytton strachey, edward shanks, maurice baring, virginia woolf; and, among critics of the drama, a. b. walkley and desmond maccarthy. english literature v. miscellaneous literature the essay flourished in the period, but mainly in a modern form. the old leisurely manner was practised with perfect suc- cess by max beerbohm in seven men (1919), and even now (1920) and other collections. a caricaturist and parodist of genius, beerbohm wrote with an awareness that made him ex- tremely careful to secure the last degree of accuracy and flavour in his language, to arrange the cadence of his sentences, to exhaust his subject as it presented itself to his mind, the mind of a humorous, witty and tender connoisseur of life and particularly of highly civilised urban life. alice meynell also wrote essays on the major scale, profound in thought, exquisite in phrasing, austere in temper yet iridescent in hue, which posterity cannot neglect. the majority of the essayists of the period entirely, or almost entirely, wrote under conditions which precluded a painstaking craftsmanship, free quotation, digression, ampli- tude of illustration and other qualities which are admired in the essays of lamb and hazlitt. the typical modern essayist wrote regularly every week to fill a column in a daily newspaper, or a page in a weekly: the remarkable thing is the merit of much of the writing done under these limitations of time and space by such men as g. kk. chesterton, hilaire belloc, e. v. lucas and robert lynd, and, in his last years, maurice hewlett. vivid and powerful sketches of travel were written by r. b. cunninghame graham and h. m. tomlinson; francis brett- young, in afarching on tanga (1919), wrote a narrative prose poem on the africa he saw during the war. works difficult to group are the earlham (1922) of percy lubbock, a picture of childhood’s memories of a place and people; l. pearsall smith’s trivia (1902-18), brief prose compositions full of wit, candour and pictures, and very melodious. the puppet show of memory (1922) by maurice baring, one of the most versatile writers of his time, was an autobiographical work of great charm and interest, conspicuous among recent memoirs for its good manners. max beerbohm’s .l christmas garland (1912) was a masterly volume of parodies of modern prose writers. among other parodists, sir owen seaman having resigned the art, e. v. knox (evoe) was conspicuous; his work in punch, together with that, both in prose and in verse, of a. p. herbert, was a mainstay of the chief english humorous journal. historical w orks.—uistorical works, deserving the appellation of literature, were few in the period. g. m. trevelyan completed his garibaldian trilogy and philip guedalla wrote an amusing book about napoleon iil., the second empire (1922). john w. fortescue’s history of the british army, concluded in 1920, more than 20 years after its inception, was a massive work written in excellent english. the most interesting work in biography was not to be found in the two or three volume political biographies, notably g. e. buckle’s continuation of w. f. monypenny’s disraeli, excellent though several of these were, as in such works as lytton strachey’s eminent victorians (1918) and queen victoria (1921), works tinged with irony and partial perhaps, but seminal books, because of their brevity, their concentration of the essentials of a great mass of material, the excellence of their portraiture and the impeccability of their epigrammatic and coloured prose. they reminded people that there was some- thing possible in biography between the review-essay and the enormous repository of significant and insignificant facts. dramatic literature—the theatrical literature of the period is surveyed clsewhere (sce drama), but some reference may be permitted here to certain works which were widely read as well as acted. in so11 the “ realistic”? movement in the drama, largely influenced by ibsen, was in full swing. the word did not necessarily imply any approximation to reality, though it was meant to do so. what it really implied was the substitution of a novel set of conventions for a set of which people had grown tired. west-end drawing-rooms were replaced by the homes of suburban clerks; rosy sentimentalism was replaced by cynicism, a prophetic pessimism or a detached irony of presentation; speeches gave way to silences or pregnant ejaculations; ‘ social problems ” broke in upon a theatre which had ignored them. the public was invited to listen, not to the epigrams of mar- english-speaking peoples, relations of quesses, the lofty declamations of forgiving husbands, the sighs of a romeo or the guitar of a juan, but to the muttered resolu- tions of captains of industry, the subdued complaints of op- pressed sempstresses, the exhortations of auctioneers, the speeches of strike leaders and the outbursts of suffragist daugh- ters crashing, blue book in hand, through the conversation of respectability, where they had been stifled by cant, convention, mahogany, plush and tennyson’s works in morocco. the born dramatist could work within this convention as within another, assuming the fashionable trappings, but relying, as he must, for his effect upon the audience, on his ability to excite and amuse them by surprise, to charm them by the pres- entation of ‘ humours,” to exalt them with passion and courage, to “ purge ’’ them rather than depress by the display of failure and pain; and, where a play of this school succeeded, it was not because it was arguing for prison reform, votes for women, better housing or better drains. the restrictions, however, could not endure; humanity craves in the theatre for more splendid language than it ever uses and more splendid scenes than it habitually lives among; and the end of the period saw ample signs of a return to the stage of poetry and eloquence, vivid colour and symbolism, to the universal and the particular as contrasted with the mere mundane and temporal generalisation which obscures individual character without connoting any- thing eternal. shaw and barrie. —chief among living british dramatists, mr. bernard shaw was perennially active, moved with the times and remained obstinately himself. his method in his early plays re- called now sheridan, now ibsen; the wit, the paradox, the irony, the odd “ angle on life” were his own. of his last eleven plays, long and short, the most interesting were the last three: hleartbreak house (1919), back to methuselah (1921) and saint joan (1924). in the first picture of social fecklessness, the in- fluence of tchekhov and the russians was evident; in saint joan notable for the great trial scene of jeanne d’arc and the detach- ment with which both sides of the argument were presented, mr. shaw wrote a chronicle play, as john drinkwater in abraham lincoln (1918), which ran for years at the lyric theatre, hammersmith, had done beforehim. back to methuselah, a cycle taking five nights to play, was all his own; a prodigiously am- bitious play which opens with adam, eve and the serpent in the garden and ends with human beings “as far as thought can reach,” who live beautifully and very long and are born, mature, out of eggs. the earlier and later scenes contained fine, even poetical, passages; the middle was marred by political topicality. sir james barrie in dear brutus (1917), mury rose (1920) and seven short plays continued to charm a large public with his peculiar vein of humour, sentiment and fantasy, and john galsworthy, with the skin game (1920) and loyalties (1922), also did etfective work in his established manner. a greater development was noticeable in the work of w. somerset maugham, whose long series of witty social comedies culminated (1923) in our betters, the most effective, if the bitterest, of them all. hlenry arthur jones and sir arthur pinero, the dominant dramatists of the previous period, did little to modify their reputations; and h. granville-barker, who had shown great promise with the voysey inheritance (1909), was largely pre- occupied, first with production and then with editing shake- speare. arnold bennett’s the great adventure (1913) was a delightful comedy; the comedies of a. a. milne also had dis- tinction. g. k. chesterton’s solitary dramatic work afagic (1913) was agreeably individual in manner. the effort to restore the ‘‘ poetic drama ” to the stage from the ‘closet ” was increasingly noticeable. flecker’s hassan (1922) was written before the war; rupert brooke was making his first dramatic experiments when war broke out. a series of verse plays by gordon bottomley the best, perhaps, being 7/e riding to lithend (1909) and king lear’s wife (1915), though retaining traces of the “‘ reading play ” had considerable dramatic power; herbert trench’s napoleon (1919) was on the verge of greatness; and there was grace and charm in clifford bax’s midsummer madness (1923), a ballad opera to which c. arm- ioti strong gibbs wrote music. other dramatists conspicuous in the period were noel coward, clemence dane, st. john ervine, “tan hay,” john masefield, alfred sutro and israel zangwill. bibliography.—general: harold williams, modern english writers 1890-1974 (1918); mary c. sturgeon, studtes of contempo- rary poets (1920); harold williams, oudelines of modern english literature 1890-1914 (1920); gerald gould, the english novels of foday (1924); orlo williams, contemporary criticism of literature (1924). collections of studies: robert lynd, old and new masters (1919) sir edmund w. gosse, books on the table (1921); robert lynd books and atnthors (1922); a. chevrillon, three studies in english literature (1923); sir e. w. gosse, more books on the table (1923); edward shanks, first essays on literature (1923); j. b. priestley, ag in modern literature (1924); sir e. w. gosse, silhouettes 1925). studies of particular authors: lascelles abercrombie, thomas itardy (1912); f. and e. brett-young, robert bridges (1914); richard curle, joseph conrad (1914); forrest reid, w. b. yeats (1915); j. m. hone, w. b. yeats (1916); e. h. marsh, rupert brooke: a memoir (1918); john freeman, a portrait of george moore in a study of his work (1922); w. h. hamilton, john afasefield (1922); ford madox ford (hueffer), joseph conrad (1924); j. s. collis, bernard shaw (1925); geraldine e. hodgson, the life of james elroy flecker (1925). anthologies: edited by a. m., an anthology of medern verse (1921); j. c. squire, selections from modern poets, 2nd series (1921 and 1924); t. caldwell, a book of medern poetry (i923 oo . c. sa. english-speaking peoples, relations of.—the pres- ervation of good relations between the various sections of the english-speaking peoples and nations, not merely in great bri- tain and the united states, but wherever the english tongue is the medium of social life and intercourse, is a great cause; per- haps the greatest of all causes at the present moment. but the greater the cause, the more necessary it is to take the utmost care in its development and maintenance. as was said by an english-speaking philosopher, “ the greatest truths demand the greatest care and devotion in their handling.” misunderstanding is the chief disintegrating force in human affairs. it is that which poisons and disturbs the body politic. it acts as sepsis does in the body natural. this is particularly the case with the cause of amity among the speakers of the english- speaking tongue. misunderstandings, on both sides of the atlan- tic, spring up like mushrooms, and with them arise distrust, sus- picion, soreness and wounded pride. people with thoroughly good intentions use vague and infelicitous language. their words are misrepresented, and have reactions, evil instead of good. they are suspected of selfish and sly propaganda! yet, all the time, the supposed propaganda was launched in perfect good faith, and without a thought of taking advantage. but, naturally, the repelled well-wisher is deeply hurt to see himself what he calls “ cruelly misunderstood.’ what is wanted is to make absolutely clear the aims of those who would improve the relations between the communities who speak the language of shakespeare, bacon and milton, of washington, lincoln and emerson. the desires of those who in england and america have given themselves up to the cause are so simple and so entirely divested of mere national, and therefore selfish, interests that it is difficult for them to think that they can be misjudged. yet misjudged they are, and will be, unless they use a discretion proportionate to their enthusiasm. they grow too zealously fierce in their good cause. but that is a sure way to create the friction of alarm. tiiree reasons for maintaining goodwill let one, who is a convinced and life-long supporter of anglo- american amity and goodwill, set forth as lucidly as possible (1) what the true friends of good understanding between the english- speaking peoples want, (2) why they want it and (3) how they propose to get it. (1) they want amity for no exclusive, or dominating, pur- pose. they do not want it in order to crush other races and to exalt their own. their do not want to establish anything in the nature of an alliance, entangling or non-entangling, offensive and defensive, or purely defensive, between america and the british empire. all they desire is to obtain so complete and so clear an ioi2 understanding between the republic and the union of free com- monwealths that the evil chance of war and all thoughts of ag- gression or of interference in each other’s domestic concerns, shall be forever banished. in the link of language, and in that intellec- tual liaison which follows from it, they see a deeply moving oppor- tunity for human betterment. that link is far safer, and far less likely to tempt a misuse of power than is the pride of unity of race and blood. such unity involves the evil influences of privi- lege, repulsion and exclusiveness, and aristocratic pretension. the unity of speech has no bad side of this kind, no barbed wire barrier which cannot be climbed. birth and race have been described as ‘ incommunicable things.’”? that cannot be said of language. you can learn a language and attain its powers and in- spirations as completely as if you had been “ born-free ” of its privileges. you cannot make yourself a new englander, a vir- ginian, a pennsylvanian, a scot, an irishman, an englishman, a cockney or a “ native-born ”? member of any of the british do- minions. the inhabitants of great britain and ireland, and the dominions, have in them a score of racial and sectional strains. they are a mixed race. yet they are all speakers of english, save for a few dwindling exceptions. the same fact is even more superlatively apparent in the united states. there came to the making of the american, not 20, but roo different nationalities. they are more recently, but also more completely, mixed than those on the other side of the atlantic. further, the mixture is a different mixture. yet all are either actual or potential speakers of english. english-speaking pennies everywhere should be fully conscious of this awe-inspiring freemasonry. this should also realise the opportunity it affords and seize it. and they can, because both america and britain have obeyed bacon’s wise apothegm and have been “ liberal in nationalisation,” 7.e., have freely ad- mitted men of other nationalities into their community—have been comprchensive, not exclusive, in the matter of citizenship. let it be always remembered that while both countries ask for a recognition of the tie formed by a common language, they are not ignoring, but recognising, the differences of blood and birth, and, instead, noting how they can be fused in one lingual culture. they do not ask only the men of anglo-saxon race and blood to get to- gether, but all the men who themselves, or whose forebears, vol- untarily adopted the english tongue. that is what they want. (2) why is it wanted? it is wanted for the reason that in an understanding between those who speak the english tongue is to be found the instrument that will save the civilisation which has been built up with so much toil and anguish, high hopes and high endeavour, from going the way of egypt and persia, of athens and rome and of a hundred noble races and mighty em- pires. if anyone thinks that this is tall talk, visionary and un- practical, let him consider fora moment how many fissiparous _ influences there are still at work, how many sources of war and conflict. we may quite conceivably abolish war or, at any rate, limit it to local scuffles, if there are enough people in the world determined that the final word shall be, not physical force, but justice. but if these people do not act together, then we may drift into a long series of wars which will sap the vitality of the white races and expose the civilised world, as we know it, to in- cursions from the barbarians of our epoch, which will be quite as devastating as those of alaric, attila and genseric. a new theo- doric may overwhelm rome and burn st. peter’s, or stable his horses in westminster abbey, and leave the louvre a heap of calcined walls. in the last resort, then, all the english-speaking peoples must get together, and hold together, because they can save the rest of the civilised world by their help and goodwill. in franklin’s famous phrase, the civilised races have got to ‘‘ hang together,” or else they will hang separately. but the way to teach them to hang together is for the english-speak- ers to show the path, not by dominance or areogant assertions of racial superiority, but by example. (3) how to arrive at this goal? the answer here must neces- sarily be largely negative. in the first place, it is a question of what not to do. nothing should be done and nothing should be said that will give any possible ground for alarm to those enneking—entomology, econo mig who should co-operate together. just as zealous englishmen have got. to avoid the slightest appearance of wishing to catch and lead americans, so zealous americans must avoid the slightest appearance of wishing, as foolish people would say, “to drag john bull chained at their chariot wheels.”” similarly both must both make it clear to the whole world that they have no design to rule it, or protect it, or to do any of the other things which make men think that they are no longer to be their own masters. they must learn a system of propaganda differ- ent from that which made the french jacobins liable to the taunt that they met other nations with the demand, “‘ be our brothers, or we will slay you!” it is difficult to describe the exact methods by which this cause is to be spread, for admittedly it is a new thing, and to describe new things is the most difficult task in the world. yet it can be done, and must be done. the river in front is not one which any man witha spark of spirit, or good feeling, can dare to say 1s unfordable. it can be crossed and it will be crossed if there is faith. those who desire to improve the relations between the various sections of the english-speaking world must re- member tennyson’s words, though they were applied to so differ- ent a subject, how pure at heart and sound in head, with what divine affections bold, should be the men whose intent it is to make the english -speakers understand each other; not for their own glorification, but in or- der to get a similar and greater understanding throughout the human race. (j. s015) enneking, john joseph (1841-1916), american painter (see 9.647), died at hyde park, mass., nov. 17 1916. entomology, economic.—linterest in the practical impor- tance of insects in relation to agriculture, horticulture and fores- try has increased quite considerably during the past few years, owing to several factors which are readily apparent on analy- - sis. one of these lies in the increasing ease with which insect pests are distributed from one geographical region to another as commerce becomes more rapid and extensive. for reasons which we shall see ina moment, imported insects are almost invariably more destructive than native ones. another depends upon gradual changes in agricultural, horti- cultural and forest practice, which are continuously tending away from diversification and leading to the growing of some single crop. this is true not only of individual landholders, but extends over large areas which are devoted to the production of one of several crops in enormous quantities. outside europe this is particularly true; we need mention only a few cases as cotton, wheat, maize, apples and citrus fruits. such conditions offer exceptionally favourable opportunities for insect pests to develop, on account of a practically unlimited and easily ob- tained food supply which is available without interruption. there seems every reason to believe that agriculture will never return to its primitive system of diversified farming, so that from this standpoint at least the annoyance and destruction caused by insects may be expected to increase rather than abate. the most serious and extensive outbreaks of recently imported pests have occurred in the united states. the pink bollworm (gelechia gossypiella) has become established in texas, the european corn-borer (pyrausta nubdilialis) in several parts of the eastern states and a number of minor pests in various localities. many tropical and subtropical countries have been invaded by a small fly, the mediterranean fruit fly (ceratitis capitate), which feeds within a great variety of tropical fruits, ruining them for human consumption. this insect has attained an almost tropicopolitan distnbutioa and has wrought great havoc in many of the warmer countries of both hemispheres. to prevent its appearance in the united states the importation of fruits from hawaii and the mediter- ranean region has been prohibited. to curb the spread of insect pests many countries have passed laws prohibiting the importa- tion of living plants without rigid inspection at the port of entry, since the commonest way in which insects come is with the plants upon which they feed. by these means it is hoped greatly entomology, economic to lessen the rapidity with which such pests otherwise become disseminated. in spite of the great advances that have been made in the meth- ods of controlling injurious insccts, it is probable that about onc- tenth of the products of agriculture go to feed insects, and are thus an utter loss. in some cases this amount is greatly exceeded, as for example in the case of cotton in india and egypt and particularly in the united states, where there are four insect pests of prime importance, two native and two introduced. one of the latter is so far very much restricted in its distribution. once well established it is well-nigh impossible to eradicate com- pletely any species of insect that feeds upon an extensively culti- vated crop plant, and after a few years any one will spread over vast areas if not stopped by some natural barrier. in one case, however, it appears that an introduced insect, the gipsy moth, a general feeder on deciduous trees, will actually be wiped out in one section of the united states. it is now established beyond all hopes of eradication in new england, but a few years ago a second centre of infestation was discovered in new jersey in- volving several hundred square miles. after several years of heroic and very expensive work, this area has actually been so nearly freed from this species that it now seems probable that it will soon be exterminated. merthrops of control the present methods of controlling insect pests are of two general types. the first depends upon the application of in- secticides. some of these kill by their peisonous action when taken into the stomach with food, and others act by contact or by the effect of poisonous gases, which are applied directly or result from the decomposition of some non-gaseous material. such methods are by no means new, but.considerable advances have been made in their application and many new materials have come into use. heat and fumigation.—the use of heat is a common method of destroying insects in granaries, flour-mills and similar places. insects are readily kuled by exposure for a short time, to a tem- perature of about 140° f., which may be easily obtained even in large warehouses by artificial heating during the warm season. the fumigation of plants and trees by means of hydrocyanic acid gas is extensively practised in greenhouses and in orchards where trees like citrus fruits are grown, which are too delicate for treat- ment with sprays for the destruction of scale insects. hydrocy- anic acid gas was formerly generated where needed by the action of an acid on sodium or potassium cyanide, but it is now marketed in liquid form for fumigation. by this method a number of loaded freight cars may be cleared of insects within a very bricf space of time, and even bales of almost impermeable material like cotton may be successfully treated by subjecting them to a vacuum and then allowing the penetration of the poisonous gas. oil sprays.—the use of oil sprays for the treatment of trees infested with scale insects has become very general. heavy petroleum oils are emulsified by means of various agents such as soap or fish-oil soap treated with cresylic acid, and the resulting emulsions are sprayed in a finely divided state upon the trees, killing the insects by contact. these and other sucking forms cannot be destroyed by poisoning their food, since they obtain this as sap from the interior of plants, and no method is yet devised for rendering sap poisonous without injuring the plant. nicotine-—highly concentrated solutions of nicotine are now available for the destruction of many soft-bodied insects on foliage and even of small insect grubs that mine within the tissues of leaves. these may be poisoned by the application of nicotine solutions to the surface of the leaves. for this purpose the nicotine is applied as a spray in very dilute aqueous solution to which soap is added. very recently nicotine has been combined with oleic acid to form nicotine oleate, a soapy compound that is used in water at high dilution. paradichlorbenzene-—the introduction of a new material, paradichlorbenzene, which is a very powerful contact insecticide, has made it possible to destroy insect larvae that bore in the roots of trees and those which feed in the wood. for insects like the 1013 apple-tree borer (saperda candida) and the peach-tree borer (.legeria exiliosa) this substance is sprinkled on the ground near the lower part of the trunk where the larvae develop. as it is non-poisonous to man under ordinary conditions it is particularly suitable for destroying clothes-moths. lead arsenaic.—in the spraying of foliage for the destruction of leaf-eating insects lead arsenate has come to replace almost entirely the other arsenical poisons such as paris green. this is used in enormous quantities for the protection of agricultural crop plants and orchard trees and even in some places upon wood- land and forest trees. arsenate of lead is also used in dust form to a large extent, commonly diluted with some non-active dust and applied to plants by special blowers or dusting machines. recently the dusting of extensive fields has been accomplished by aeroplanes fitted with large power dusters which operate as the planes pass and emit the poisonous powder, which settles upon the plants like fine volcanic ash. for the poisoning of cer- tain insects, as the japanese beetle (popillia japonica), which will not readily eat plants coated with lead arsenate, a method has been devised of coating the minute insoluble particles of the arsenate with a film of an insoluble soap, such as lead oleate. this is more readily accepted and increases the toxicity of the poison. calcium cyanide is now also applied in dust form as an insecticide. in the presence of water or moisture in the air this substance is decomposed into lime and the powerfully poisonous hydrocyanic acid gas. x-rays; mercury. —it has been found that light of very short wave length is a powerful insecticide, and exposure to x-rays forms a satisfactory method of destroying certain tobacco-beetles, the development of which is prevented in cigars that are treated by exposure to these rays. one of the most surprising discov- eries relates to the vapour of metallic mercury, which appears to destroy some insects at least, such as bean weevils and clothes- moths, when present in infinitesimal amounts at ordinary tem- peratures. a small vial of mercury left uncorked in a container will prevent the development of the insect. muachinery.—there have been no radical] innovations in recent years in the machinery for applying sprays or dust insecticides, but much larger power machines are now in general use. those, for example, used in new england for the spraying of woodlands infested with the gipsy moth or in the western united states to protect apple orchards from the codling moth ordinarily carry a tank holding 500 gal. and a gasolene motor powerful enough to supply simultaneously half a dozen lines of hose each delivering spray at pressure up to 200 lb. per square inch. it has been shown in several cases that insects show an increased immunity towards certain contact insecticides, such as sulphur-lime and oil emul- sions after continued sprayings over a number of years. this is probably due to the more rapid eliminations of the more sus- ceptible parts of the population and has necessitated the adoption of other materials. just how far such changes may affect future entomological practice is not yet to be predicted. parasites and natural control—from a biological standpoint there have been many advances leading both to a better under- standing of the relations of insects one to another and of insect pests to the plants which they infest. one phase of this matter which has received much attention and assumed great practical importance relates to the effect of predatory and parasitic insects upon the abundance of insects destructive to plants. it was early realised that parasitic and predatory insect enemies were very important in regulating and holding in check the multiplication of vegetarian forms. aside from a shortage of food, such enemies are the major factors that maintain the balance of nature and prevent the vegetarian species from becoming unduly abundant. when agricultural crops are planted continuously from year to year, shortage of food does not occur and consequently these enemies assume the major rele. further, when foreign pests are accidentally introduced into new regions they are very generally freed from this restraining influence, as practically all parasites do not select their hosts indiscriminately. thus, the world over, the introduced pest soon becomes excessively abundant. to counteract these conditions the parasites of imported 1014 insects are in turn imported to aid control work, and perhaps the most notable progress made in economic entomology during the past two decades relates to this method of ‘‘ natural control.” among many projects of this kind the most extensive has been undertaken and carried on for the control of the european gipsy moth in the new england states. investigations of this moth and other insects have shown that the natural control of any insect in its native land is due to a number of parasites and predatory insect enemies which feed at the expense of the several develop- mental stages of their hosts. thus there are enemies that <e- stroy the eggs of the gipsy moth, others that attack the larvae and still others that feed upon the pupae. large numbers of a series of such enemies of this moth have been brought over from europe, multiplied in the laboratory and put out or colonised in places where the gipsy moth is abundant. a number of species have become well established and have spread until they now greatly reduce the numbers of their hosts each season. the same method is now being applied to many other pests with very considerable success, and it has the great advantage that, once under way, it continues without further expenditure of time or money, whereas spraying and other similar artificial measures must be repeated continuously. incidentally these experiments have added much to our knowledge of the biology of insects and greatly stimulated research on parasitic insects. insect carriers.—as in the case of insects which act as carriers of certain diseases of man and other animals (see entomology, medical), some species have been shown to act as carriers of plant diseases. some of these are due to fungi and bacteria, and a number, including the mosaic diseases, to filterable organisms (see filter passing microbes). most of the insects concerned are aphids and leaf-hoppers, which feed upon the sap of the plants concerned. legislation.—apart from its scientific aspects economic en- tomology has entered widely into the legislative field. laws have been enacted by nearly all governments, most extensively by the federal and state governments in the united states, relating in various ways to insect pests, and agencies have been created to enforce these laws. many relate to quarantine, and these aim at preventing the introduction of foreign insect pests. ‘they provide for inspection of living plants, bulbs, seeds, etc., food- stufis and the like, and usually convey the power to refuse entry, destroy or properly fumigate infested or suspected objects. in america the importation of certain kinds of plants is now for- bidden except in very special cases of plants which cannot other- wise be secured. these regulations frequently work considerable hardship, but in the long run there seems to be no question that they will greatly delay the spread of destructive insects through- out the world. this is particularly evident from the vast numbers of harmful kinds that are continually intercepted where inspec- tion is practised, and inspection for such small and secretive creatures can never be satisfactory or complete. as the proper enforcement of laws of this kind requires an expert knowledge of insects, a type of police duty has necessarily been imposed upon many official entomologists, making heavy demands upon their time and leading in some cases to the establishment of separate offices or laboratories for such routine work. research.—the establishment of a number of new bureaux and research institutions devoted entirely or in part to economic entomology has been a notable feature of the last few years, as well as the rapid growth and development of others already extant. in great britain the imperial bureau of entomology is a large and efficient organisation correlating entomological work in all parts of the british empire and aiding science throughout the world by the publication of a fine review which summarises each month the current literature of applied entomology. in the united states the burcau of entomology is the largest of its kind in the world. its many workers are occupied in washington and several subsidiary laboratories throughout the country, dealing with economically important insects, their behaviour, habits and practical control, as well as the application of estab- lished measures to eradicate or reduce the numbers of particular- ly serious pests, and to limit the spread of certain introduced entomology, medical species that enjoy so far only a limited distribution. on account of its wide agricultural interests and extensive forests, the domin- ion of canada has added an entomological bureau performing similar services in a less elaborate way. in addition to the various governmental and public agencies throughout the world there are numerous semi-private or en- dowed institutions maintaining laboratories for research in eco- nomic entomology, often in connection with universities. in a number of these there are opportunities for students to secure special training in pure and applied entomology. bribliograppny.—c, t. brues, insects and iiluman welfare (1920); g. w. herrick, afanual of injurious insects (1925); e. d. sanderson and 1. m. peairs, insect pests of farm, garden and orchard (1921); m1. v. slingerland and c. r. crosby, manuat of fruit insects (1914). other compended on general entomology useful to the economic entomologist include j. h. comstock, an introduction to entomology (ithaca, n.y., 1924); a. d. imms, a general textbook of entomology (1925). (c. t. b.) entomology, medical.—although medical entomology includes in its scope a number of venomous and parasitic arthro- poda that inflict miscellaneous minor hurts upon the individual human body, its main concern is with those arthropoda which, either as the necessary intermediary hosts or as the fortuitous mechanical disseminators of other pathogenetic organisms, stand in the main line of causation of serious endemic and epidemic disease and so are a menace to the public health. manson’s discovery.—such insect-borne disease, though from of old a topic of popular belief and even of rational speculation, was first clearly demonstrated by manson, who discovered, in 1879, how the embryos of the worm that causes a common filarial disease of the tropics are extracted from one human host by a female mosquito and then pass through their larval development within that insect’s body before they can find their way into another human host. the value of this discovery, however, was not generally appreciated until 1898, when ross discovered how the parasites of the more formidable disease malaria, after an analogous depenclence on the mosquito for transport and sus- tenance, are furthermore injected into their human host by the insect intermediary, it being, however, ‘‘ manson’s theory, and no other, which actually solved the problem” of the mode of transmission of this disease. in these and similar instances the insect is a go-between, safe- guarding the transfer of a specifically “ human ”’ parasite from one human being to another. but many blood-making insects are normally infected with seemingly innocuous endoparasites of their own, and some maintain that such insects may inoculate their own parasites into the human body where they may not remain innocuous. this is within the bounds of possibility, but the evidence of its actual occurrence is not generally accepted. surmise of the same still unsatisfied kind has been awakened by the recent discovery in the normal intestine of certain insects, particularly bugs and lice, of bodies similar to the minute rickettsia-bodies isolated, in 1916, by rocha lima from ty- phus fever cases and regarded by him as specifically morbifie. recent developments in medical entomology may be sum- marised thus:— diseases specifically attributable to mosquito a gency.—to filaria- sis, malaria and yellow fever, the parasite of which last was in 1918 determined by noguchi as a leptospira, must be added dengue fever, shown to be transmitted in australia (cleland and others) by stegomyia fasciuta and in syria (graham) by culex fatigans. diseases specifically attributable to sandfly agency.—-in entomo- logical company with phlebotomus fever will probably have to be placed oriental sore (sergent brothers: arag4o), and also kala- azar, the natural history of which seems from studies now in progress in calcutta to be definitely associated with phlebotomus argentipes (see kala-azar and sandfly fever). diseases atiributable to gad-fly (tabanidae).—the details of the post-embryonic development of filaria (lea) /oa in the course of its transmission from man to man by chrvsops dimidiata and salacea were described in 1921 by dr. and mrs. connal. (tularaemia, a recently recognised septic fever of american rabbits, may be im- parted from rabbits to man by chrysops discalis, but merely me- chanically, since the infection may also pass to man without any insect intervention.) diseases specifically attributable to tsetse-fly a gency.—besides the notorious glossina palpalis and morsitans several other common enver pasha species of glossina are now known to be intermediary in the spread of the trypanosomes of african sleeping sickness. diseases specifically attributable to flea agency.—hirst, in ceylon, and cragg, in india, have produced good evidence that not all the three species of rat-fleas of the xenopsylia genus are equally formidable in spreading bubonic plague, and that plague does not rage as an epidemic in places where xenopsyila astia is the only flea infesting the local rats. the evidence of the intermediation of the dog-flea in the transmission of infantile kala-azar is still obscure. diseases attributable to bugs (rhynchota).—the parasite of south american trypanosomiasis (chagas’s disease) is now known to be transmissible by several species of reduviid bugs—and also, experi- mentally, by other bloodsucking insects—and is believed to be im- parted to man in the insects’ excrement. an original natural source of infection is said to exist in armadillos and opossums. diseases attributable to lice.—in company with typhus and re- lapsing fever the war disease “ trench-fever ”’ is to be included. in all three instances the virus is inoculated by contamination. the lousy person as he scratches himself rubs the infective juice or excrement of the infected insects into the abrasions of his skin. diseases attributable to ticks.—several species of ornithodorus are now suspected of transmitting the spirillum of relapsing fever, and o. talaje in tropical america has been shown to be as dangerous in this respect as the african o. moubata. the virus of rocky moun- tain spotted fever, conveyed to man by dermatocentor venustus, is declared by wolbach to be a rickettsia. another tick of this genus, d, andersoni, has been found infected with the bacillus of tularaemia. in these tick-borne infections the parent tick, becoming infected, transmits the infection to its offspring. diseases specifically attributable to the agency of harvest mites (trombidiid larvae).—besides japanese river fever, the virus of which is inoculated by the akamushi mite, there seem to be other local and seasonal epidemic fevers that have a similar causation. among them ts the pseudotyphus of sumatra. diseases specifically altiributable to crustacean agency.—small freshwater copepods of the genus cyclops have been known from the time of redcheako to be intermediary hosts of the guinea-worm (dracunculus medinensis); and in 1917 janicki and rosen dis- covered, in cyclops strenuus and the near-related diaptomus gracilis, the long-sought first intermediary hosts of the larval ribbon worm (bothriocephatus latus), recently japanese workers have shown that several species of river crabs play an intermediary part in the post- embryonic development of the lung-fluke. (in a logical system, however, all these passive crustacean infections should be classed with water-borne and food-borne diseases rather than with diseases due to the malign aggressions of insects.) diseases attributable to fortuitous insect agency.—outside the range of the specific insects, ticks and mites that severally play their definite and necessary part as specific intermediary host for a particular morbific parasite of man, there has still to be considered the odious assistance jent by ubiquitous domestic insects—house- flies, cockroaches, cellar-beetles, ants, fish-insects and by the ubiquitous fauna—moth and beetle-larvae, booklice, food-mites— of granaries, provision stores, warehouses, etc., in the indiscriminate and mainly mechanical dissemination of morbific material of various kinds. housetlies are the most assuredly dangerous of these dis- turbers of the public health. sambon seems to regard the cockroach as equally, but more painfully, dangerous. impressed mainly by the experiments of fibiger, who found that in rats infected with a filarial worm of the genus gengylonema, through feeding on infected cockroaches, cancerous growths started from the lesions caused in the rat by the worm, sambon concludes that cockroaches, especially where they swarm in particular houses, are one of the main links in the causation of cancer in human beings. evidence that cock- roaches infect human beings with gongylonema, or anything attrib- utable to gongylonema, is, however, still lacking. dangerous to the public health as all the insects here very briefly reviewed are, it is beginning to be realised that the danger is conditional. in an environment unmodified by sanitation, such as prevails in extensive areas in the tropics, where the villages and even the suburbs of the towns are still under the domination of the jungle, these insects are a constant danger, and, at the pres- ent time, must be attacked with energy, and with resource based upon a finished study of their life-history, seasons and habits. but in countries having settled standards of personal and domestic hygiene and an efficient sanitary administration these insects find no comfort in the reformed human environ- ment and have ceased to be a standing menace to the public health, as is exemplified by the history of plague, typhus and malaria in england since the establishment of a sanitary regime. see a. alcock, entomology for medical officers (1920). (a. w. a.) enver pasha (1881- ), leader of the young turks, was born at apana, on the black sea coast, where his father ioi5 was a bridge keeper and his mother followed the despised profession of laying out the dead. his father was turkish, his mother albanian and he had a circassian grandmother. he entered the turkish army as a subaltern without money or iniluence but gained admission to the staff college at constan- tinople, and thence went to salonika, the headquarters of the young turk movement. he fought with bulgarian and greek guerrilla bands, coming meanwhile in contact with the repre- sentatives of the new ideas, and finding in talaat, the minor telegraph official, a politician after his own heart. in 1908 as aide-de-camp of gen. hussein hilmi, he, with niazi bey, imported the flag of revolution into the macedonian mountains, originally with the object of restoring the constitution of 1876, which had been disregarded by ‘abdul hamid, but also to save himself from a threatened arrest. ‘abdul hamid professed to yield and enver entered constantinople as a feted hero. but he realised that his time was not yet come. he went to berlin as major and military attache, and there, from 1909 to 1911, he pur- sued his military studies and enjoyed a social career as a ladies’ favourite. his stay was only once interrupted, when, in 1909, he hastened to salonika, and with mahmud shevket undertook a brief and victorious campaign against the reactionaries, who hoped to regain unfettered power under ‘abdul hamid. after taking the capital and deposing ‘abdul hamid, enver returned to berlin. having learned to speak good german, he took command at benghazi in the italo-turkish war. he also wrote a book called yripoli, dealing with this period.! the peace of lausanne brought his work in africa to an end, and he returned to constantinople to find turkey in the midst of the war with the balkan states. during the dec. armistice, enver, then a lieutenant-colonel, was made chief-of-staff of the x. army corps, of which he soon was virtually in command. his attempt at a landing at sharkei (in the east of the gallipoli peninsula), on feb. 8 1913, miscarried, as indeed did all enver’s military enterprises. during the peace negotiations, when kiamil, as grand vizier, took the wise course of deferring to the wishes of the british, enver with his friends arrived in front of the sublime porte, shot the war minister, nazim pasha, turned out kiamil, forced himself upon the sultan, and in collusion with the young turk committee filled all the offices with young turks. the new vizier, mahmud shevket, was assassinated in june 1913, and this further enraged the committee against the old turks and the union liberale. the body of the state was purged of all elements which would not blindly carry out the policy of the committee. more than 1,200 officers, among them 153 generals and colonels, were dismissed by enver in one day. enver put himself at the head of the troops, and in july to13 made a triumphal entry into adrianople, which had already been evacuated by the bulgarians. on jan. 3 1914 he promoted himself major-general and minister of war. when the world war broke out, enver began to cherish strategical ambitions. in the winter of 1914~5 he led an entire turkish army in the disastrous offensive in the snow-covered mountains on the russo-turkish border. with liman von sanders, the chief of the german military mission, his relations were strained, and the situation was not improved by certain germans who flattered enver and intrigued against liman von sanders. he became a megalomaniac to whom no one dared offer a word of advice. he had no share in the dardanelles defense, but took all the credit for it. in internal politics he became, by degrees, the absolute ruler of the country. when the turkish collapse came, he fled by way of odessa to germany. in ro1rg he was condemned to death at constantinople in contumactam. in the same year, after a brief exile among friends in germany, he fled to russia. there at first he helped denikin to maintain the independence of the caucasus, but when the latter made a political approach towards the entente, enver left him, stayed for a short time in azerbaijan, and was mixed up in adventures in asia minor. he was reported in 1920-1 to have been emploved at moscow as director of the asiatic 1 a german version was issued in 1918. 1016 department in the soviet govt., and to have posed at the baku congress of oricntal peoples as the leader of a great socialist movement in the middle east and north africa. the last heard of him was that he had turned against the soviet govt. and was leading an insurrection against them in the mountains of russian turkistan—a revival of the ‘6 pan- turanian ’* ambitions which he cherished during the war. in this insurrection (which was unsuccessful) he appears to have met his death, though the circumstances of it are obscure. eotvos, roland, baron (1848-1919), hungarian physicist, son of baron josef edtves, was born in budapest july 27 1848. in 1872 he was appointed professor of physics in the university of budapest. in the following year he was elected member, and in 1889 president, of the hungarian academy of sciences. from 1894-5 he was minister of public instruction. his first scientific studies were connected with capillarity; in 1885 he published the result of these investigations, which is known as lex ldetvdes. from 1890 onwards he examined the phenomena connected with the problems of gravitation and of terrestral] magnetism. he constructed a number of magnetic instruments and also an ex- tremely delicate instrument with which the variations of gravity in space can be quickly and exactly determined both in the laboratory and in the open. in 1898 he completed his first single- armed variometer; later he constructed the double-armed tor- sion-balance. this so-called eetves-balance became an essential instrument for the location of subterranean materials. to commemorate his researches, physicists express the result of the measurements with the torsion-balance in eetves units (see 12.388). in a treatise which won him the benecke prize from gottingen university in 1909, letvgs demonstrated with great exactitude that the attraction of bodies is independ- ent of the quality of the substance. towards the end of his life he studied the variations of the gravitation of bodies moving on the earth. he «demonstrated by experiments that if a body moves towards the east it loses in weight. he died in budapest april 8 1919. : epidemiolog y.—in recent years more study has been given to that branch of the science of medicine which, under the name of epidemiology, displays the general factors which operate upon populations or aggregates, and lead to the outbreak of a sickness affecting several persons within a short interval of time. the unit of the epidemiologist is a population, while the unit of a physician is an indiviclual. | the spread of epidemics.—modern epidemiology is based on the collections of statistics which began half way through the | 19th century, and on the associated information which was ob- tained as to the causation and course of epidemics by careful local inquiry into all the conditions. even before this some countries, such as sweden, published the figures of the deaths from numcrous infectious diseases for series of years; but, though very interesting, these figures reflect more or less special condi- tions. since about 1840, especially in europe, india and america, carefully collected information exists respecting many epidemics and epidemiological conditions. sufficient evidence is now avail- able to examine any theory which may be offered to account for the facts. advance has been made on a number of lines: on the modes of spread of infection; on the theory of the course, recur- rence and size of epidemics; on the relation of epidemics to climatic conditions and the cause of these relations; on the knowledge of the life history of the organisms which cause epi- demics; on the conditions of living which favour the spread of infectious disease. actiology.—with the discovery of the organisms {see bac- teriology; fitter passtng micropes; parasitology) which cause disease, and with careful observation in the field as to the manner in which disease spreads from person to person, many new points of view have emerged. it is no longer sufficient to talk vaguely of fomites. most diseases have their special forms of spreading which account for practically all the cases. thus measles (sce infectious fevers) and smallpox (g.v.) are ex- ceedingly infectious from person to person. enteric fever is nearly always carried by contaminated water or contaminated eotvos—epidemiology food. cholera (q.v.) is spread by water and flies. other diseases have been found to be practically non-infectious from person to person unless by means of an intermediate parasite. thus typhus (see infectious fevers) and trench fever are carricd by lice, while yellow fever (g.z.) and malaria (q.v.) require the interven- tion of the mosquito. the mode of spread of some diseases, how- ever, is still obscure. among these scarlet fever must be placed. while direct infection undoubtedly takes place, a satisfactory elucidation of the problems of its dissemination has not yet been arrived at. infectivity and wirulence.—disease-producing organisms pos- sess two qualities: one, the power of causing the disease; and the second the power of producing a severe attack of disease. the first may be termed infectivity and the second virulence. these qualities must not be confused. in point of fact, they are not constantly associated. in certain diseases the height of the ept- demic seems to be associated with severe disease, in others with that of milder type. the former at least holds for a certain num- ber of large epidemics of measles of which the statistics have been investigated. the latter is the case both in glasgow and london in regard to the autumnal prevalence of scarlet fever. iucidence.—that an epidemic might possess a definite form capable of calculation seems to have been advanced first by farr. in 1840 he graduated the decline of the great smallpox epidemic in england to the normal curve of error, and obtained a very close representation of the facts. he promised further discussion, but seems to have given none till 1867. in this year he returned to the subject in connection with the cattle plague, wnting a letter to the daily news, in which it was stated that though in the popu- lar conception plague was advancing with such rapidity that all the cattle of the country might be destroyed, in reality the force of the epidemic was spent, and that if the form of the epidemic curve up to that point were taken as a basis of calculation the future course could be foretold. the prediction proved to be very near the truth. the theory of the course of the epidemic, however, as a guide to the solution of the problem has unfortunately not proved so fertile as might have been hoped. some tacts are quite definite. the curve of the epidemic is often found to be symmetrical, the fall correspond- ing closely to the rise, though in some diseases the ascent is more rapid than the descent, and in some the reverse. the equation of the curve which describes the majority of epidemics, as found hy trial apart from theory, is where y is the number of cases at time e, being measured from the centre of the epidemic. curves closely resembling that given by the above equation arise on a number of hypotheses, of which two are discussed. first, the organism may be assumed to possess at the beginning of the disease a high degree of infectivity, which decreases as the epidemic goes on. if the loss of infectivity is according to geo- metric law, the normal curve of error already used by farr is the result. it is sufficient to state that on various probable hypoth- eses regarding exposure to infection, etc., the normal curve may be so modified as to take the form found by observation. secondly; a similar type of curve arises 1f we consider an epidemic dies out from lack of susceptible persons. it is not possible to distinguish statistically these hypotheses from the consideration of the epi- demic form alone. in one case, however, the second hypothesis can be tested. if the form of the epidemic be calculated by as- suming different degrees of infectivity on the part of the organism, an infectivity which remains constant during the epidemic, it ts found that this curve becomes flatter and flatter the smaller the degree of infectivity. ; now with regard to plague in india, among brown and black rats living more or less in the same circumstances, it is observed that many more brown rats are infected than black. in such cir- cumstances the form of the epizoedtic should be different in the two species if the decline is due to lack of susceptible individuals. asa matter of fact it is nearly identical: a fact which tells strong- ly in favour of the hypothesis that the epidemic ends because of epidemiology loss of infectivity on the part of the organisms. this example would be crucial but for the fact that the flea on which the spread of the epizodtic depends has a law of seasonal prevalence of its own to which both the epizogdtics must conform. in many cases, however, the only feasible explanation of the course of an epidemic is that the organism loses the power of in- fecting as the epidemic proceeds. it is difficult to believe, for instance, with regard to the great epidemic of smallpox in lon- don in 1901-2, that there were only 8,000 people susceptible out of a population of 6,000,000. as the course of this epidemic was typical, rising and falling in the manner found to be character- istic, it cannot be argued that the decline was due to the action of the health authorities; all they can have done was to limit the extent of the epidemic, leaving its course unchanged. periodicity—the next point requiring consideration is the periodicity in the epidemics of infectious diseases. taking measles as an example, the common explanation is that each epidemic ends from the exhaustion of the number of susceptible persons, and that it is only when a new population of susceptible children has accumulated that a further outbreak occurs. this explanation fails to account for many of the facts. even after the very large epidemic of measles in glasgow in 1906, it was found that nearly half of the children admitted to the fever hospitals immediately thereafter suffering from other diseases had not suffered from measles, so that there must have been, with the high infectivity of the epidemic, plenty of susceptible material. the disease subject to the most extensive inquiry hitherto has been measles. using the method of the periodo- gram, the statistics of london and all the chief towns of the british isles have been analysed. it is found that in almost no case is there only one period to be discovered. in london there are several, the chief of which is 97 wecks. periodicity in other diseases is well known. thus in the city of liverpool the epidemics of scarlet fever occurred at regular intervals of four years from 1850-78. on one occasion alone was there an exception, when the interval between two epidemics was three years in place of four. a similar periodicity of five years has been observed in glasgow. there is one specially interesting example, namely, the occurrence of plague in bom- bay. in many places, such as hong kong, the period between each epidemic is rigidly a year. in such a case the influence of the season of the year seems a sufficient explanation. but the case of bombay is different. the first epidemic in 1897 had its maxi- mum about the 4oth day of the year. from this point until the last year for which statistics are available (1918) the date of the maximum of the epidemic has steadily advanced into the year, advancing about 80 days in 20 years, or an average of four days a year. the conclusion must be arrived at that while some periodicities of disease are strictly seasonal others are not so, and require some further explanation. a further important application of mathematics to epidemi- ology has been made by sir ronald ross in his studies on ma- laria (g.v.). here the factors influencing the spread of the dis- ease are numerous. rainfall and temperature, the number of persons carrying the organism in their blood, the number of mosquitoes and the proximity of the breeding-places of the mos- quito to the abodes of men, are all capable of quantitative meas- urement, and of furnishing guidance in the adoption of suitable administrative measures. climate and weather.—the relationship of epidemics to climate has received much attention in recent years, though in many cases the cause of seasonal prevalence is elusive. thus, why scarlet fever should be so regularly an autumnal disease is not at all clear. on many cases, however, much light has been thrown. the discovery, for instance, that malaria was carried by the mosquito elucidates the seasonal distribution of that disease. a temperature of a certain height associated with pools of water is necessary for the rapid development of the mosquito, and also a certain degree of temperature for the development of the para- site in the mosquito. in the same way the zone to which sleeping sickness is limited is a narrow region in which the climate and environment are suitable to the life history of one particular 1017 tsetse fly. much light has been thrown on the epidemiology of plague by the discovery that it was carried to man from the rat. by means of the flea. humidity is necessary for the growth of the flea, and consequently epidemics of plague can hardly occur at seasons of the year when it is warm and dry. thus the epi- demics of plague in bombay, which have advanced progressively later and later into the year, now occur when the flea is no longer at its greatest prevalence. with this change the number of cases and deaths has greatly diminished. | effect of organisms.—as to the relation of epidemics to the organism which causes them, why an organism should be capable at one time of causing a great epidemic and at another only a few sporadic cases of a disease has not yet been found out. that organisms do vary in the power of infecting in this manner is a truism to anyone who has administered in the health depart- ments of alarge city. at one time the merest contact with a case of smallpox, for instance, will give rise to a large number of cases. at another time a patient suffering from smallpox may even attend a theatre without giving rise to a case of infection. _ a considerable amount of evidence has been accumulated that an organism having found a suitable host or succession of hosts may have its virulence unusually exalted, and if the virulence can be exalted in this manner, it is probable that some similar conditions may give rise to a great increase in the power of infection. environment.—while an epidemic may in many cases be chiefly or even wholly due to the active condition of the causal organism, it is to be remembered that the vitality and environ- ment of the persons affected must also play a part. thus, for instance, typhus fever introduced into a crowded slum in which lice are plentiful will almost certainly cause considerable havoc, but even here the havoc will be determined to a certain extent by the season of the year. if the weather be cold the people are crowded together on account of the demand for warmth, and the chance of infection is increased. in addition, in the winter, food is often scarce, and consequently vitality is low. if, on the other hand, the invasion of the organism takes place during the sum- mer, a large epidemic will be unlikely. but though these factors act, yet if an organism has an exalted state of activity an epidem- ic of the disease may occur at any season of the year, even the most unlikely. plague, for instance, especially in temperate climates, is essentially a disease of the warmer part of the year, yct it has been known occasionally to occur in large epidemics in the middle of winter, while epidemics of typhus of considerable size have been recorded in the summer time. the great epidemic of influenza (q.v.) in the autumn of 10918 is a striking example, such a season being a very unusual one for an outbreak of this disease. what rdele special susceptibility on the part of the population, due to change in vitality, had in this caseis not known. some other influences also act. there is some evidence that fatigue predisposes to enteric fever, an army on the march drink- ing polluted water tending to have a larger number stricken than a similarly conditioned civil population. further, it cannot be doubted that the accumulated effect of seasons may tend to de- press health and increase susceptibility to certain diseases. the cumulative effect of winter cold may be perhaps traced in chil- dren in relation to death from whooping-cough, the average minimum temperature in the winter preceding the maximum number of deaths from whooping-cough by about six weeks, while the form of the two curves is very much the same. the deaths from whooping-cough are due very largely to broncho-pneu- monia, yet the seasonal distribution of whooping-cough is not identical with that of the latter disease. thus scarlet fever, being an autumnal disease and following the hot summer, might in the same way be ascribed to depression produced by continued hot weather, making certain persons more susceptible to the disease. but as scarlet fever is a disease almost absent in warm climates this explanation can hardly be complete, and some other factor must be necessary. none of these questions, however, have at present been sufficiently investigated to allow any dogmatism. carricrs.—another point of importance requires special refer- ence, and that is the problem of “ carriers,” as individuals in- 1018 fected with a disease and cured as regards themselves, but who yet continue to harbour and distribute the parasite, are called. cholera follows the pilgrims’ way, enteric fever the carrier cook, diphtheria the carrier school-teacher. experimental verification.— recently, investigators in several countries—topley and his collaborators in england; webster and others at the rockefeller institute, new york; neufeld, lange and others of the robert koch institute in berlin—have applied the experimental method to the study of epidemiological problems. the plan has been to study the course of an epidemic disease introduced into a herd of mice, its evolution under con- ditions better defined and more simple than obtain in nature. greenwood and topley, for instance, have watched the progress of a fatal infectious disease of mice due to an organism of the pasteurella group in a population of mice replenished wholly by the addition of normal animals over a period of more than three and a quarter years—that is, through a period much longer than the length of an average generation of mice. they have shown that in these circumstances the prevalence of the disease ex- hibits wave-like movements, and that the intervals between successive exacerbations can be diminished merely by increasing the rate of immigration of normal animals. it has been demon- strated that in infections of this type the regular immigration of healthy animals is sufficient to maintain the disease indefinitely. in spite of the obvious objection that experimental work can only be used to explain the phenomena of naturally occurring epidemics in men with the help of analogical reasoning, there is little doubt this is a promising field of inquiry. prophytaxis.—in field epidemiology much work has been done in developing a method of prophylaxis against diphtheria, ren- dered possible by the discovery that certain persons exhibit a peculiar skin reaction (the so-called schick reaction) after the injection within the skin of a small quantity of the to:‘r pro- duced by the bacillus of diphtheria (see infecrious fevers). it is thought that such persons are especially liable to develop the disease when exposed to infection, and that an outbreak may be controlled or prevented by the immunisation of those who re- spond to this test. this immunisation is obtained by the injec- tion of small doses of a mixture of toxin and anti-toxin. the method has now been employed on a large scale, particularly in america, and a majority of experts consider the results very satis- factory. it is, however, too early to express a decided opinion, since the statistical evidence which has been tendered has not always been free from ambiguity. bibliography.—an excellent general account of the progress of knowledge is contained in haecser’s lehrbuch der geschichte der medizin und der epidemischen krankheiien, 3 vol., 3rd ed. (1882); english epidemiological history is fully related in dr. charles creighton’s listory of epidemics in britain, 2 vol. (1894). a paper by m. greenwood on the '‘ epidemiology of plague in india,”’ journal of hygiene, vol. 10, p. 349 (1910), gives examples of modern epidemiological methods; while his report ‘‘ on the rise, spread, etc., of epidemic diseases,” internat. congress of afedicine, sec. 18, p. 49 (london, 1913), gives a full study with literature. two apers by john brownlee discussing ‘‘ theory of epidemiology in elation to plague,’' proc. roy. soc. med., vol. 11, p. 86 (1918), and the '* periodicities of epidemics of measles,” proc. roy. sec. afed., vol. 12, p. 77 (1919), a an account of the statistical and mathe- matical methods which may be used. sir r. ross's prevention of malaria (1910) and sir r. w. boyce’s yellow fever and its preven- tion (1911) discuss theory and practice in all their forms. for a summary of recent work on expcrimental epidemiology, see m. greenwood and w. w. c. topley’s paper, journal of iygiene, vol. 24, p. 45 (1925). acomplecte account of recent work on diphtheria is given in diphtheria, its bacteriology, pathology and inimunology, issued by the medical research council (1923). (j. bro.; m. g.*) epilepsy (see 9.691), a disoraer whose essential symptom is a recurring, abrupt loss or alteration of consciousness, includes many types of seizures, e.g., convulsions, emotional explosions, irritable periods, vertigoes and psychic clouding. there are normal gradations of consciousness, as sleep, degrees of atten- tiveness or mental concentration, etc. convulsions, because of their alarming appearance, early impressed mankind. this con- tinued, preventing recognition of mental traits and important epilepsy minor phenomena of the epilepsies. symptomatic convulsions occur in other disorders, ¢.g., uremia, diabetes, eclampsia, psycho- sis, and in infancy and childhood, especially at the onset of acute infections. facts pertaining to heredity are not established scientifically to formulate laws regarding transmission of epilepsies. direct similar heredity in epilepsy is uncommon. hereditary syphilis is infrequent, although it cannot be determined how much damage may be done to germ plasm by parental syphilis (see venereal diseases). infections and malnutrition during foetal life, infancy and childhood may damage vital systems and cause subsequent epilepsy. the relative value of assigned predispos- ing and exciting causes varies. the majority of epilepsies seem due to multiple factors. injurious influences affecting the brain during early life may permit later of otherwise harmless in- fluences exciting seizures. without such predisposition, normal functioning of essential organs would withstand the influence which produces epilepsy. paralytics surviving from birth in- jury usually become epileptic. finer changes in the nervous system from birth injury often cause subsequent mental defect, epilepsy or both. in many epileptics the heart and large blood- vessels are abnormally small. there may be other organ in- feriorities. seemingly inhibition, not stimulation, of the cerebral cortex, resulting in loss of control over lower brain centres (decerebration) produces impairment or loss of consciousness with convulsive manifestations. in epilepsies there is faulty energy distribution. regressive changes may result in lack of inhibitory control of the brain. the gravity of a skull injury bears no relationship to develop- ment of traumaticepilepsy which sometimesfollowscomparatively slight head injuries. only a small proportion of head injuries in children or adults result in epilepsy. in epileptics having fre- quent seizures, the brain at autopsy may appear quite normal, finer changes being found upon microscopic examination. in cases with marked abnormalities there may have been few scizures. such brain changes are considered in some to have been predisposing, in others resultant or merely concomitant. the immediate cause of epileptic phenomena is cerebral vas- cular disturbance with resulting nutritive upset and transitory ocdema of parts of the brain. such vasomotor disturbance in the brain cannot ordinarily be demonstrated in life nor found post mortem. it may be caused by insufficient or excessive activity of endocrines, protein sensitisation, passage from the intestines into the circulation of toxins which eventually reach the brain, toxic substances produced locally in the brain as a result of vascular disturbance in encephalitis, brain tumour, arteriosclerosis, brain scars with adhesions, etc. faulty metab- olism of foods may result in substances toxic to brain cells and cause seizures, although simple retention of ordinary waste products may not so act. some investigators claim an acidosis, others an alkalosis, precipitates seizures. attacks may be in- duced by excess or undue diminution of blood sugar, sudden lowering or increase of blood pressure, great loss of blood, in- creased intracranial pressure, etc. some maintain a severe con- vulsion automatically adjusts faulty metabolism resulting in an interval of relatively normal health. habit may act in causing recurrence of seizurcs. the importance of eyestrain, teething, worms, scars on extremities, abnormalities of sex organs, etc., as reflex causes, has been exaggerated. apparently menstruation, pregnancy and menopause provoke some scizures. up to 20 years of age the two sexes are equally affected, subsequently males exceed because of habits, occupation, etc. some describe the epileptic as one with inherited defect which causes various types of stress, ultimately psychic in character, producing reactions of unconsciousness, recurring periodically, which permits riddance of a particular, adaptive demand through regression to the unconscious, a state of peace and harmony, comparable to existence before reality had become part of the mental demand. mentality of epileptics may range from normal to marked cdefectiveness. deprivation, retardation and deterioration are factors acting in many. a number are highly intelligent, the majority living normally in their community, epistemology—equatorial africa, french never reaching institutions. in some, outstanding symptoms are ego-centricity, supersensitiveness, emotional poverty, self- satisfaction, superficial religious manifestations and abnormal fluctuation of attention. attacks may be classified as follows: motor seizures, with or without apparent loss of consciousness; sensory seizures; psychic disturbances, acute or chronic. all symptoms considered part of the disorder are modifications of one or all of these reactions. automatism, a part of certain seizures, is frequently unrecog- nised, the individual unconsciously committing certain acts. medico-legally such periods as well as psychic phenomena of epilepsy are of importance. many present “ epileptic opti- mism,”’ i.e., failure to appreciate the necessity for avoiding dan- gerous situations or assuming undue responsibilities. an epileptic may appreciate the onset of a seizure, but not recall it by lack of memory fixation. numerous factors seemingly favour occurrence of seizure, e.g., circulatory changes accom- panying onset and cessation of sleep, puberty, dietary indiscre- tions, emotional reactions, atmospheric humidity, etc. minor attacks are often overlooked, as the person may not fall; simply pauses for an instant, looks strange, then resumes conscious life. he may fall and immediately arise, such seizure being mistaken for syncope, but distinguished by suddenness of onset and recovery. ramsay hunt suggests such attacks are due to sudden momentary loss of postural muscular control, associ- ated with transient unconsciousness. recurring mild attacks in children may be a forerunner of epilepsy or cease without mental impairment. cerebral apoplexy seldom occurs in severe convulsions, al- though minute haemorrhages without doubt do, causing recur- rence of symptoms. study of the seizure itself does not with certainty differentiate those due to organic disease from those due to psychic cause. research has thus far failed to prove per- versions of function of organs peculiar to the epilepsies. no drug is specific because essential epilepsy is not a disease, but a symptom complex resulting from unknown underlying condi- tions. the basis of treatment is to find and remove, at least minimise, factors that adversely influence the central nervous system. the epileptic should be placed under proper guidance early, not necessarily public surveillance, but a physician or person competent to advise. in effecting readjustment of life, it is necessary carefully to analyse symptoms and individualise treat- ment possible to carry out. the mode of living cannot be entirely changed, let alone environment; nevertheless, many circum- stances or habits which act injuriously may be diminished. the patient must be considered as a whole and not solely as presenting types of seizures. reasonable restriction of diet, allowing for maintenance of normal nutrition, with exclusion of articles diffi- cult to digest will accomplish as much as extreme methods of prolonged starvation. some are bencfited with increase of fats, some by other food groups, depending on chemical examtina- tions of blood, urine, etc. due care must be given to the elimina- tion of waste products. the pathology being unknown, surgery has no specific place in the treatment. it is indicated in certain symptomatic epilepsies, e.g., brain tumour and to relieve con- ditions lowering general health. the longer the freedom from seizures, and the better the adjustment to ordinary environments, the better the prognosis. carelessness in mode of life may result in recurrence of seizures. remissions over more or less prolonged periods, irrespective of treatment, are not uncommon. spontaneous arrest seemingly occurs in some. expectation of life in epileptics is some 20 years less than in others. to effect material improvement there must be only disturbed function, not destruction, of portions of the central nervous system and related organs. psychic-mal-adjust- ments, lack of adaptation of organs and the individual as a whole, i.e., constitutional instability, the environment created by neurotic relatives or associates, or the ordinary environment to whose stresses the abnormal person cannot react properly are factors influencing epilepsy. an epileptic ordinarily presents the reactions common to mankind, a fact to be remembered in ioiq prescribing for him. salts of bromine have been used with more or less success for 70 years. sodium or strontium salts produce least irritation in the gastro-intestinal tract. if bromides are used, particular care must be given to elimination and avoidance of deleterious influence on the mentality. favourable results have followed the use of luminal (phenyl-barbital) in diminishing frequency of seizures, especially of the severer type, or holding them completely in abeyance. alleged “ cure-alls”” often do much harm. marriage of epileptics should be discouraged be- cause of possibility of transmission of the condition to offspring, incompatibility of temperament and difficulty of assuming responsibility. educational work among younger epileptics is beneficial, e.g., discipline should be inculcated, interests aroused and self-control developed. too solicitous care forces invalidism upon epileptic children. responsibility begets confidence. the epileptic should be allowed to participate in activities of his circle, permitting energy outlets. the feeling that he is a per- son set apart from relatives and associates has a bad influence on mental functioning and metabolism. occupation inducing normal healthy fatigue is most beneficial. (w. t. s.) epistemology: sce knowledge, theory of. epstein, jacob (1880- ), sculptor, was born in new york nov. 10 1880, the son of russian-polish parents. he received his early training at the school of the art students’ league of new york, and in 1902 he worked for a time at the ecole des beaux arts in paris. he went to london in 1905, and three years later obtained the commission to decorate the front of the british medical association building in the strand, for which he made 18 large figures. in 1909 he carved the large sphinx for the oscar wilde memorial, placed in the pere lachaise cemetery in paris in 1912. his next works—the marble group “ two doves ” (1913), the marble venus (1914) and his inter- esting carvings in flenite belong to his period of experiment in “abstract ’ sculpture. the life-sized bronze figure of christ, on which he was working between 1917—9, roused a storm of opposi- tion, which has signalised the appearance of each of the sculptor’s most important works. ilis series of bronze portraits, in which he may be said to have obtained his greatest success, began in 1907 with the portrait of mrs. mcevoy. this was followed by the portrait of lord fisher in the imperial war museum (1915), mask of mrs. jacob ep- stein (1916), the half-length ‘‘ meum with a fan ” and the duch- ess of marlborough (1917), bust of mrs. jacob epstein (1918), helene (1919), the “ girl from senegal ” and ‘‘ kathleen ” and “ jacob kramer ” in the national gallery of british art (1921), the “ weeping woman ” and “ dolores ” (1922), ferosa ras- tourmji, r. b. cunninghame graham and “ old pinager ” (1923), joseph conrad (1924), ‘‘ sunita”? and sybil thorndike (1925). his hudson memorial in hyde park—a panel carved with a figure of rima—was unveiled in 1925. exhibitions of the sculp- tor’s works have been held at the leicester galleries, london, tn 1917, 1920 and 1924. (sce sculpture.) see also bernard van dieren, epstein (1920) and the volume ees to the sculptor in the contemporary british artists series 1925). equatorial africa, french (2’ afrique equatoriale fran- caise or a.f2.f.), formerly french congo (see 11.99). its area is approximately 982,000 sq. m. and the population was reckoned at 4,300,000 in 1911 and at under 3,000,000 in 1921. the inhabit- ants suffered greatly, especially in the middle congo colony, from sleeping sickness, dysentery and other diseases. europeans numbered 2,932 in 1921. by a decree issued on march 17 1920 the chad territory, until then a dependency of the ubangi-shari colony, was made a separate colony. it extends from lake chad across the central sudan to and including wadai (see 28.225). the administrative system of a.e.f. is the same as in french west africa. in 1911 more than 100,000 sq. m. of a.e.f. were ceded to germany as compensation for the acknowledgment of a french protec- torate in morocco. this area was added to german cameroons, but was restored to france in r919 under the treaty of versailles and again incorporated in a..f. an anglo-french agreement 1020 in 1919 settled the dispute as to the frontier between wadai and darfur and in 1923 a joint commission marked the frontier on the spot. transport and communications.—economically a.e.f. is the least developed of french african possessions, largely owing to lack of transport facilities. the ogowe river system affords access to part of the gabun colony and the port of libreville on the gabun estuary has periods of activity; but the trade of the middle congo and ubangi has no outlet save along the (belgian) congo railway. river and lagoon feeder services are maintained by the chargeurs reunis. the construction of a railway, some 300 m. long, to connect pointe noire on the coast near loango, with brazzaville, on the congo river at stanley pool, was begun in 1921, but the railway had not been more than half finished by 1926. the plans included the creation of a port at pointe noire and harbour works were in progress in 1926. telegraph lines have been laid connecting brazzaville with bangi and fort lamy. the total length of line in operation in 1925 was about 2,366 miles. trade.—timber, palm kernels and palm oil, rubber, ivory and cocoa are the leading exports. the system adopted of grant- ing exclusive rights to concession companies was unsuccesstul; the companies did, however, help to make known the natural riches of the country and assisted the organisation of transport on the congo, ubangi and shari rivers. cattle, sheep, camels, horses, asses and ostriches are raised in the chad colony, which contained over 700,000 head of cattle in 1922, but facilities for exports are lacking. the value of external trade was approxi- mately 57,540,000 fr. in 1913; it fell to insignificant proportions during the world war, but increased to 49,800,000 fr. in 1920 and 65,300,000 fr. in 1923. between rog1o and 1920 french authority was made effective throughout the country, tibesti and other saharan regions being occupied. the slave trade was rigorously suppressed and, in view of the alarming decrease in the population, considerable attention was paid to hygiene. educational facilities remained however very deficient. bibliography.—capt. c. j. a. cornet, au tchad (1910); col. largeau, la situation du territoire m ilitaire du tchad au debut de rgr2 (1913); a. l. cureau, savage men in central africa: a study of primitive races in the french congo (1915); g. bruel, l' afrique equatoriale sree (191 8}; albert schweitzer, on the edge of the pee pore (1922 w,,.h. migeod, across fquatorial africa (1923): guy, ‘liavenir de va.e.f.” in l' afrique francaise (jan. oo. annuaire du gouveneur general de l'afrique equa- teriale frangatse. (fs -re c.) eritrea, an italian colony on the red sea (see 9.745), has an area of 45,7348q. m. and a population (1924) of about 410,000, of whom 4,000 were italians. asmara, the capital, had (1921) 13,510 inhabitants (of whom 2,407 were europeans), massawa, the chief port, some 12,c00 (of whom 360 were europeans). systematic efforts were made to develop the resources of eritrea, though a project to settle large numbers of italians as farmers in the highlands had to be abandoned as it was found that nearly all the suitable land was already occupied by the natives (abys- sinians). means of communication were extended. the port of massawa was greatly improved and the railway carried from it to the highlands. the section to asmara, 75 m., completed in 1912, rises. to 7,765 ft., the altitude of asmara. an extension to cheren, 65 m., was opened in 1922. thence the railway was continued towards agordat, a town on the khor baraka. a motor road was made to aduwa in tigre (abyssinia). a decau- ville railway was built (1917-8) from port fatima in the danakil (afar) country to serve the potash mine at dolol, on the abys- sinian side of the frontier. from the port of assab, further south, a road was built to tap the trade of central abyssinia. trade and indusitry—stock raising remained up to 1925 the principal and most valuable industry and skins and hides the chicf export. there was, however, marked increase in the trade in vegetable ivory (the nut of the dum palms). other leading exports were salt, potash, mother-of-pearl and linseed. the most promising new industry was the cultivation of cotton in the khor baraka and river gash (mareb) areas. ginneries were built at asmara and massawa and a beginning was made with eritrea—erzberger irrigation works in the gash area in 1915. the gash ends dn an inland delta in the kassala province of the sudan and in 1925 an agreement with the sudan govt. regulated the use of its waters by the two countries. owing to the world war the development of the cotton fields was at first slow, the crop in 1922 being little more than 1,000 quintals. by 1924, however, the crop had increased to over 20,000 quintals. the trade returns of massawa illustrate the progress made in industry. in 1911 the imports were valued at 17,100,000 lire, the exports at 8,800,000 lire and the transit trade at 3,350,000 lire. in 1924 the figures were imports 146,129,000 lire, exports 86,680,000 lire, transit 18,850,000 lire. in the same year (1924) the total trade of assab was returned at 12,000,000 lire; in 1923 the imports by the land frontiers were valued at 38,000,000 lire and the exports at 29,470,000 lire. ? finance.—although eritrea had not become self-supporting the budget for 1924-5 showed that the colonial revenue (12,- 400,000 lire) approximated to ordinary expenditure (13,700,000 © lire). the budget was balanced at 36,439,000 lire, the deficit being met by the italian treasury. ‘the sum of 11,365,000 lire was debited to military expenditure. the abyssinians of eritrea make good soldiers and eritrian troops were employed in the war in tripoli (1911-2) and in the world war. eritrian bat- talions are stationed in tripolitania, cyrenaica and italian somaliland. in 1919 the military force in eritrea itself was 12,000 (including 3,000 europeans). by 1924 it had been reduced 10 134 europeans and 5,000 natives. the relations of eritrea with its neighbours, abyssinia and the sudan, were of a friendly character and it was comparatively little affected by the world war. its oversea trade is mainly with italy, aden and india. economic development might have been more rapid had foreign capital been sought, but it was not, and italian capitalists for many years showed a disinclination to invest money in the colony. massawa is in wireless tele- graphic communication with italy and with italian somaliland. see tommaso tittoni, italy's foreign and colonial policy (english trans. 1914); eritrea, a british foreign office handbook with bibliog- raphy (1920): e. vinassa de regny, dancalia (rome, 1923); the rivista colontale (rome) and the bolletino della societa geografica italiana (rome). (ho roe) ernle, rowland edmund prothero, 1st baron (185 2- ), british agriculturist and writer, was born at clifton-on- teme sept. 6 1852. he was educated at marlborough and balliol college, oxford, where he took his degree in 1875. from 1894 to 18909 he was editor of the quarterly review. twenty years as chief agent to the duke of bedford greatly extended his expericnce on agricultural questions. in 1913 he was a member of the royal com- mission on railways, and sat on the departmental committees on the home production of food (1914) and the increased price of commoditics (1915). having entered parliament for oxford university in 1914, he was president of the board of agriculture under mr. lloyd george from 1916 to feb. 1919. he resigned his office in 1919 and was raised to the peerage. among his works are pioneers and progress of english farming (1888); life and correspondence of dean stanley (1893); letters of fdward gibbon (1896); letters and journals of lord byron (1898- 1901); psalms in human l ife (1903); the pleasant land of france (1908): english farming, past and present (1912); and the land and iis people (1925). erzberger, matthias (1875-1921), was born on sept. 20 1875, in buttenhausen, in the swabian alp. having entered the teaching profession, he soon became interested in politics. he joined the staff of the stuttgart catholic paper deutsches volksblatt and was elected member of the reichstag at the age of 28. the centre party, to which he belonged, came into exist- ence as a mainly religious association during the ‘“‘ kultur- kampf ” (bismarck’s quarrel with the catholic church.) when this particular dispute had been settled the centre party gradually assumed a political complexion. erzberger, being rather anti-bureaucratic by temperament, began his career as a severe critic of the colonial office, whose chief spokesman, dr. helfferich, later on became his violent enemy. his party did not enjoy his impetuosity, which sometimes savoured of escalator—esenin bad form. the dissolution of the reichstag by prince bilow, when the centre party insisted on parliamentary responsibility in colonial affairs, and the return of the party with undiminished numbers in 1907 rather justified erzberger in his tactics. and when prince biilow’s incongruous conservative-liberal coali- tion broke down and the centre party again became a quasi- “government party (1909), erzberger had gained a leading position in its councils. during the world war erzberger quickly realised the impor- tance of public opinion. he built up a big organisation to enlighten neutral opinion, addressing himself primarily to catho- lics. his influence on them was by no means inconspicuous, for though he was a fervent believer in the authority of his church in spiritual matters, in temporal affairs he was a democrat by training and by temperament. he elaborated all sorts of plans for the reconstruction of europe, some rather illogically based on the right of self-determination of the people. he did not openly oppose submarine warfare, though he greatly feared america’s entrance into the war. in the summer of 1917 he realised that austria was collapsing. he knew the famous czernin memorandum (april 12 1917) and has even been falsely accused of having brought it to light. his insight into the austrian situation and his disillusion about the sub- marine warfare made him take the initiative in bringing about the declaration of the reichstag on july 19, which proclaimed germany’s intention to fight for a peace without annexations. hie succeeded by his impetuous methods in overthrowing beth- mann hollweg, who sympathised with the movement, and bringing in michaelis, who was a supporter of the militarists and whose famous interpretation of the resolution destroyed such chances as the appeal might have had. erzberger played a part in the unsuccessful peace efforts of the vatican, turning with a wonderful facility from one scheme to another, never daunted by failure. | | erzberger’s great political chance came in sept. 1918, when prince max of baden formed a parliamentary government. erzberger had outlined the programme for this coalition of national-liberals, liberals, centrists and socialists. ile be- came secretary of state without portfolio. he was asked to lead the armistice commission when general headquarters in- sisted on an armistice. he did not succeed in getting terms, based on the wilson principles, which germany had accepted. he has been held up to obloquy for this failure, his carelessness, his ignorance of french and his bad manners having been given as reasons. it may well be doubted whether the most brilliant owners of such qualities would have fared better at the hands of a victorious general. when erzberger came home, the old regime had gone. he remained head of the armistice commission but participated in the reorganisation of the centre party, which gained 90 seats at the election of r9t9. he entered the cabinet, formed by scheide- mann, as minister without portfolio. when that government, influenced by brockdorff-rantzau and the german delegation, desired to reject the peace terms, erzberger dissented, dis- trusting the capacity of the german people to stand another prolonged strain, and fearing greatly for german unity. he pressed his point with his customary energy and perhaps, too, with that want of tact he occasionally exhibited. he is supposed to have said quite openly that another government would sign the treaty, if scheidemann refused, and it is quite possible that his utterances may have reassured the allies of the small risk they ran when presenting an ultimatum (june 16). the government did resign, and erzberger became chancellor of the exchequer in the bauer government, formed by socialists and centrists, which signed the peace. up to that time the individual states had owned the railways and drawn the direct taxes, especially the income tax; the reich had to be satisfied mainly with indirect taxation. the wrangles between the states and the central authority had filled the pages of german history, the states always succeeding in holding their own. erzberger took the railways for the reich and estab- lished its control over taxation. he succeeded where otto von “to? 1 bismarck had failed. he organised an imperial inland revenue service and introduced a system of income and property taxes which, though somewhat socialistic in its main features, was the first real system of imperial finance germany has had. his activities during the world war, his participation in the armistice and the peace negotiations, and his financial policy made erzberger the best hated man in germany. his feud with the bureaucrats was of old standing; the capitalist classes hated him for his confiscatory financial legislation; and to the prussian protestant he was the international catholic, who spoke with a broad swabian accent. the federalists loathed him on account of his centralising tendencies, and the militarists tried to make him the scapegoat for their want of success. all the enemies of the new order of things realised, however, that whatever his faults might be, he was a man of action and not a dreamer. karl helfferich, a former secretary of state whose financial war policy erzberger had strongly criticised, fathered these attacks in a pamphlet forti mit erzberger, in which erzberger was accused of all sorts of petty underhand financial misde- meanors and even of having committed perjury. erzberger sued helfferich, but did not succeed in clearing himself as com- pletely as the facts of the case probably warranted. he imme- diatedly resigned. the verdict assumed that he had committed perjury, but the same court, inquiring later on whether the facts established should lead to a public prosecution, came to a nega- tive finding. it was then considered that in some way or other erzberger would be completely rehabilitated. the feeling against him was so intense, however, that an abortive attempt upon his life was made during the proceedings. a few months after, when taking a holiday, he was foully murdered on aug. 26 1921, by schulz and tillessen, two members of secret associations, who got safely to hungary. | erzberger was probably the most gifted man of action german democracy has so far produced. he acted with the light-hearted impetuosity of a child: there was no situation to which he did not consider himself equal. he quickly saw the main point, and when he saw ii, he acted, being quite free from those mental impediments which so often paralyse intelligent men. he very often did not visualise the ultimate consequences of his actions, but this did not trouble him as he was quite sure that he could deal with them when they arose. his jaunty manner equally antagonised the deep thinker and the well-bred bureaucrat. he was often careless and inaccurate in details, for though details interested him greatly, he had not always a just sense of ‘ value.” being rather insensitive himself, he often failed to consider other people’s susceptibilities, and being simple though very shrewd, he was not a good judge of men and did not understand com- plicated minds, nor the impression he made upon them. he was a man of the people and he looked like it. as such he was loathed by all to whom a statesman must be “ decorous.” he was almost a genius. but he lacked the magnetism and chasm indispensable to a really great leader. bibliograpity.—matthias erzberger, die zentrumspolitik im reichstag (1907-13); carl helfferich, fort nut erzherger (1919), der weltkrieg (1919); matthias erzberger, erlebnisse im weltkrieg (stuttgart 1920); erzerbergerprosess, stenogr. bericht tiber die ver- handlungen (1920); l. zach, §o jahre zentrum, wirtschafts sozial- politik im deutschen reichstag, 1871-19271 (1921); carl helfferich, die polttik der erfiiliung (munich 1922); ludwig bergstrasser, geschichte der politischen parteien (mannheim 1924); ernst bauer, ersberger, bilder aus seinem leben u. wirken (munich 1925). | (m. bo.*) escalator: see elevators and escalators. a esenin, sergius (18095-1925), russian poet, was born oct. 4 1895 in constantinovo, since his death officially renamed ese- nino, in the ryazan province. a peasant by birth, he lived in his native village until he was 17 when he moved to moscow. his first poems (1915) met with immediate success. in 1919 he founded the imagist group. esenin travelled in persia and also visited america and france. he was married first to the ameri- can dancer, isadora duncan, from whom he soon parted, and secondly to a grand-daughter of count leo tolstoy. he died by his own hand on dec. 28 1925. although he was a staunch sup- 1022. porter of the soviets, his meditative and purely lyrical talent was tragically out of touch with the active and matter-of-fact post-revolutionary russia. esenin has been considered the finest russian poet of his generation and second only to blok. his poetry reflects the mysticism of the old russian peasantry with its ikons and its folklore, as in “ radunitza ”’ (day of the dead), “‘ goluben ” (blueness); and in ‘“ inonia ” he depicts a religious utopia and proclaims the advent of a “ peasant christ.”’ all his poems re- flect the same love for peasant russia, its fields, thatched cot- tages, its trees and animals. he called himself ‘‘ the last peasant poet ” and deplores the invasion of the land by the town—“ the iron guest.” his town and tavern poems (‘‘ moscow of the tav- erns,” ‘“ the confessions of a hooligan,” etc.) telling the evil victory of the town and its allurements, are of a tragic and capti- vating sincerity. his poetic style is highly imaginative and his simple, transparent verse follows the classic pushkin tradition. bra_iography.—english translations in the chapbook, no. 31 (nov. 1922) and the bermondsey book (march 1926); articles by trotsky, pranvda no. 15 (1926) and z. vengerova, the bernrondsey book (march 1926). esher, reginald baliol brett, 2np viscount (1852- ), british politician and writer, eldest son of the 1st viscount esher (see 9.768), was born in london, june 30 1852, and edu- cated at eton and trinity college, cambridge. he entered politics, becoming private secretary to the marquess of harting- ton in 1878, and from 1880 to 1885 was liberal member for penrhyn and falmouth. from 1895 to 1902 he was secretary to the office of works. he succeeded his father in 1899 and in 1901 was appointed deputy constable and lieutenant-governor of windsor castle. in 1902 he was appointed one of the commis- sioners who inquired into the conduct of the south african war. in 1904 he was chairman of the war office reconstitution com- mittee, and in r905 became a permanent member of the commit- tee of imperial defence. he was chairman of the territorial force assn. of the county of london 1909-13, and president, 1912-21. lord esher was selected by king edward vii. as one of the editors of the letters of queen victoria, which appeared in 1907, and he produced the girlhood of queen victoria (1912). his other works include the influence of king edward (1915); the tragedy of kitchener (1921) and jonicus (1923). esperanto: sce universal language. essen (see 9.778), one of the largest towns in prussia, ger- many, had a population of 439,257 in 1919. a later estimate was 474,000. alten essen, haarzopf, bredenau and part of vorbeck, with a total population of 114,000 were included in the city bound- aries in 1915. situated at the centre of great coalfields, essen has developed rapidly. the krupp works, to the west of the old town, now produce locomotives, agricultural machinery, etc., and were employing some 35,000 workers in 1925. the exchange, opposite the railway station, was finished in 1924. in 1920 factories were occupied by communists during revolutionary out- breaks, and were only retaken by government troops after heavy fighting. occupied by the french after the armistice, essen was evacuated by them on aug. 1 1925. estonia (see esthonia, 9-797) an independent baltic republic (eesti), founded in 1918, its area is 16,955 sq. m. and the population (1922), 1,107,059. it is bounded on the north by the gulf of fin- land; on the west by the baltic sea; on the south by latvia; and on the east by soviet russia, the boundary running through the middle of lake peipus. the republic comprises the former rus- sian government of estland, the northern part of livland, parts of two districts of the pskov and petrograd governments to- gether with the islands of dage (hiiu maa), oesel saare, muhu and other small islands in the baltic sea. constitution.—the constitution adopted by the constituent assembly on june 15 1920, provides for a republican government, with parliament (riigikegu), consisting of too members elected by universal and secret ballot on the proportional representation system. provision is made for a direct exercise of power by the people through initiative and referendum. the prime minister is the head and official representative of the estonian republic. esher—estonia i. political history the russian revolution.—acting on the proposal of the union of estonian organisations, the russian provisional government, formed on march 12 1917, ruled that the northern districts of the gubernia (government) of livonia (inhabited by estonians) and of estonia should become one state and be given a democratic local self-government. since the revolution of 1905 estonia had, like the other small states on russia’s borders, been working for autonomy. when the russian provisional government of 1917 had been declared this could only be granted by the all-russian constituent assembly. when, therefore, the estonian diet met at revel (tallinn) on july 14 1917, its first task was to prepare a bill for this purpose. : the bolshevik coup d’efat changed the course of events. on the fall of the russian provisional government the 7 —————— : elsinegtors tah ee ee rtg english miles 0 30 kilometres dopeat d n= net estonian diet, on nov. 15, declared its complete local independ- ence. the bolsheviks, however, dissolved the diet; and al- though national regiments, amounting finally to a division, had been formed during the revolution, the fact that revel was now being used by the russian army as its sea base, and lay exposed to fire from russian ships, made it expedient to avoid conflict. the ‘baltic barons” of estonia had meanwhile appealed to ger- many for military assistance. taking their stand on the treaty of nystad (1721), they declared themselves the authorised repre- sentatives of the country, and on dec. 12 1917 formally broke away from russia, and invoked the aid of german troops. in accordance with germany’s request the barons approached the estonian diet with the object of securing a joint appeal to ger- many; but the diet, well aware of their schemes for german col- onisation and compulsory denationalisation of the country, de- cided, at the turn of the year 1917-8, to separate from russia, but at the same time to declare the independence of estonia. de facto recognition.— the resumption of hostilities by the ger- mans had disconcerted the bolsheviks, and advantage was taken of this fact tooverthrow the bolshevik rule at revel and proclaim es- tonia an independent republic on feb. 24 1918. the resolution of the diet had been laid before the allied governments; favour- able replies were received from france on march 1 1918 and from great britain on march 20, the de facto recognition of es- tonia by great britain, france and italy following on may 3 may 13 and may 29 respectively. the german occupation which followed was designed to turn estonia into a baltic duchy in personal union with prussia, in conformity with the wishes of the baltic nobility. to create the appearance of a national movement it was desirable to gain the consent of certain sections of the estonian people. the represen- tatives of the peasant-proprietors, however, when summoned to the riga assembly on april 10 1918, by the authorities of the military occupation, refused their consent. nevertheless, baron dellingshausen, the leader of the baltic nobility, forwarded es- tonia’s request for union with prussia to berlin, and received the german emperor’s consent through his chancellor on april 21 1918. after the peace of brest-litovsk, germany held only tem- estonia porary police powers in estonia, and soviet russia renounced her sovereign rights over estonia and livonia by the supple- mentary agreement of berlin on aug. 27 1918. with the collapse of germany in the autumn of 1918 the estonian provi- sional government, consisting of representatives of all partics, including the social democrats, resumed its activities. k. piits, the former president of the diet, released from imprisonment by the germans, became prime minister; and j. poska, the former commissar of the russian provisional government, proceeded to the peace conference in paris as foreign minister. the bolshevist invasion. an troops had not been completely withdrawn before a new danger threatened from the east. narwa had been invested by the bolshevists, who now be- gan to penctrate into estonia (nov. 28) aided by landings on the coast of the gulf of finland. estonia’s situation was ren- dered more difficult by the fact that the germans had devastated the country and removed or destroyed all arms. thus a state had to be created without money, a war begun without weapons. out of the cadres of the estonian regiments of tor7 gen. laidoner had begun to organise an estonian army, while capt. j. pitka created a marine force of volunteers and students, form- ing shock-battalions and improvising armoured trains out of goods trucks. assistance came first in the form of a loan amount- ing to 20,000,000 finnish marks, a consignment of arms and a body of over 2,000 volunteers from estonia’s neighbour and sis- ter-nation, finland. on dec. 12 1918, a british fleet under admiral sinclair arrived at revel, which brought over a supply of arms and took the gulf of finland under its protection. sin- clair also captured two russian destroyers and handed them over to estonia. later, some hundreds of volunteers from sweden and denmark made their appearance. on jan. 4 1919, when the bolshevists held half estonia in their grasp, their offensive was broken, and by the beginning of feb. the whole country was freed from the enemy. the constituent assembly was now elected. meeting on april 23 1919, it voted unanimously for the renewed declaration of estonia’s independence, and formed a new coalition government from the bourgeois parties and the social democrats. throughout the spring, from feb. till may, bolshevik at- tacks continued. in may, however, the estonians took the of- fensive and broke through the bolshevik front, carrying opera- tions over into russian territory. the ‘northern corps” of the russian white army under gen. rodzianko, which had re- tired into estonia from pskov, now occupied yamburg, the es- tonians taking pskov. as the result of an attack to the south in the direction of marienburg-jakobstadt along the dvina, nor- thern latvia was freed from the bolsheviks, while latvia re- ceived assistance in organising its regiments. in the neighbour- hood of riga an encounter occurred with gen. r. von der goltz’s german volunteers, who had overthrown the lettish democratic government at libau and were endeavouring to get the whole of latvia into their power. gen. sir h. gough, as chief of the allied military mission, had ruled, in support of the demand of the estonians, that gen. von der goltz should not lead his troops northward against estonia but eastward against the bolsheviks; tn defiance of this, von der goltz broke the armi- stice and began to advance. on june 21-2, at the battle of wen- den-ronneburg, his front was broken through and his army put to flight and driven out of northern latvia. by the intervention of the allies a new armistice was concluded at riga on july 3 1919. von der goltz was forced to evacuate the town, and the lettish govt. was again able to return to its functions. peace with russta.—on russian territory the northern corps of the white army had been organised as an independent north- western army with gen. yudenich as commander-in-chief. the disputes between the various russian generals went on steadily increasing until finally civil war broke out at pskov. as neither the white russians nor the paris peace conference of the alhes would acknowledge her de jure, estonia, on aug. 31, ac- cepted the peace proposals made by chicherin on behalf of soviet russia. on dec. § 1919, peace negotiations were opened be- tween estonia and russia at dorpat. in order to make their de- 1023 mands more impressive, the russians concentrated their vii. and xv. armies (upwards of 40,000 men) on the banks of the narowa and threatened narwa. anarmistice was declared on dec. 31, and peace was concluded on feb. 2 1920. russia agreed to acknowl- edge the independence of estonia and to pay her 15,000,000 gold roubles (£1,500,000) from the russian gold fund, but refused to return the funds, savings and money which had been removed. on the other hand, estonia was released from any re- sponsibility for russia’s debts abroad. free transit to estonian ports was conceded to russia. this was the first peace treaty concluded between soviet russia and any of the border states. internal legislation.—on oct. 10 1919, while the war was still in progress, the estonian constituent assembly had passed an agrarian reform bill, by which manorial estates of more than 330 hectares, a type of holding which covered more than half of the whole agricultural area, were to be divided among those who had taken part in the war of independence in holdings averaging from 20 to 25 hectares. ‘thus the landless peasant population, which constituted one of the most important factors in the revo- lutionary movement, was satished. ‘the last task of the constit- uent assembly before its dissolution was the adoption (june 15 1920) of a constitution which resembled in many respects the swiss and the new german constitutions. the two parliamentary elections of 1920 and 1923 showed a strong tendency towards the right as compared with the constit- uent assembly. in the case of the assembly, agrarian reform came first in importance, but in the new parliaments economic problems were predominant. the conservative agrarian party was now the strongest; the social democrats, who had formed 40% of the constituent assembly, sank to 30% in the riigikegu. socialists rarely held office in the government. when the civil war in russia ended in victory for the bolshe- viks the supreme council of the allies agreed to the de jure recog- nition of estonia (jan. 26 192r). on sept. 22 of the same year estonia was admitted to the league of nations. recognition by the united states followed on july 28 1922. foreign policy.—attempts to co-ordinate the foreign policy of the baltic states had been made while they were still fighting for independence. at warsaw, on march 17 1922, estonia, poland, latvia and finland signed a political agreement, which, however, did not come into force, finland refusing to ratify it on the ground that it might be directed against germany. that the baltic states are working with a common aim is nevertheless evident from their attitude in the league of nations and from the periodic conferences between the foreign ministers; at one of these conferences, in 1925, an agreement was reached for the establishment of a permanent court of arbitration. estonia came to a final agreement with latvia with regard to their common line of frontier on nov. 1 1923, when a treaty of defensive alliance was concluded, war claims were settled and an economic agreement signed. the economic clauses, which established unified tariffs and duty-free transit of goods, marked the first step in the direction of a complete customs union. other agreements in existence between estonia, latvia and lithuania aim at rendering inter-communication between these countries easier by the elimina- tion of passport visas and the introduction of an inland postal tariff. communist a gitatton.—communist agitation has been respon- sible for constant friction between estonia and russia. estonian communists have their headquarters in russia, and their secret agents in estonta are under russian diplomatic protection; should anything happen to these agents, estonians living in russia are imprisoned as hostages and an exchange is then pro- posed between them and the communists imprisoned in estonia. but communist agitation has obtained so small a hold in estonia that no special measures have been taken with regard to it. es- tonia was the last of the border states to declare the communist party illegal; this was in the autumn of 1923, when, at the time of the riots in germany, communists in estonia began to pre- pare for an armed rising there also. at revel, a “putsch” was attempted early in the morning of dec. 1 1924, when the pro- ceedings against the imprisoned communists had come to an end. about 300 conspirators, formed into shock troops and com- posed mainly of russian red guards, had been smuggled over, and russian transit workers in revel, provided with arms secretly imported from russia, made a sudden and simultaneous attack on the government and military institutions, but were immedi- 1024 ately repulsed and soon after killed. the result of this revolu- tionary outburst was the closing of all communist organisations and the founding of civil guards on the finnish model, in which 30,000 men were enrolled. bibliography.—l. kettunen, viron kielen ddnehistorian paa ptr- feet (helsingfors, 1917); e. fromme, die republik estland und dus privateigentum (1922); v. j. o’hara, esthonia: past and present (1922); the baltic and caucasian states (the nations of today) ed. by john buchan (1923); ei. leoke, republic of estonta (1923); g. e. luiga, die nette agrarverfassung in eesti (dorpat, eh ii. social and economic conditions population.—according to the census of 1922, estonia’s pop- ulation of 1,107,059 included 87-7% estonians, 8-2% russians, 1-7 % germans, 0-7 % swedes, 0-4% jews. the rights of minority nationalities were laid down by the constituent assembly, and on feb. 5 1925 a special act was passed which granted national and cultural autonomy to all minority nationalities with a minimum of 3,000 members, living in estonian territory. the principal towns are: the capital revel (tallinn), 130,000 inhabitants; the university town of dorpat (tartu), 50,000; pernau (pirnu) 18,500, on the gulf of riga, and the manufactur- ing town of narwa, 27,v00. | education.—the various national minorities have their own schools, where instruction is given in each mother tongue. every individual, however, has to learn the estonian language also. school attendance is compulsory by law, and church and state are separat- ed. religious teaching in the state schools was established by refer- endum in 1923. the proportion of illiterates (to be found chielly on the russian border) is 5-7%. dorpat university was re-opened on dec. 1 1919 as the estonian national university. the number of students in 1922 was 2,398 men and 1,002 women. revel has a technicum (higher professional school) with 400 students. lutheran- ism claims 78-6 % of the population, and the greek church 19 %o. defence.—military service is compulsory. the army is organised in three divisions, the peace strength in 1924 being 1,600 officers and 18,500 other ranks, and the full strength on mobilisation 90,000. the naval force consists of two destroyers, one gunboat, one torpedo boat and smaller craft. the problem of reconstruction.—before the war estonia was one of the principal sources of st. petersburg’s food supply and revel was one of russia’s main northern outlets to the sea. there had grown up at revel in easy reach of foreign coal a con- siderable industry—shipbuilding, metallurgical shops, textile mills, etc.—designed to supply the russian market and largely to meet the requirements of the russian army and navy. the problem of reconstruction with which the government was faced after the treaty of dorpat was, therefore, extremely difficult. an agricultural revolution had been created by the expropriation law of oct. 1919 and agriculture had lost its normal market. the big industries had no less lost their markets. they were destitute of floating capital after six years of inflation and proved at first rather an incubus to the state than an asset. during the previous years public expenditure had been covered largely by means of the issue of notes, and the whole machinery of government and administration had to be built up from its foundations. agriculture.—the most essential task was the reorganisation of agriculture, the drainage, stocking, equipment and general capitali- sation of the new small holdings, the training of the new peasant farmers and the establishment of agricultural co-operation societies, for the main source of estonia’s wealth 1s agriculture. about 40%, of the total area consists of prairie and meadow, 23 “> 1s under plough and 15°% under forest. with the assistance of these co-operative societies estonian agriculture is now developing on the lines of specialising in cattle-breeding, dairy farming and flax productions. the export of butter is controlled by the state with a view to main- taining a definite standard of quality, and new markcts have been found in england, germany and elsewhere. the total exports of butter increased from 1,032 tons in 1922 to 6,443 tons in 1925, and the export of eggs at a not much inferior rate. while material progress has thus been made in dairy farming and in the cultivation of forage crops which that system of husbandry necessitates in northern climates, the areas under cereals and average cereal crops are about the same as they were before the war, and estonia remains a corn-importing country. the production of potatoes, on the other hand, for which the land ts well suited, has greatly diminished (1910, 810,000 tons; 1925, 590,000 tons) owing fi tching to the lack of markets for potato spirit. the area under flax has grown steadily from year to year and is now nearly 20% greater than it was before the war. industrial production.—in the first few years of estonian history high hopes were still placed on the future of her larger industrial undertakings, and considerable sums were advanced by the state bank, with the result that by 1923-4 the credit and banking situa- tion of the country became highly critical and a considerable propor- tion of the gold reserve obtained from russia under the ‘treaty of dorpat was lost. estonia, however, possesses certain raw materials, which may possibly constitute the basis of a new industrial develop- ment in the future. of these, the most important are wood and oil shale. the shale, the deposits of which are roughly estimated at 3,500-5,000 million tons, is unusually rich in oil. it is already utilised to a growing extent in estonian factories and on the railways in its crude state in place of coal, and a certain number of concessions for its more scientific exploitation have been granted to foreign firms. the forests, which since the expropriation law of 1919 have re- mained under the clirect control of the state, constitute an additional source of fuel and the raw material of the saw mills, three-ply, and paper industries. since about 1921 the quantity of timber employed in the country by these three industries has steadily increased. cement is another product the preparation of which is in no way de- pendent upon foreign raw materials. of the industries which are dependent upon foreign raw materials cotton spinning has been the most successfully organised, the exports of cotton yarn having in- creased from 154 tons in 1922 to 758 in 1924 and 1,282 in 1925. trade.—the principal exports of the country in 1924 were:— value in estonian marks dairy produce and other foodstuffs of animal origin . 1,191. wood and wood products 1,752 cotton fabrics . 1,094 flax, raw . 1,690 | total exports 7,866 although estonia was the first ‘' window into europe ” for soviet russia, neither russian transit nor the traffic in goods attained the height reached before the war. trade with russia was heaviest after the great russian famine of 1922, when, in consequence of the quantity of provisions sent into the country, russian transit over estonian railways amounted to 370,000 tons, providing one-fourth of the total revenue of those railways. currency.— the economic progress which the country has achieved may be judged from the growth of its total exports from 2,287 million estonian marks in 1921 to 4,812 in 1922, to 5,712 in 1923, to 7,866 in 1924, to 9,665 in 1925. to some extent the increase in these figures is due to the depreciation of the estonian mark and the rise of prices. direct fiduciary inflation ceased in 1921, and the exchange improved slightly during the next two years. with the bank inflation of 1923-4 the exchange depreciated from about 340 to 460 (aug. 1924) to the dollar. by the'end of the year, however, the central bank, which is a government institution, had succeeded in bringing down the rate to about 373 estonian marks to the dollar, a rate which is equivalent to 100 estonian marks to the swedish crown. the exchanges were kept stable at this rate from jan. 1925 on- wards, and it 1s proposed to introduce a new currency, a kroon, equivalent to 100 of the present estonian marks. in june 1924 this kkroon was made a legal unit of account. the measure of success with which estonia has met her eco- nomic reconstruction, despite great initial difficulties, despite certain highly critical periods as in 1923, when the effects of a bad harvest and an unwise credit policy coincided, and despite inevitable errors, has been largely due to the fact that since rg21 she has managed to balance her budget. indeed, not only has the budget been balanced, but the capital outlay incidental upon her economic reconstruction has been largely met out of current revenues. [ler taxes have thus been to a considerable extent a form of forced savings. on the other hand, as indicated above, as a result of the losses incurred by the state bank, this country has lived to some extent upon the gold received from russia. bibliography.—festi statistika kurkiri—recueil mensuel du bureau central statistique de uesthonie (revel, 1922); eesti pank, the bank of isthonta in rorg—2r (revel, 1922, etc.); festi demo- graajia .. . demographie (revel, 1924); league of nations, report of the financial committee on the economic and financial situation of estonia (geneva, 1925). .