EDUCATION

the recognised importance of edlu- cation in the modern world justifies, indeed demands, an article dealing with it from various points of view. the following contribution, therefore, 1s divided into several sections, cach from the pen of a recognised authority. these main sections are: i. general introduction. ii. education in western europe. iif. education in the united states. iv. educational experi- ments. v. the architecture of school buildings. section iti. is followed by a carefully written bibliography of the literature of education, also from the pen of an expert. i. general introduction each year it is becoming more and more dificult to frame a satisfactory definition of education. the reason for this is twofold. the subject is, in the first place, an always develop- ing one. jf we speak of it in the way people did a generation ago, as the training of the mind of youth, we are brought up by the fact that the duty of educating is recognised to-day as ex- tending to the minds of those who have passed beyond actoles- cence. not only in the university, but in that growing system under which training of a university type is being extended extra- murally to the working classes in industrial and other centres, education we find education extending its scope to the adult. even when the university has provided all the higher training it can for the student, it has only prepared him to develop his faculties by his own initiative in another fashion. he can, when fully trained, study books which were formerly sealed to him, and the library takes him further in that process of selfi-development for which the professor has prepared him. education to-day therefore knows no limit but the grave. education and biology.—but this is only one aspect of the larger significance which the word is receiving. there is a second illustration. in recent years biological science has made it impos- sible to draw any sharp line of demarcation between the indi- vidual as merely alive, with initiative and energy as such, and the individual as also intelligent. life and mind unite in the formation of habitual activities which enable the individual to get rid of hindrances to freedom caused by his environment. inherited qualities of life and its predispositions have to be taken into account if the development of mind is to be rendcred intelligible and then guided. this is especially the case with young children who have not reached the stage of generalising their experience in any definite fashion. the result is that biology and psychology are entering increas- ingly into the study of education, especially in its early stages, and are affecting its practice. the field of the teacher is thereby being extended, particularly as regards the study and fashioning of the lives of children. education is therefore getting an ex- tended significance at this end also, and the study of psychology, which enters into it throughout its field, is now playing an in- creasing part in it. but the part which it plays is not the main feature in education. it must never be forgotten that its chief concern is with the development of personality, and that this depends on intelligence and on a moral and religious training for which the limited growth of the mind of the young child affords no more than a preliminary preparation. continuity of education.—another modern principle which ts adding to-day to the complication of the meaning of education is that it is being more fully recognised that the system must be treated as a whole, of which the earlier stages are indeed pre- paratory, but lead into those that come later. the individual continues identical through the growth of his personality. but in childhood he can take in only what is appropriate to the infan- tile stage and falls within his capacity at that stage, as in the nursery school. later on, there comes to the child grown older what is stimulated further by something that we call primary education. this process prepares for secondary training, but there is no sharp line of demarcation between these later stages. the subjects of the earlicr conduct to the subjects of those that come later, but the system is an entirety and has to be recognised as such. what any division implies is, in reality, that brain and personality can only absorb gradually, and by stages, but that what is absorbed belongs to a system which is not itself divisible into separate parts, but expands as its meaning and ellect, by degrees, enter into and are absorbed by a developing mind. the subjects of instruction appropriate to the differing stages thus involve each other. bearing these things in mind, the first object must be to give some view of what the educational system stands for to-day. an examination of the records of 1925 shows that there has been a marked change in the directions just indicated. it will be convenient to take an actual instance, and the most obvious instance to select as supplying material for judgment is that of england. scotland also affords evidence of a striking develop- ment of new tendencies in some respects of a different kind. some reference must also be made to germany, france and italy, for in these countries the same sort of impelling force, arising from the effects of the war, is illustrated. ii. education in western europe developments ix great britain the system of national education in england has advanced its scope since 1911 (see 8.971). then the system was that established under the education act of 1902, which abolished q21 parochial school boards and made the county councils the local authorities for all forms of education short of the university type. secondary and primary education were no longer techni- cally separated, so far as concerned powers to administer them, and a definite step had been taken towards unifying the national educational system. the voluntary public elementary schools, mostly church schools, were brought, by the act of 1902, under the local education authorities, and were assisted, so far as secu- lar instruction was concerned, by contributions from rates, which were added to the public grants they already enjoyed. vhese schools were continued with most of the control, except as regards secular teaching, exercised before by managers estab- lished by the founders. the new local authorities were given power to provide other schools, for technical and secondary education, and to levy rates for this purpose. but even under these powers, while elemen- tary education went on developing, secondary education in- creased but slowly. the access to it from the elementary schools was hampered by the small provision of secondary school build- ings. the task of providing these by the local authorities had begun, but progress was very slow. even to-day the greater number of pupils passing from public elementary into secondary schools unfortunately leave the latter when still under 16 years of age. for all excepting a very small proportion of school chil- dren secondary education ends in practice two years before it should. there are over 5,000,000 children in the public elemen- tary schools of england, and the number leaving these schools is probably about 600,000 in each year. but the provision for their further education is still wholly inadequate. england is in this respect behind scotland, where the tradition has been dif- ferent, in a very material degree. religious controversy.—the religious controversy over the schools in england must not be passed over. the act of 1902 had to be made a compromise on this question if the house of lords were to pass it. accordingly, that act provided for the maintenance of the schools not provided by the local educa- tion authorities, i.e., the voluntary schools, mostly of church foundation. these were to be maintained by the authorities out of the rates. they were each to have, under the act of 1902, six managers, of whom four were to be denominational foundation managers, and two were to be appointed by local authorities. the foundation managers were to be such that they would have regard to the ownership of the school building, and to the principles on which education had been given in the schools as managed in the past. these schools were to be maintained and kept efficient under the direction of the local education authorities, and, as regards secular instruction, their directions were to be carried out as regards the number and educational qualifications of the teachers, but the consent of these author- itics to the action of the managers was not to be withheld except on educational grounds, and such consent was required for the dismissal of a teacher, unless the dismissal was on grounds con- nected with the giving of religious instruction. the managers were required to provide the school free of charge. the relation of the local educational authorities to these managers was defined in a judgment given by the house of lords in 1g12 (gillow v. county council of durham, 1913, appeal cases 54). the tendency has, not unnaturally, been for these non-pro- vided, or voluntary, schools to diminish in number. one reason has been that in the areas, mostly rural, where there was only a single school, this school was denominational. but there has been at least as great a diminution in the urban areas. in 1903 there were 5,975 provided schools as against 14,238 non-provided. in 1924 there were 8,967 provided schools as against 11,776 non- provided. the difference in accommodation is still more strik- ing: in 1903, there were places for 3,065,169 scholars in provided, as against 3,722,317 in non-provided; in 1924, there were places for 4,428,096 scholars in provided, as against 2,661,618 in non- provided schools. education in scotland.—in scotland the scottish education act of 1918 made a clean sweep on this subject; all the schools, provided and non-provided, were brought under the control of q22 the new education authorities as regards the rate aid and sub- stantially as regards state aid and the authority had to be satis- fied as to the qualifications of the teachers before the denomina- tional authorities were allowed to appoint them. the novel spectacle was seen of nuns studying in the universities in order to secure the necessary qualifications for the higher appoint- ments in schools controlled by the state. education acts, 1918 and 1921.—the education act of 1918, which was carried through by mr. h. a. l. fisher, and which is now re-enacted, along with most of the earlier acts, in consoli- dated form by the education act of 1921, made a determined attempt to improve the state of things in england and wales. this new act did not attempt to re-open the controversy over the church schools. but it aimed at the establishment of ‘a national system of publi: education available for all persons capable of profiting thereby,” and the local authorities were called on to prepare schemes setting out the provision which they had made and proposed to make to this end. the act effects important changes in respect of elementary education (see elementary epvucation) including the powcr to establish nursery schools for children between two and five years of age. it raises the compulsory school age for education from 12 to 14 with power to the local authority by by-law to extend that age to 15. it abolishes part-time attendance; it makes provision for central schools for the older and more intelligent children in the elementary schools, and it lays emphasis on physical training and the social side of education. the local authorities are to co-operate in providing for the preparation of children for further education in schools other than elementary, and for their trans- ference at suitable ages to schools which give such further educa- tion. the act also dea's with the supply and training of teachers, and extends the duties and powers of the local authorities with reference to medical inspection and treatment to secondary and continuation schools. it removes the limit imposed on rating powers for education other than elementary. continuation schools —but perhaps the most novel feature of the statute was that which instituted a compulsory system of part-time continuation education after the close of the elemen- tary school period. ‘‘ young persons ”’ between the ages of 14 and 18 were required to attend a continuation school for 320 hours in the year, unless able to claim exemption under the act. unfortunately financial difficulties have prevented the nation from making this new system a general or efficient one. what has, however, emerged is not only a growth in the recognition of the necessity of secondary schools, but an increasing disposition in pupils, who are leaving the elementary schools, to attend technical and special schools, and also, when older, classes of a purely university tutorial character and those organised on an increasing scale by such bodies as the workers’ educational association. (see workers’ education.) secondary education.—looking back over the history of edu- cation in england, we find that the backbone of secondary education used to be the local endowed grammar schools. these were often of great antiquity and owed their existence to the munificence of private founders, often ecclesiastical in character. it happened frequently that these grammar schools bore no relation to the needs which had sprung up amid a changed popu- lation. they might exist in remote and small towns, while the populous industrial centres were without them. successive com- missions did something to secure the due application of their revenues, but there was no general scheme of reform which was carried into effect. sometimes these endowed schools reached a high level of effi- ciency and prosperity, but at other times they merely languished on, often with inadequate resources. there were indeed higher grade schools, founded to promote the teaching of science and art, but the local authorities, school boards after the passing of the education act of 1870, were restrained by the state of the law from developing this side so as to make it follow on primary education. the famous cockerton judgment gave the quietus to every such attempt. however, the technical instruction act of 1889 enabled committees to be set up to develop technical education instruction with the aid of certain moneys granted by parlia- ment out of the revenue from excise, and known as the “ whisky ” money. the teaching was mostly in the evening, but some of the ordinary schools were subsidised for this kind of teaching. pres- ently the subjects were so extended as to include english and modern languages. these influences stimulated the desire for systematic secon- dary education, and this led to the recognition of the want of some method of training the teachers required for these and for the elementary schools. pupil teacher centres had begun, with the commencement of the century, to come into existence. what was needed was a general system, with control both by the board of education and the local authorities. in 1904 the former body took a fresh step. it sent out regulations which defined a second- ary school as one which could offer to the scholars up to and beyond the age of 16 a four years’ course of general education of a wider scope and more advanced degree than that in the ele- mentary school. english, geography, history, at least one lan- guage other than english, mathematics, science and drawing, manual work, physical exercises and, for girls, housewifery, were among the subjects included. grants-in-aid were made, and the education dept. in whitehall, although still hampered by the insufliciency of the money put at its disposal, was no longer inter- fered with by the independent organisation of the science and art dept. which was now merged into it. some good work was accomplished by this and subsequent efforts of the education dept., and a scholarship svstem for the benefit of children in elementary schools, who desired to proceed to secondary educa- tion, did much to render the new movement popular. (see secondary sciiools.) the report of a royal commission under the presidency of lord bryce appointed in 1894 had done a good deal to give defi- nite shape to the movement. as the result of the report of that commission, the board of education act of 1899 was passed. under this act the department of science and art had been incor- porated into the department of education in a newly-organised board of education, with a president and a parliamentary sec- retary, and the powers of the charity commissioners in relation to educational endowments were also transferred to the new board. a consultative committee to advise the board was like- wise set up, and, after the passing of the education act of 1902, the administrative work was divided, in accordance with the functions of the board, under the heads of elementary, second- ary and technological. university dcvelopment——the machinery at whitehall was now adequate to the task. assistance was added from another source. the early part of the 2oth century witnessed a great development in the provision for university education in eng- land. london university had already, as the result of the london university act of 1898, been developed, though very imperfectly, into a kind of teaching university, instead of being left as a university whose functions were confined to giving de- grees on a mere external examination basis. dissensions among those interested prevented the work from being completed, and it is even to-day far from completion. but the university col- leges and schools in london received a great stimulus, and they have not only developed into an aggregate of powerful univer- sity colleges, but have increased in number. the movement brought into being a desire on the part of the university colleges elsewhere than in london for the grant of full university status. as the result of an enquiry held by a special committee of the privy council on the application of the colleges at liverpool and manchester for charters, a committee, over which the late duke of devonshire presided, and on which lord rosebery and the late lord balfour of burlcigh sat, the request was found to be justified. there was a hearing of witnesses which lasted for several days in dec. r902. after deliberation the committee reported, and an order in council, of feb. 10 1903, gave effect to the report. the charters petitioned for were to be granted, but it was added that this step involved issues of great moment which must be kept in view, and for the solution of which due preparation education should be made, especially in regard to those points on which, having regard to the importance of the matter and the effects of any changes upon the future of higher education in the north of england, co-operation was expedient between universities of a common type and with cognate aims. the date of this order in council is too little remembered, but it is a memorable one. it gave state recognition to a fresh development in higher edu- cation. the principle laid down was that the number of the english universities might usefully be increased, and that thev were to include civic universities, with their headquarters in great cities, large enough and keen enough to ensure that the requisite local resources should be forthcoming for the mainte- nance and development of the new universities. it was con- sidered, and as the event proved, rightly, that the civic univer- sity would make an appeal to the citizens greater than the old type of local university college had been able to do. the movement thus started grew. not only liverpool and manchester, but birmingham, leeds, sheffield and bristol founded universities. durham was expanded and developed so as to take in newcastle-upon-tyne. with the inclusion of lon- don, no fewer than eight teaching universities were thus added in the early part of the 20th century to the list in england. to these the most recent, reading, must be now added. besides this, two new universities were added in ireland. these fresh influences on higher education came into action very rapidly. their activities found a parallel in new activities of oxford and cambridge and there came into operation a new force, perme- ating from the top the whole educational system in england. many of the teachers in the schools almost at once sought to qualify themselves by taking the degrees, based partly on record of work in the university, which the new provision made pos- sible. there were other opportunities for further colleges of a university type, some of which scem to be on the road to the attainment of university status. the result has been a substantial increase in the number of teachers passing through these new institutions and so gaining a university training, and also of special training colleges available to teachers. the board of education now assists teachers to follow approved full-time courses of advanced study at the uni- versities. there are now also short courses at oxford, cam- bridge and elsewhere provided for teachers in secondary schools. (see teaching.) board of education——the board of education is concerned with the universities only indirectly. the grants to them are made under the advice of a wholly distinct body, the university grants committee of the treasury, a body which contains indi- viduals of high experience in university affairs. from the report of this committee for 1923-4, 1t appears that, in spite of financial pressure in the classes from which the university students are mainly drawn, and in spite of the rise in fees and in personal expenses, there are now 56-9% more full-time students of both _ sexes at the british universities and colleges than before the war. the committee estimate that a further increase is probable. they also point out that the basis of the university curriculum is being broadened in response to new require- ments. it records with satisfaction that the chancellor of the exchequer has agreed to place on the estimates for 1925-6 an increased grant-in-aid for the universities of {£1,550,000, in substitution for the £1,242,570 which was included in the vote for 1924-5. adult education.—in yet another fashion the universities have undertaken a national duty. about 1875 oxford began to interest itself in adult education (sce adult epucation) of an extramural type and cambridge appointed a syndicate for local lectures, and so took the first official step in the movement for uni- versity extension (see university extension). but the system of isolated local lectures has had to be supplemented. this is being increasingly done by tutorial classes, mainly organised by joint committees of the universities and the workers’ edu- cational asssociation (see workers’ epucation). dr. albert mansbridge has taken a prominent part in the movement. the new tutorial class system already receives some financial aid 923 from the board of education, given through the local education authorities. under this system courses of lectures are held wherever prac- ticable by university tutors, who establish themselves in the industrial locality where the teaching is given. ‘the lectures form a consecutive course, running to 12 or even 24 lectures. when practicable there are courses extending over successive years; where possible, three. the hours are in the evening, for the students are mainly of the classes that are engaged in manual jabour in the mine, the factory or the field or are busied in clerical work in the counting-house during the day. so far they have been popular and have brought labour into a further rela- tion with education. for the students are adults and the stand- ard of teaching and the qualifications of the teacher are those of the university, and appropriate to adults with experience of life. summer meetings and schools for the same kind of student are now organised by some of the universities, including oxford and cambridge (see summer schools). these are well attended and are popular with the working classes. another body, the british institute of adult education, is actively co-operating in developing the movement. in this kind of extramural university education the most sought-after subjects for the moment appear to be those of eco- nomics and industrial history. but literature and languages, philosophy, including psychology, sociology, history, natural science and music are also being increasingly chosen. the sys- tem is spreading over england, and the new universities and the university colleges are active in extending it. but it 1s much dependent on access to libraries. the work of most of the coun- ties in establishing libraries and the intervention, on an already considerable scale, of the carnegie united kingdom trust, by providing central libraries from which those that are local can draw books, are helping to get over this difficulty (see lipra- ries). a further question of growing importance is that of ex- tending the availability to localities of the national museums. (sce museums.) - altogether the adult education movement may be said to have opened up a new way in which higher education of the university type can be reached by the democracy, and it may well travel much further along that road, particularly if the state assists it financially in a larger measure than at present. the universities are thus becoming more of national institutions than they were before they took up the movement. the latest feature in the movement is that the trade unions have determined to take it up, and desire to have an active part in its direction. the ques- tion of the expediency of this may give rise to discussion, but it appears to be an advantage that the trade union congress should now be interesting itself directly in the higher education of the working classes, in connection with the activities both of universities and local authorities and the workers’ educational assn., and of the labour colleges which have been established in various centres. special organisations.—the system of education as it exists to-day in england has now been described. it has been shown how it extends in principle from the nursery school, through primary and secondary stages, to the higher education, given either within the universities or by them extramurally. there are other agencies, not organised in any way by the state, which co-operate in the work. for example, the boy scouts movement (sec boy scouts), the industrial settlements, the sunday-school organisations and the women’s institutes, along with others, are contributing a good deal that is of special ethical value. the description given here has not been extended to them, partly for reasons of space, and partly because they are less directly con- nected with education in the strict sense than the recognised organisations already described. the board of education is now not only assisting adult edu- cation and the tutorial class system by grants made to the local authorities for the purpose, but it has appointed special com- mittees which have made valuable reports on the subject. one of these reported in 1924. the inspectors of the board now visit and report to it upon the university tutorial classes. what remains 924 is to take the system of national education, look at it as a whole, and ascertain the nature of the mental treatment which characterises each stage in that whole. tue psycuolocy or education the earliest stage is concerned with the conduct of very young children. the conduct of the lower animals is largely guided by what is called instinct, and, in the case of the higher animals also, including man, instinct plays a great part. waking and slecp- ing, much of what we reveal in our actions is due not to con- sciously formecl purposes but to habits which are ours as mem- bers of our species, and which yet enter into the making up of our personalities (see psycuolocy). these habits are in many cases instinctive, the result of inheritance, and often, even when they have been originally formed by choice, they come to seem instinctive. in social, as well as individual, action much of what is done is not the outcome of conscious purpose. mother and child, for example, are alike ruled by the unconscious prompt- ings of the species. but the fact that, especially in young children, instinctive habit plays a large part does not alter the necessity of regarding the child as a person by guiding its mind. the law extends to the child protection and even rights. in its behaviour there are premonitions of the higher rights of adolescence. still, con- sciously formed purpose is only one among the aspects of nascent personality. the other aspects, those more nearly of the higher animal, have to be studied by methods which extend to phases with which the teacher in the primary school has to con- cern himself less. in the nursery school the personality has to be developed by different means. (see montteessorr« meetiiop.) ilere the insight of the modern psychologist becomes of most obvious value. he refuses to limit individuality to the mind. the biologically re- garded organism enters into the constitution of personality, and, if the purpose of education be to develop the best forms of indi- viduality, the body and what is bodily must not be ignored. our organs are in large measure self-directing. we do not, for example, perform the function of digestion consciously, nor do we consciously control our steps when walking. yet the life of the organism is a whole and if that life fails these processes cease. for physiologists and psychologists alike this is so. this whole life controls the parts and functions, sometimes unconsciously, sometimes consciously. our conscious efforts as persons are what is called conative. they are guided and made possible by inherited instincts which do not always come into consciousness. when they do, and when action is consciously based on past expe- rience, we have one form of memory. development of the child.—as the physical individuality of the child develops into consciousness his conative and memoric capacity develops with it. freedom of choice gives him new activities. these activities are the outcome of his self-directing energies and they have values which vary. what education has to do is to bring into his consciousness ever-increasing interests and values. the child has to be guided in the fashioning of his experience and to the most valuable forms of activity in fashion- ing it. his tendencies in conation are thus set in higher direc- tions and his experience is enriched by the new memories which influence his choices. the ideas that often seemed most attrac- tive are thus to be refashioned in the earliest form of school. the meanings of the things around are expanded and connected together. the original attitudes towards events are modified and further experience creates new dispositions. here the teacher has his opportunities. it is obvious that in this region there is much work for the psychologist, and much has been done by writers, such as the german biologist, richard semon, in providing theories and detailed explanations. at the stage of infancy in the develop- mentof the child theapplication of these is often of value. but there are other fields in which psychologists have been working which are concerned with young and old alike. one of these is the investigation made by physiological psychologists into the dependence of the mind on the nervous system. (sce psycui- education | atry.) so wide a subject only admits of mention; it is enough to say that it is to-day recognised as being an important one in the study of education and must not be neglected. another field is that of psycho-analysis. (see psycito-analy- sis.) freud and jung have in different ways developed the view that there is in the self a region of which we are not conscious, but in which are buried ‘ complexes’ which are striving to break through and intluence conscious action in ways which be- come intelligible only if we study the region of their genesis. this point of view has many adherents, and it is now entering into the studies by teachers of the minds of their pupils. the field which ts thus opened up ts, however, a somewhat contro- versial one. it is obvious that psychology, in forms such as those alluded to, is an important subject in the theory of education. but it can never be relied on as containing the whole of the truth. teach- ing, which ts directed to the development in the best direction of individuality, must be primarily concerned with personality, that is with intelligence that is conscious of itself as such. psy- chology has the value for education that physics and chemistry have for biology. but just as it is at least doubtful whcther the former sciences, concerned as they are with mere order in exter- nality, can furnish conceptions which adequately express the character of hfe, so it is doubtful whether psychological methods can really reach to developed personality. direct study of the individual minds of his pupils is always necessary for the teacher. he may derive much subsidiary help from scientific observation, such as that afforded by “ fatigue psychology,” or in quite an- other form from the method of dr. maria montessori, which is to throw on the child as much as possible the responsibility for its own education, and to reduce external interference with self- development to a minimum. still the teacher must intluence the environment, and so direct development under its influence. the influence of his own per- sonality counts for much, even in the infant school, and the example he sets, mental and moral, counts for certainly not less in the subsequent stages of education. the old psychological notions were insulficient in so far as they treated knowledge as a merely passive interpretation of external experience. we have learned that knowledge is an activity which changes even that expericnce for him who possesses it, and therefore requires ade- quate stimulus from within and direction from without. the giving of these is the work of the teacher throughout his whole career, and it depends primarily on his developed personality as well as on the individuality of his pupil. the school is the en- vironment in which he works and the influence which he directs. enough has been said to show the new scope and importance in the teaching of to-day of psychological ideas. science in hducation.—the desire on the part of those con- cerned with education to apply scientific conceptions in the organisation of their work is to-day increasing. the stimulus to apply general science seems to have come to them from the searching methods forced on their notice by the world war. it is indeed since the war that in england much of the growth now described has taken place. the study of childhood and pri- mary training has become more thorough; secondary education still remains the weak point, but its shortcomings are being closely scrutinised, and it is slowly being developed. the idea of the university type of education is laving hold of the people with greatly increased power. the advance in england has been accompanied by an advance in scotland in kind, probably not relatively speaking as great, for there wasless unbroken ground to be covered. germany, france and italy in the other countries of europe analogous, though not wholly similar, advances have been made with not less zeal. in ger- many there is a striking example of this. she had before the war a remarkable educational system, in advance in most re- spects of that of any other country, but it was a system which had been shaped unduly in the interests of the well-to-do classes, and did not fit the new constitution of the democratic republic. with the advent of a democratic form of government all this is education being changed. germany is struggling to establish a principle of unity (zinfeif), under which the children of rich and poor shall be educated together, and she is also doing her best to develop the system of continuation schools which existed in her country before the war, and which she is now trying to make not only everywhere compulsory, but extended in scope. in studying the voluminous literature which her new educa- tional leaders are pouring out about the ideals of her new sys- tem, it is impossible not to realise that the old keenness about education still pervades the german people and makes it ready for sacrifices in order to preserve what has been one of her great advantages. the german universities do not appear to have thrown themselves into the work of spreading their influence extramurally to the people in the way the universities of eng- land are doing. but this side of the work of levelling up the pop- ular mind is not being overlooked. the teachers in the higher schools in the industrial centres, men who have been university trained, are giving a new sort of adult eclucation to those round them. altogether the effect of the war in imparting fresh stim- ulation to the growing demand for equality in education (the national poverty notwithstanding) appears to be not less striking than it is in england. education in france.—in france an analogous desire for equal- itv in education is apparent. like germany she had before the war a splendid system of secondary schools. but the provision for those children in her elementary schools who could not hope to go there was deficient. an effort is being made to concen- trate on improving primary education. the highly centralised system of state control renders the accomplishment of this task more difficult in the absence of local initiative. but french statesmen appear to be quite aware of its importance; a lesson which the war has driven home. ‘they are still faced with diff- culties caused by the highly centralised educational system es- tablished under napoleon, and hardly less by the insistence of the church on a religious character for the schools. but, on the other hand, france has inherited a splendid tra- dition in her establishments for secondary education of lycees and colleges, in which ability to speak well and write well is developed in the scholars as it is almost nowhere else. recent re- forms, while leaving undiminished the classical tradition recom- mended as indispensable for this purpose, are introducing science also into these institutions. the recommendations of the ribot commission in 1899 about secondary education have been fol- lowed up by the proposals for widening the basis of the system made by m. berard in 1921. the purpose was to provide an elite, nurtured in the traditional culture of the french nation, but so extended as to reach poor and rich alike. under this scheme scholarships were to be given to enable the best pupils in the elementary schools to proceed to the re- formed secondary schools. the chamber of deputies and the president of the republic approved the plan, but it remains to be seen how the national financial necessities will permit of its being carried fully into effect. the position in france of her secondary schools is a great one. they have influenced the de- velopment there of primary education and appear likely to in- fluence it still more. the war has stimulated the desire of the french for a much improved system of national education in which rich and poor shall both share. education in italy—another and last example of the influence of the war, apparent also in many countries other than those here referred to, 1s the development of the national system of education in italy. in that country education has always been a state monopoly. the schools were almost entirely state schools, and the educational machinery was by tradition highly central- ised. the system was, however, good in many respects, although it was bureaucratic and lacked elasticity. the teachers were too tightly bound. the subjects prescribed were too numerous, and yet fine art and music and games were not taught. primary edu- cation was compulsory, but the weak spot was the difliculty of enforcing the compulsion. this was partly due to the small in- terest taken by the nation in its system of education, notwith- standing that the schools were open to everyone. 925 the spirit of education.—it was plain that education had to be made more interesting, and, among others, prof. giovanni gentile, the minister of education in 1923, set himself to accom- plish this. he considered that his first task was to reform the spirit of the teachers. these must learn that education is no mere matter of empirical rules, or even of organisation, but is a spiritual activity, involving the continuous self-recreation of the individual teacher. the plan is to entrust him with a large amount of liberty in working out the purpose prescribed to him. this is accompanied by greater freedom given to the local edu- cation authorities, with which they can adapt the schools to the varying requirements of their neighbourhood. it is a new expe- rience to read in an official decree such words as those with which the minister introduced the new scheme in 1923 :— the schemes for study which are described here are intended more than anything as a guide. the teacher is informed of the result which the state expects from his work in each school year, leaving him free to use what he individually considers the most suitable ways for arriving at it. these, for several reasons, are always various and elastic; according to how the teacher is situated with regard to his scholastic surroundings, and according to his individual personal culture, and the particular character which he has succeeded in giving to the spirit of his teaching, by means of observation and personal experience. the following schemes are designed in such a way as to oblige the teacher continually to renew his personal culture; not only by means of the superficial little manuals in which he can gather the crumbs of knowledge, but from the living fountains of national culture. ... these schemes forbid the commonplace platitudes which have so long dulled children’s education, and demand pure genuine poetry, sincere searching for truth, energetic investigation of the popular spirit, restless andl never satisfied, asking always the reason why; the rapture of contemplating pictures resplendent with art and life, the communion with great souls which speak through the mouth of the teacher. noble words these of the minister-philosopher in whose hands the cause of education in italy was placed in 1923. it will be of interest to observe how far the new spirit is realised. some conclusions reviewing the state of education in england and in the other civilised countries referred to, it may be said to be this. the war brought about a remarkable advance, primarily through the fresh interest in education which has been awakened in the ~ people. this interest has resulted in a desire for equality of educational opportunity, which is having its effect on the policy of governments. democracy is coming to its own in the attain- ment of fresh chances for its hitherto less fortunate members. the spirit of scientific organisation 1s also becoming everywhere operative. much remains to be accomplished, but a beginning has been made, and the process of development now initiated does not seem likely to stop. if wealth again accumulates, a good deal is likely to be asked for in order to give the people better chances than those hitherto attainable. it is.not only in the schools and universities that the new desire is making its influence felt. the chiefs of industry and commerce are asking for higher standards of knowledge in those whom they employ. they are recognising, too, the value in their undertakings of pure science, and in england the govt. 1s co-operating, through the medium of committees under the president of the council, in giving what is wanted. it is a new function of the president of the council to organise and to stimulate industrial and scientific research. public funds have been placed at his disposal. in the year 1925-6 some £380,000 was applied for these purposes. in 1925 the govt. also added to its machinery a committee under the cabinet analogous to the committee of imperial defence, but devoted to problems of civil enquiry. this new committee, which has hardly as yet had time to get into its work, opens up new possibilities in the way of furnishing the cabinet with exact knowledge for the disposal of civilian problems of every kind, at home and in rela- tion to the empire. these changes bear closely on the growing demand for educa- tion, and especially for higher education. the strides made in organisation are great, and the spread of knowledge is more rapid as well as wider than was the case before the war. but the 926 advances actually so far made are in outlook and organisation mainly, and until the financial stress of the time passes and the freer provision of public funds becomes practicable, the full advantages of what has been recently accomplished can hardly be reaped. notwithstanding this, it is no exaggeration to say that the convulsion which shook the world in 1914 has produced a new stimulus to education of all kinds. (11) the literature of education since roro the literature dealing with education in great britain in its many aspects has increased steadily in volume and value so that a careful selection of the more important and per- manently useful publications—official and other—will be found to be of practical use to the student. official reports royal commission on the university of london. final report cd. 6717. 1913. royal commission on the university of wales. final report of cd. 8991. 1917. royal commission on the oxford and cambridge universities. 2volumes. 1922. cmd. 1588. final report of the adult education committee, 1919. out of print. cmd. 321, report of the departmental committee on the organisation of secondary education in wales, i920. cmd. 967. report of the departmental committee on scholarships and free places, 1920. cmd. 968. report of the departmental committee on the training of teachers for public elementary schools. 1925. cmd. 2409. reports of prime minister’s committees:— (a2) on natural science and education. (6) on modern studies. 1918. (c) on classics. 1921. report of the departmental committee on the teaching of eng- lish in england. 1921. board of education consultative commutiee.— (1) differentiation of curricula between the sexes in secondary schools. 1922. (2) psychological tests of educable capacity. 1924. educational pamphlets.— no. 28. teaching of greek at the perse school, cambridge. (educational experiments in secondary schools, no. iii.) 1914. no. 32. the admiralty method of training dockyard appren- 1918. tices. i9qi6. ' no. 37. teaching of history. 1923. no. 39. notes on camping. 1920. no. 41. the botany garden of james alten’s girls’ school, dulwich. 1922. no. 42. experimental course in music at the mary datchelor school, camberwell. (educational experiments in secondary schools, no. vi.) 1923. no. 43. humanism in the continuation school. 1921. no. 45. teaching of drawing in a secondary school. 1924. no. 46. rural education. 1926. history of education, epucational institutions and biography adamson, j. w. a short history of education. cambridge, 1919. archer, r.l. secondary education in the 19th century. cambridge, 1921. boyd, william. the history of western education. 1921. builer, j. r. m. henry montague butler: master of trinity college, cambridge (1886-1918), 1925. dobbs, a. ek. education and social movements 1780-1850. igig. draper, w. 17, university extension 1873-1923. cambridge, 1923. henson, it. i. sir william anson. oxford, 1920. ilumberstone, t. l. university reform in london. 1926. lempriere, w. a wistory of the girls’ school of christ’s hospital, london. cambridge, 1924. leach, a. f. schools of mediaeval england. 1915. malherbe, ernest g. education in south africa: 1652-1922. cape town, 1925. mallett, charles edward. a history of the university of oxford. 2 volumes, 1924. mansbridge, albert. 1920. man ee albert, the older universities of england, oxford and cambridge. 1923. | parry, r. st. john. henry jackson, o.m.: a memoir. 1926. paton, j. l. john brown paton. a biography. i914. sanderson of oundle, 1923. tillyard, a. i. a history of university reform from 1800 to the present time, with suggestions towards a complete scheme for the university of cambridge. 1913. an adventure in working-class education. education winstanley, d. a. the university of cambridge in the 18th cen- tury. cambridge, 1922. wodehouse, llelen. a survey of the tlistory of education. 1924. english educational system balfour, sir graham. educational aiministration. oxford, 1921. birchenough, c. history of elementary education in i:ngland and wales from 1800 to the present day. 1925. burstall, sara a., and douglas, m.a. public schools for girls. 1g1rt. castillejo, j. la educacion en inglaterra. i919. dibelins, w. england. 2 volumes. 1923. dunkerley, g. b., and hw". r. kingham. the assistant master, 1923. itolmes, &.g. a. what is and what might be. igtt. jones, lance g. fe. the training of teachers in england and wales. oxford, 1923. kandel, i. el. education in great britain and ireland. (united states bureau of education, bulletin, 1919. no.9.) 191g. magnus, l. the jubilee book of the girls’ public day school trust, 1873-1923. 1923. newton, a. w. the english elementary school. 1g19. noe c. and a. hf, hope. higher education of boys in eng- and. 1909. rebora, p. la scuola in inghifterra. torino, 1925. roman, f. w. the new education in europe (contains a section on england). 1923. sandiford, p. comparative education. 1918. stanley, ion. oliver. the way out. oxford, 1923. tawney, r. h. secondary education for all. 1922. tawney, r. h. education: the socialist policy. 1924. mayhew, arthur. the education of india. 1926. educational tiieory adams, sir john. the evolution of educational theory. 1912. adamson, sir j. e. the individual and the environment. 1921. benson, a. c. ed. cambridge essays on education. cambridge, 1917. campagnac, e. t. society and solitude. cambridge, 1922. campagnac, e. t, education in [ts relation to the common pur- poses of humanity. 1925. . | findlay, j. j. the school (ilome university library). 1912. findlay, j. j. the foundations of education: a survey of prin- ciples and projects. vol. 1. 1925. findlay, j. j. the aims and organisation of education. vol. 2. 1926, findlay, j. j. the practice of education. garnet, j. c. m. education and world citizenship. cambridge, 1921. leathes, sir stanley. what is education? 1913. nunn, t. p. education: its data and first principles. 1920. russell, bertrand. on education, especially in early childhood. 1926, welfon, j. what do we mean by education? 1915. yeaxlee, b. a. spiritual values in adult education. 1925, educational psyciiology drever, j. an introduction to the psychology of education. i922. fox, c. educational psychology. 1925. pear, t. hf, skill in work and play. 1924. pillsbury, w. b. education as the psychologist sees it. new york, 1925. eo aad e. £. educational psychology (briefer course). new york, 1914. welton, j. the psychology of education. i9it. intelligence tests:— ballard, p. b. mental tests. 1920. ballard, p. b. group tests of intelligence, 1922. brown, w., and g. h. thompson. the essentials of mental measure- ments. cambridge, 1921. burt, cyril. mental and scholastic tests. 1921. gregory, c. a. fundamentals of educational measurement. new york, 1922. pintner, r. \intelligence testing. methods and results. new york, 1923; terman, l. mf. the measurement of intelligence. 1919. stern, w. die intelligenz der kinder und jugendlichen und die methoden ihrer untersuchung. leipzig, 1920. adams, sir john. ed. the new teaching. 1918. bain, a. watson. the modern teacher, 1921. bagley, w. c., and j. a. it, keith. an introduction to teaching. new york, 1924. kilpatrick, w. k. foundations of method. new york, 1925. special subjects english :— campagnac, e. t. lectures on the teaching of composition. 1912. cook, hf. caldwell. the play way. 1917. incorporated association of assistant masters. memorandum on the teaching of english. 1923. lamborn, e. a.g. expression in speech and writing. oxford, 1922. ouiller-couch, sir arthur. on the art of writing. cambridge, i919. education qouiller-couch, sir arthur. on the art of reading. cambridge, 1920. zomkinson, w. s. the teaching of english. oxford, 1921. geography: bradford, e. a g. school geography. 1925. brown, r. n. r., a. j. r. howarth and j. afcfuariane. the scope of school geography. oxford, 1922. fairgrieve, james, geography in school. history :— archer, r.c., le. v. d. owen and a. e. chapman. the teaching of history i in elementary schools, a. & c. black, 1916. findlay, j. j. history and its place in i-ducation. university of london press, 1923. hasluck, e. l. the teaching of history. cambridge university press, 1920. incerporated association of assistant masters. memorandum on the teaching of history. cambridge, 1925. jarvis, c. it. the teaching of history. oxford university press, 1917. mathematics:— mathematical association. elementary mathematics for girls. 1916. teaching of geometry in schools. 1923. teaching of mathematics in preparatory schools. nunn, t. p. the teaching of algebra. 1914. potter, f, f. the teaching of arithmetic. 1922. punnett, m. the ground work of arithmetic. 1914. smith, d.e. the progress of arithmetic in the last quarter of a century, 1923, modern languages:— atkins, h.g., and h. l, hutton. the teaching of modern f oreign languages. 1920. bateman, g. c. aids to modern language teaching. 1925. kittson, e. c. theory and practice of language teaching. moore, h. e. modernism in language teaching. 1925. o'grady, h, the teaching of modern foreign languages, 1915. science:— . brown, j, teaching of science in schools. science masters' association. general science. 1924. pahi, f. geschichte der naturwissenschaftlichen und mathemati- schen unterrichts. leipzig, 1913. schoenichen, w. methodik und technik des naturgeschichtlichen unterrichts. leipzig, 1914. young children :— murray, f. m., and h. brown smith. the child under eight. macmillan af. the nursery school. ig19. owen, grace. the nursery school education. 1926. 1924. 1918. 1925. 1919. 1920. experiments in education craddock, e. a. the class-room republic. 1920. culverwell, e. p. montessori principles and practice. 1913. fisher, d. c. a montessori mother. 1912. gollancz, v., and d, sommerveil, political education in a public school. 1918. harris, m. o'brien. towards freedom. 1923. lynch, a. j. individual work and the dalton plan. macm unn, norman, the child's path to freedom. parkhurst, helen, education on the dalton plan. 1922. simpson, j. an adventure in education. i9i7. montessori, maria. scientific pedagogy: translated from the italian by anne r. george. igi2. montessori, maria. advanced montessori method: scientific pedagogy applied to children from the age of 7 to 11. 2 vol. i917 and 1918. (ace t.*) iii. education in the united states each state has its own system of education, which includes elementary and secondary schools and institutions of higher learn- ing. all the states have enacted compulsory school laws, but in standards and enforcement of them the states vary widely. school attendance is generally required of children between the ages of 8 and 14 (or 16) during from 6 to 8 months of the year, and many states further require attendance at part-time or evening classes by those who have not acquired a prescribed minimum of education or who cannot adequately speak, read and write the english language. the national govt., through congress in 1916, notably re- enforced the compulsory school laws of the states by an enact- ment prohibiting the shipment, in interstate commerce, of any articles in the manufacture of which children under 14 have been employed. in place of a nearly uniform curriculum and the almost universal requirement of 8 years in the elementary school, there is manifest a tendency to group together as a “ junior high school ” the seventh, eighth and ninth grades, which other- wise would constitute the last two years of the elementary school and the first year of the secondary school. the purpose of the 927 rearrangement is to facilitate departmental teaching, to free the child from the rigid grade system of promotion (by which a failure in one subject necessitates the repetition of the whole year’s work), and to permit earlier a choice of courses and there- by prepare the pupil for greater accomplishment in his chosen field during the later high-school years. the public secondary schools have grown rapidly in numbers and resources. their enrolment doubled in the 10 years, 1908-18; from 1,564,152 in 1918 the enrolment rose to 2,160,861 in 1922. they are no longer essentially stepping stones to college; they represent the con- tinuation of the common schools, and their function is to com- plete the formal education of that vast majority which will never enter institutions of higher learning. colleges and universities throughout the country, but especially in the west and middle west, so-called junior colleges are becoming numerous. some of these institutions are derived from small colleges without support from taxation; some of these colleges, finding themselves financially unable to continue satisfactorily the full four-year course, limit themselves to two years; others, more significantly, form the upward extension of the vigorous public high schools. this type not only brings the opportunity for higher education within the reach of many who could not leave the immediate vicinity of their homes, but also reacts favourably on the pupils and teachers of the secondary schools. the college remains the most characteristic feature of education in the united states. in 1922 there were enrolled 414,806 collegiate students as com- pared with 341,082 in 1920 and 174,213 in 1910. while com- petition is displacing registration, the entrance requirements are, perhaps, less rigid. even the conservative association of new england colleges recommends ‘‘ a system of tests for admission, in which a certificate shall be taken for the quantity, and exam- ination shall be held in a limited number of subjects for the quality, of school work.” the curriculum covers a very wide range of subjects, but ex- perience has shown that it is unwise to permit the student to exercise untrammelled freedom in the choice of his studies, and most colleges now limit the selection of courses in such manner as to prevent too great concentration and too great dispersion as well. the universities, though not more numerous, have in recent years grown stronger. their graduate departments, better manned, attract more students. in this respect the devel- opment of the state-supported institutions has been remarkable. a few years ago only three had achieved distinction on this field; by 1924, 13 had qualified for membership in the associa- tion of american universities, and constituted one-half of its members. -the enrolment of graduate students in all universi- ties in 1916 was 11,215; in 1g20it was 15,612; andin 1922, 22,061. so great has become the demand among women for higher education that the colleges exclusively for women are no longer able to provide for the rapidly increasing number of applicants for admission. bryn mawr, vassar, wellesley, smith and mount holyoke have been forced to establish waiting lists. the doors of the universities for the most part stand open to women upon an equal footing with men. by 1922, 35% of the students, graduate and undergraduate, enrolled in the uni- versities, colleges and technological schools were women, and it may confidently be predicted that women will soon outnumber men. the general admission of women to courses in medicine removes practically the last barrier discriminating between the sexes. (sce co-education.) professional education schools for professional training have grown rapidly. whereas early in the roth century professional education comprised little more than preparation for the ministry, it now includes | theology, medicine, law, the profession of ‘engineering and two offshoots of medicine—dentistry and veterinary medicine. pharmacy and nursing are sometimes regarded as professions because a specialised education is prescribed for those who would practise them. 928 theology —the colleges first founded in what is now the united states—harvard, wiliam and mary, and yale—were established to train men for the christian ministry. as the colleges have developed into universities the original aim has been merged initio the broader purpose of providing liberal education for all, while influential schools of theology have grown up, for the most part, as strictly denominational institutions independent of the universities. methods of teaching and the content of the curriculum have been revised. formal theology is emphasised less, a first-hand knowledge of human relationships more; hebrew is not always obligatory, while the results of literary and historical criticism are fully discussed. freedom of thought in some institutions has completely liberalised the training and greatly modified the traditional theology. during the years 1870-95 the number of theological students increased more rapidly than the general population. for the next 25 years the figures showed marked fluctuations, but for the period as a whole neither student enrolment nor the number of graduates kept pace with the increase in population. medicine.-—the medical schools of the united states were slow to adjust themselves to the new conditions brought about by the growth of medical science. they followed the model of continental europe rather than that of great britain, in that the teaching was almost exclusively by lectures and imposed no definite requirement as to the preliminary education. there was lacking also, for the most part, stimulating contact with colleges or universities of high academic ideals; and therefore there developed an organisation which lent itself readily to com- mercialism. later, however, medical teaching has been revo- lutionised, and it now exemplifies the highest standards of pro- fessional education. the rapid development of physiology and physiological chemistry, bacteriology, pathology and hygiene necessitated the enlargement of the curriculum to include these subjects. laboratory methods of teaching have been introduced, at very great cost for buildings and equipment. teachers qual- ified by training and experience have superseded practising physicians as instructors in the fundamental sciences; in the clinical branches also pedagogical standards have been raised, and in many schools full-time clinical instructors are in charge. satisfactory preliminary education is regarded as essential, and all recognised medical schools in 1926 require of candidates for admission the completion of the four-year secondary school course and at least two years of college work, including physics, chemistry and biology. cornell, western reserve and leland stanford require three years of college for entrance; harvard a degrce from, or two vears of high rank in, a college or scientific school; johns hopkins and chicago a bachelor’s degree or its equivalent. most signi- ficant of all, the student 1s again brought into intimate contact with the patient; hospitals and dispensaries are used as labo- ratories where the prospective physician may acquire skill in examining patients and familiarity with the manifestations of disease. the degree of doctor of medicine is conferred on com- pletion of the medical course, which in nearly all schools is four years in length. a few institutions require also, before granting the degree, a fifth year, spent as an izterne in a hospital. ad- vancing educational requirements, the consequently greater cost of medical training, and the increasing knowledge and interest of the public in matters of public health combined to reduce the number of medical schools from its maximum of 162 in 1906 to 80 in 1925; of medical students from 28,142 in 1904 to 18,200 in 1925; of medical graduates from 5,747 1n 1904 to 3,974 in 1925. engineering.—t he beginnings of american technological train- ing were made, not in the leng-established colleges, but in a group of special schools, independently founded, such as the massachusetts institute of technology in boston and stevens institute in hoboken, new jersey. later the universities eagerly took up education in engineering, developed elaborate departments and offered the greatest varicty of courses. an- other type of technical school is the state college of ‘‘ agri- culture and mechanic arts,” supported by land grants from the federal government. engineering schools require of applicants education for admission the completion of the four-year secondary school course. instruction is largely by means of laboratory courses. the university of cincinnati went a step further, and perfected an arrangement by which students spend half their time outside the college, actually employed in some form of engineering work; periods of two weeks of study alternate with like periods of practice in a shop. the degrce of bachelor of science, with or without specification of the branch studied, is commonly con- ferred after four years of college work. the degrees of civil i-ngineer, mining engineer and so forth are awarded for under- graduate work by some schools in place of the b.sc., by others reserved for more advanced study. dentistry.—since tg00 there has been increasing uniformity among dental schools until, in 1921, all recognised schools re- quired for admission at least the completion of a four-year secondary school course, and many of them demanded an additional collegiate year of preliminary training, followed by four full years of professional training. the increasing recog- nition of the relation of dental pathology to health and disease in the body as a whole tends to make dentistry a branch of the study of medicine, and a leading group of dental schools decided to demand in 1927 the same two years of collegiate preliminary training now required of medical students, followed by four years of dental training. the growing appreciation of the value of dentistry is indicated by the increase in the ratio of the number of dentists to the total population. in 1850 this ratio was 12 for 100,000; in 1910 it was 43; in 1920, 56; in 1925, 68. veterinary medicine —in this, as in other professions, there has come a realisation of the necessity for a solid foundation of general education on which to base special training. the ac- cepted standard in 1921 was the completion of a four-year sec- ondary school course and three years in a college of veterinary medicine. in 1900, 13 schools enrolled 362 students and gradu- ated 100 veterinarians. in 1916 the numbers had increased to 22 schools, 3,064 students and 759 graduates; but in 1921 the number of veterinary schools declined to 14 and the student enrolment to 8409. university extension work under this head are grouped all those activities of institutions of higher learning which are carried on for the benefit of people unable, through lack of time or training, to matriculate in the regular college or university courses, but who still desire some form of higher education, and this extension of facilities is designed to include in its scope persons many years older than the ordinary undergraduate. originally no more than a series of public lectures on topics of literary, historical or scientific interest, this extramural teaching has extended its range, diversified its method and multiplied its activities, until it has become, in some instances at least, an important function of the university. the spirit of service to the community which it embodies was expressed by the jate president van hise in these words: “ so far as the university of wisconsin is concerned, we propose to take up any line of education work within the state for which the university is the best fitted instrument ”’; and again: “it is my ideal of a state university that 1t should be a beneficent influence to every citizen of the state.”’ in such a programme the whole realm of human knowledge is included, from sewing to sanskrit and from plumbing to philosophy. summer sessions, of from six to cight weeks’ duration, provide valuable oppor- tunities for those, chiefly teachers and students, whose work allows a long vacation. varying standards prevail in the sum- mer schools: in not a few the amount and quality of the work render it acceptable as part of the requirement for a degree. the university of chicago has made its summer session the full equivalent of one of the winter terms, and operates on a four- quarter schedule. teaching by mai] is another method em- ployed by some universities to widen their spheres of influence. extension teaching is also carried on by local boards of education, especially in large cities. much of it takes the form of part-time classes for children who have leit school prematurely and for immigrants who lack command of the english language. education private enterprise outside of academic circles has contributed to extension teaching along two distinct lines. the chautauqua assembly is the prototype of the summer school (¢.v.), and has exerted a very wide influence through the thousands who each year attend its courses. quite different in scope, but not less valuable, is the kind of work done by other institutions which provide opportunities and incentives for continuous and serious study as well as lecture courses and concerts having a wider appeal. perhaps the most valuable extension teaching is that which reaches into the home, bringing to the mother such infor- mation as will aid her in solving her manifold and peculiar problems. the u.s. govt. prepares and distributes upon request a comprehensive series of pamphlets containing instruction regarding the selection and preparation of food, infant feeding, child hygiene and many other subjects. whenever possible, nurses and women trained in the household arts visit the homes and, by personal directions and demonstration, often succeed in promoting the welfare of the family whcre print alone would fail. intellectual development is stimulated by courses of home reading. the recognition of the importance of home influences as factors in the child’s success at school led to the formation of ‘‘ parent-teacher associations,” from which the teachers gain a knowledge of the home environment of their pupils and the parents learn how best to co-operate in the work of educating their children. vocational training —this term denotes training of less than college grade, designed to fit the individual to earn a livelihood. its beginning in the form of manual training may be traced back as far as 1880, but except for a few isolated experiments it is a development of the 20th century. phases in the progress toward an understanding of the problem have been: (1) attention was focused on “ misfits ’’; the problem was stated in terms of what might be called a “ niche”’ theory of socicty as that of finding the particular place or station in life that exists some- where for cach individual; (2) it was held to be the duty of socicty to regard with earnest concern and in some way to aid those that are defective; (3) then came the idea that the schools might prevent individual and perhaps unusual types from being spoiled in the making; (4) next came a shift in emphasis to the necessity for vocational training; and (5) finally came a recogni- tion of the necessity for an educational survey of the community in order to determine what opportunities are already available and what its industrial needs really are. the so-called smith-hughes act passed by congress in 1917 authorised appropriations aggregating $7,000,000 a year for promoting, in co-operation with the states, special training in schools designed to meet the needs of those preparing to enter agriculture or industry; provision being also made for training teachers for this work by industrial or commercial corporations. the teaching of domestic science was begun in the schools of framingham, mass., in 1898. the desirability of such training for every young girl has led to the inclusion of one or morc courses in home economics in the curriculum of every girls’ high school, and also in the upper grades of the better organised elementary schools. agricultural education.—training for agricultural pursuits more than any other branch of education has been fostered by the federal government. its development manifests several stages, each characterised by a different method. the land grants of 1862 led to the establishment of state colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts,’ which, however, for a gener- ation at least were predominantly schools of engineering. in 1887 congress authorised subsidies to agricultural experiment stations under state control, a policy the wisdom of which was quickly demonstrated. in a few years these stations accumulated a wealth of exact knowledge relating to farm problems which would have been of inestimable value if it could have been applied. then came the development of agricultural extension education, employing agencies such as lectures, bulletins, correspondence courses, reading courses, farmers’ institutes, short courses in agricultural schools, travelling libraries, educational trains, demonstration farms, education exhibits at fairs and moving 929 pictures. this phase culminated in the smith-lever act of 1914, which appropriated more than $4,000,c00 annually to be apportioned among the states for agricultural extension work. such activity, creating a great demand for teachers and farm demonstrators, reacted beneficially upon the agricultural colleges. meanwhile, another tendency was becoming manifest. the science of farming was being taught in the secondary schools. this plan possessed so many obvious advantages and showed such satisfactory results that in the decade following 1oro it was widely adopted. in 1922, 2,175 public secondary schools, with an enrolment of 59,276 pupils, provided vocational in- struction in agriculture. in most schools the boy or girl is re- quired to carry out, under supervision, some definite enterprise such as the cultivation of a small plot, the raising of pigs or poultry, or the conduct of a miniature dairy. a detailed record of the undertaking, including a financial statement, is required and forms a basis for grading the pupil's work. certain private corporations, not directly engaged in teaching, have influenced education in the united states. the general education board, for example, incorporated in 1903, employed the funds at its disposal in assisting institutions of higher learning throughout the country, and in the southern states it also pro- moted the development of the secondary schools and the teaching of agriculture. later it entered the field of medical education. the carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching, incorporated in 1906, starting with a programme of pensions for retiring college professors, has been led into the field of inves- tigations and surveys. the published reports of its findings have contributed in large measure to educational progress. the russell sage foundation performs similar service. statistics.—the magnitude of work in education may be in- dicated by figures from the statistical survey of education for the school year 1921-2, published in 1925 by the united states burcau of education. the total enrolment in all schools (public and private, from kindergarten to university) was reported as 26,458,655; the total number of teachers, 871,131 (men 180,362, women 690.769); the total cost (including outlays) for the school year, $2,053,250,492; the value of all school property, - $4,369,163,043. for the public schools of elementary and second- ary grade the bureau reported the following figures:— pupils enrolled 24:2401227 average number of days schools were in session 2 ; ; : : ; ; 164 average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled : ; 130-6 number of teachers (men 118,085; women 604,891) : , : 22,976 percentage of men teachers 16-3 (percentage in 1879-80, 42-8) average annual salary of teachers $1,166 number of schoolhouses 270,574 value of all school property . . $3,008, 563,033 receipts . : , : ; . $1,444,241,920 from income of permanent funds and $23,767,933 lands : ; . z : ; from county and local taxes and appro- . $1,106, 331,287 210,707,514 priations . : : from state taxes and appropriations from all other sources 103,435,186 expenditures . ee ts . $1,580,671 ,296 for sites, buildings and equipment $305,940,965 for salaries of superintendents, super- visors, principals and teachers $885,475, 100 for all other purposes... $389,255.83" total expenditure per capita of population 14.47 total expenditure per pupil in average attendance; 2.6 © .@. 6 4 $85.76 average total expenditure per day for each pupil a ee ee $0.523 (a. s$: ds;num.b.) bibliography.—the united states govt. publishes a brenntal survey of education. the education bureau has issued a report annually from 1871, and a number of bulletins covering the sub- jects of agricultural colleges and education, citizenship and civics, city schools, colleges and universities, commercial education, health and hygiene, high schools, home economics, industrial education, kindergarten, rural schools, secondary education, teachers and vocational education. valuable information is also 939 contained in the annual reports of the depts. of education of the various states, e.g., massachusetts, pennsylvania and new york. the following works deal with higher education: david starr jordan, the care and culture of \fen (1910); h. m. bennett, women and work (1917); h. w. stuart, liberal and vocational studies tn the college (1918); thorstcin veblen, the higher learning in amer- te ses le baron kussell briggs, afen, women, and colleges 1925). | on education in general the following are some of the more impor- tant books: a. t. hadley, the education of the american citizen (1902); c.f. thwing, a ifistery of education in the united states since the civil war (1910); education in the united states, a series of monographs, ed. nicholas murray butler (1910); ie. l. thorndike, education: a first book (1912); f. p. graves, a student's history of education, (1915); new possibilities in education, ed. a. l. sahrie, the american academy of political and social science (1916); j. dewey, democracy and education (1916); g. r. twiss, the prin- ciples of science teaching (1917); e. p. cubberley, public education in the united states (1919); j. a. h. keith and w. c. bagley, the nation and the schools (1920); ross l. finney, the american public school (1921); e. h. reisner, nationalism and education since 1780 (1922); j. l. horn, the american elementary school: a study in fundamental principles (1923); h. c. link, education and industry (1923); d. h. smith, the bureau of education: its history, activities and organisation (1923); a. gesell, mental growth of the pre-school child (1924); w. goodsell, the history of the family as a social and feeducational institution (1925); w. h. kilpatrick, foundations of method (1925); cyclopedia of education, ed: p. monroe (1925); c. h. judd, psychology of social institutions (1926); thomas jesse jones, four essentials of education, pref. by f. h. giddings (1926). iv. educational experiments educational experiments in england and wales are usually suggested by the needs of the moment and not by a desire to test by experience a hypothesis formed beforehand. the persons who conduct them do so to overcome a recognised difficulty or to achieve a better way of teaching. in one department, that of intelligence testing, research experiments are tried and it is here that, in the strict sense of the term, experiment takes place. the importance of this subject led to its being referred to the con- sultative committee of the board of education which issued a report on it in 1924. their findings are not conclusive, but in general recognise the importance of these tests while cautious ‘as to the probable usefulness of the results. central schools. —of experiment in a wider sense there is a great deal. the board of education itself is encouraging an experiment on a very large scale in urging local education au- thorities and school managers to set up central schools, to which boys and girls in elementary schools are transferred at or about the age of 11 for a course of study specially designed to cover the years up to 14 or 15, sclection being either by age alone, or through examination. thus some central schools include all children from the schools which fced them, above 11 years of age, dull and clever alike; others, such as the london central schools, consist of picked scholars. this movement is dictated by various con- siderations, such as the growing demand for advanced instruction beyond the primary stage, consciousness that the ordinary elementary school, small or large, does not usually do full justice to its older scholars, and a desire for economy, since the con- centration of specially qualified teachers in central schools is more economical of energy as well as of money than to spread them over ordinary schools with children from 7 to 14. many hold that the primary age ends or should end at 11, with a fair equipment in the tools of learning; and that all teaching beyond that age should be post-primary if not secondary in character. where central schools are established, this principle holds the field, with the proviso that the best type of co-ordinated instruction beyond ir is not necessarily that of the normal secondary school. some central schools have an industrial bias and devote much attention to practical work; others have a commercial bias. this important experiment alters essentially the english conception of an elementary school, which, if the central schools become universal, will no longer be an ‘f omnibus” school for children from babies up to 14. the change toward industrial and commercial studics in the central schools encoun- ters the objection that it tends to lessen, rather than increase, the adaptability of pupils, to restrict them to fixed stations in life instead of broadening thcir opportunities as the older, education less specialised, schooling was believed to do. the movement grows, however, if slowly; one obstacle prevents a general ac- ceptance, the very large number of schools under voluntary, and usually denominational, management. some church of england schools are acquiescing in it; tn other cases, church central schools are sect up;in some the church schools refuse to participate. the roman catholic schools will not “ decapitate ” their own schools to send their children to non-catholic central schools; here and there they found catholic central schools. an effect, not unforeseen, of the change is that infant schools may tend to become absorbed in the new junior primary school and no longer be a separate entity. experiments in infant schools.—apart from organisation, one of the most striking waves of experiment has taken place in infants’ schools and classes. where formerly the three r’s in a dull form were the staple of instruction, modified by some arti- ficial exercises denominated ‘* kindergarten,” the school now tries to cultivate speech besides reading and leading ‘‘ up to reading,” activity instead of immobility, self-help instead of formal instruction. this new orientation in fact preceded the spread of montessori doctrines, but it was strongly reinforced by them (see montessori system), even where they were not ac- cepted in full. the infants’ school and class become now more of a social agency and a centre of education than a centre merely of instruction. | school experiments another movement has grown quietly without the support of a great name, but spreading by its own reasonableness. this is the “ ruralising ’? of many schools, not only in the country but also in many towns. when this goes no further than nature study, it is a recognition that school lessons should be related to the child’s surroundings. but gardening is very popular and a school often includes bee-keeping and even poultry-keeping. the welsh dept. of the board of education have stimulated the extension of the idea of suggesting that rural lore, including history, antiquities, architecture, folk-song and speech, should be cultivated in country schools. connected with this trend is the tendency to localise the geography teaching on the one hand, by stuclying closely the geography of the town, village or region, and on the other to supplement the local study by school journeys. school journeys are not for all, since their management requires very special organising and personal care. in small numbers they preceded the boy scout movement (see boy scouts), but the proved practicability of school journeys reinforced the camping idea of the scouts and camps grew in popularity. one annual camp under the patronage and the personal attention of the duke of york, combining boys from the public schools and boys brought up in elementary schools, is a noteworthy example of an attempt to create a sympathy between classes brought up very differently. both secondary and primary schools have even organised school journeys and school camps in other countries. handicraft work.—the progress of instruction in handicrafts is on the whole slow, for this form of instruction is apt to be ex- pensive. but the idea that handicraft for girls, as well as for boys, is an essential element in education undoubtedly grows and the stage is now reached where impatience is expressed at the lack of proper progress where formerly a missionary kind of advocacy was required to make the idea acceptable at all. handicraft for boys means usually work in wood and metal; and for girls besides needlework and cookery, long established, laundry work, housecraft and the simpler beginnings of crafts like weaving, basketry, embroidery, lace making and pottery. cinema, gramophone and broadcasting.—these are perhaps past the stage of experiment. the schools are considering and trying experiments in new ficlds with results which are not yet firmly established, experiments with the gramophone, broadcast- ing and the cinema. ‘the gramophone has practically won its way to a position of limited but decided usefulness. it becomes more and more used for music, and the introduction by its means of a wide variety of good music into the schools means an increase of music and the appreciation of it as a liberal factor in education. it is also used in the teaching of foreign languages. broadcasting education is on its trial (see broadcasting); every day at fixed hours in the afternoon lectures and talks are broadcast from the various studios and schools, and the teachers are asked to co-operate by giving the children who listen appropriate revision and appro- priate exercises. talks on literature, history, simple science, especially natural history which in this way may-regain the place in children’s education it used to have and deserves to have, and, of course, music. the value of the cinema is more doubtful at present. it appears to be of use (whereit can beused) chiefly as recreative, or as giving a pictorial summary of teaching, the mass of which has been communicated by word of mouth or acquired by reading. the dalton plan—mention must also be made of experiments in teaching such as the well-known dalton plan. in a few schools this is followed very thoroughly: in more, adaptations of it are made (in the usual english way), in part of a school, or in some subjects only. the experiments so far have hardly been crucial enough for a final verdict to be passed. the plan was started originally in secondary schools, but it has also been adopted experimentally in a few elementary schools. the direct method of teaching foreign languages is another example of a movement which has passed the stage of experimentation in one sense. its principle is fairly well accepted; but it is carried out not always in its purist form but modified to suit the circumstances of the pupils. dr. rouse of the perse school, cambridge, continues to use it for latin and greek, though he has no great following (see classical education). the question of the training of teachers is being canvassed and the ultimate scope of the training, as well as the forms it will take, are too uncertain to admit of description. one result may be noted, that the idea of training for teachers in secondary schools gains ground. (h. wa.) experiments in the united states ° in america experimentation has become a normal function not only of individual schools and colleges but of whole systems of education. the experimental movement has coincided with the rapid quantitative expansion of educational facilities which has marked the first quarter of the 20th century. it has spread with the growth of schools; especially has it accompanied the introduction of new types of schools. the movement owes its impetus primarily to the university schools devoted to the scientific study of education which prepare for professional service an ever-increasing number of school administrators. ~ more recently normal schools and teachers’ colleges, philan- thropic foundations and special research bureaux maintained in connection with state and city systems have likewise made important contributions to the movement. not only have these latter agencies extended the range and variety of experiments, but they have also done much to inoculate the whole teaching profession with the experimental point of view. the most significant educational experiments may be classified for convenience as (1) experiments based on psychological investigations, (2) experiments dealing with the reconstruction of the curriculum and (3) experiments bearing on the reorgan- isation of the educational system. there is naturally some overlapping of these categories. experiments based on psychological investigations -—educa- tional psychologists have been concerned with developing two kinds of measures: measures of native capacity and measures of intellectual achievement. the measures of native capacity, the so-called intelligence tests, appeared only sporadically in the schools before the world war, although a number of american psychologists, building on the work of binet, had been endeav- ouring to adapt them to educational purposes. in 1917 and 1918 the opportunity presented itself to use intelligence tests on a large scale in classifying and assigning the personnel of the american draft army. the results obtained through subjecting 1,750,000 men to certain simple forms of these tests demon- strated their fundamental validity and attracted the attention of both educators and laymen. since the war, intelligence tests have come into general use in schools of all grades. they have been steadily refined and improved, but are still regarded as in the experimental stage. in the classification of pupils and their o35! sclection for special treatment, in comparing the progress of different groups of children, and in a wide variety of studies of the educational process, the tests find constant application. they have been adopted by many colleges as part of the matriculation machinery. the effort to invent objective measures of achievement in school subjects has produced a series of new devices called scales or standard tests. these are designed to estimate the results of the work done in the schools more reliably than is possible by means of the conventional examination. by the correlation of the scales and standard tests with the age of the pupils, tentative norms of achievement at different stages of school life are being established. scales or standard tests and intelligence tests are now being used in conjunction, with a view to deter- mining the respective rates of progress of children of different mental endowments. scales and tests of proved reliability are already available in most of the school subjects. those designed to measure achievement in handwriting, spelling and arithmetic have been longest in existence and have had widest application. the whole testing movement has jed teachers and adminis- trators to appreciate more fully the essential importance of adapting school procedures to individual differences. thus in spite of the great growth in the school population, devices for individualising instruction are becoming more numerous and more effective. the defective or sub-normal child was the first to receive special attention. in the last few years, however, the realisation has grown that the gifted child suffers quite as much from subjection to an intlexible regime designed for the mediocre and that society suffers still more from a training proc- ess that hampers the full development of the superior individual. hence a variety of experiments are now in progress throughout the united states which have as their object the identification and the appropriate education of the gifted pupil. in these ex- periments colleges and universities are beginning to participate through theestablishment ofso-called honourscoursesand through devices for segregating and stimulating the superior student. experiments in the reconstruction of the curriculum—tyor some years the conviction has been gathering momentum that the curricula of schools at all levels are not only out of harmony with the requirements of modern life, but that they are also at variance with the laws of mental growth and of learning which the psychologists have been discovering. modern living conditions have transferred to the schools a multiplicity of tasks previously performed by other agencies. the social aims of education have also become more prominent at the same time that the necessity of recognising the idiosyncrasies of the indi- vidual has been revealed. the problem of reconstructing the curriculum is now the central problem of american education. it is being attacked in hundreds of schools. certain experiments have scemed promising enough to be widely imitated, with some local modification. one of these is the dalton plan and another is the platoon or work-study-play plan. under this plan, conspicuously in operation in public-school systems of gary, detroit and certain other cities, half the children are in classrooms while the other half are at work or at play in school shops, laboratories, studios, on the playground or in the audi- torium. decreased classroom space and greatly increased facili- ties for work and play are features of the physical plants of. schools that operate on this plan. the school day is lengthened and the school becomes responsible for the child qunde the © major part of his waking hours. cutting across schemes like those just eaioned: hick involve complete reorganisation of the school in the interests of a more vitalised curriculum, is the project method. this method focuses instruction around typical problems actually encountered in life outside the school. in the course of solving these prob- lems, or working out the projects, principles are discovered and learned. the topical organisation of instruction largely dis- appears. the pupils actively seek the solution of the prob- lem wherever the search may lead, even outside the confines of the school. experiments with the project method are numer- ous. some schools have applied it in a few subjects, some in 932 practically all subjects. a considerable body of teaching material is already available as a basis for such experiments. instruction in vocational subjects is now largely dominated by some form of the project method. the system of co-operative part-time instruction first developed in the engineering school of the university of cincinnati and now followed in many other engi- neering schools and industrial schools is founded on the same underlying concept. experiments in the reconstruction of the curriculum are not confined to schools or school systems that are committed to some new departure in method or in organisation. in many institutions where the older type of school regimen has not been radically changed, the curriculum is being experimentally re- vised by the introduction of new material, the elimination of old material and the alteration of the order of presentation. this movement is officially fostered by the dept. of superin- tendence of the national education association. numerous private schools have lately sprung up which are frankly experimental. these have come to be known as pro- gressive schools. for the most part they have been inspired by the educational philosophy of john dewey. they have been quick to take up and test under the most favourable conditions any methods, materials or plans of organisation that muster substantial scientific support. devices that have proved success- ful in the progressive schools constantly find their way into the more conservative public institutions. experiments in reorganising the educational system.—the typical organisation of the american system consisting of an eight-year elementary school, a four-year high school and a four-year college, with entrance upon professional study coming either at the end or in the middle of the college course, has long been criticised. the several institutional units are the product of diverse influences, mostly foreign. the welding of them into a system was largely accidental. it is generally believed that the period devoted to secondary education is too short, that it should begin earlier and that secondary education should embrace much of the present content of the college curriculum. educators commonly hold that with a rational organisation of the system and with an altered and condensed curriculum, time can be saved and educational results improved. two experimental movements looking toward the accomplish- ment of these reforms are now well under way. one of these involves the reorganisation of the elementary and secondary schools and has come to be known as the junior high school movement, or the six-three-three plan. where junior high schools have been established the elementary school course is generally reduced to six years. this is followed by a junior high school course of three years, which in turn is followed by a senior high school course of three years. in theory the junior high school curriculum includes algebra, geometry, foreign lan- guages, the social sciences and vocational subjects which were formerly reserved for the four-year high school. the practical dificulty which junior high schools have faced has been the absence of teaching materials in these branches appropriate for younger pupils. in spite of this handicap the establishment of junior high schools proceeds apace and numerous experiments in the production of materials are in progress. at the other end of the conventional secondary school period another new institution is evolving, the junior college. the typical junior college offers the first two years of the usual college course, with certain modifications dictated by its local environment. there are (1926) between 200 and 300 inde- pendent junior colleges in the united states; the majority are private institutions but a large minority are attached to city school systems. whether the junior college as a separate insti- tution is a transitory phenomenon it is too early to say. its appearance has had one noteworthy effect upon universities, however. it has led a considerable number of them to divide their colleges of liberal arts into junior and senior colleges and to organise the programme of instruction so that the end of the junior college period marks the completion of general educa- tion of a secondary character and the beginning of university education specialisation. this tendency, together with the multiplication of junior colleges as upward extensions of public school systems, seems to point to the ultimate assimilation of the work of the first two years of the american college of liberal arts into the scheme of secondary education. (s21°.-c)) v. the architecture of school buildings recent years have seen a complete change in the school de- sign. compactness, ease of supervision and convenience for the rapid movement of large numbers were the governing fac- tors of the older type of plan; by eliminating corridors and plac- ing the classrooms on three, or all four sides of a central hall, off which the rooms opened, the maximum amount of concentra- tion was secured, while the head of the school had, from the central hall, an eye upon the door of every room. this form became stereotyped as the normal, but between 1905 and 1910 doubts arose as to whether this type of building was really so satisfactory. good ventilation could not be secured in rooms having only one external wall, and such a plan made it impos- sible to secure the proper aspect for more than a few rooms. the m type condemned.—these objections were raised from the point of view of health. the central position of the hall, serving as the access to the classrooms, seriously interfered with full use being made of it. not only was any occupation liable to interruption, but any noise there interfered with the work in the adjoining rooms, the result being that in practice the hall was used for little more than the opening and closing of the school, while a room of this kind ought to play an important part in the general work of the school, and in fact was so used in schools that happened to have a hall separated from the classrooms. thus the type of plan that had so long held the field had to give way. the rapidly growing recognition of the value of sunlight and fresh air, and the strikingly successful result of the open-air schools accelerated the remarkably rapid adoption of the newer type of school building. the greatly extended duties now laid upon the local education authorities in great britain with regard to the health of the children, and the feeling that they are as responsible for the physical as for the mental needs of the school child, imply that the conditions under which the work is carried on are hardly less important than the work itself and that, where necessary, educational convenience must be subordinated to the demands of health. == —s — = 9 ae a ll mac. r.1c. re — sa a se [ia medi plan of a model school. the new model.—in place of solid, compactly designed buildings of several storeys we find light, spreading, single-storey structures, often with radiating wings on the lines of a hospital, set to catch the greatest possible amount of sun, with every room cross-ventilated into the open air, windows opening so freely that practically the whole wall space can be cleared, or even so arranged that both sides can be thrown open; in short, the arrangement of the open-air school being adopted for the ordinary school. in place of a common, stereotyped plan, schools are now built in an almost bewildering variety of arrangement. the essential features are the cross-ventilated classroom with a sunny aspect. fic. i. edward, prince of wales » usually approached by an open verandah or low corridor, with classrooms on one side only, and the hall, so placed as to be neither a passage to the classrooms nor likely to cause incon- venience, is used for any purpose involving noise. the illustration (fig. 1) shows a quadrangular arrangement that is widely made use of for large schools. the open verandah on the inside secures direct sunlight at some period during the day to the rooms whose main windows have a northerly aspect. for a smaller school all the rooms are placed to the southeast with the hall well out of the way at the back, or are arranged with radiating wings with the usual cross-ventilated classrooms. these single-storey buildings require a larger area of ground, but, where possible, large sites are generally secured in order to make provision for games, and the fact of their being of one storey makes it feasible to lighten the construction, while subsequent alteration or addition is easy. (g.f.n.c.) edward, prince of wales (18094- }, eldest son of king george v. and queen mary, at that time duke and duch- ess of york, was born june 23 1894, at white lodge, richmond park, and baptised 23 days later by the archbishop of canter- bury as edward albert christian george andrew patrick david. in 1902 mr. ii. p. hansell was appointed his tutor, and remained with him from that time until aug. 1914. during 1902-7 the prince was prepared for the navy, and in the spring of 1907 he entered osborne, where he remained for two years before going on to the royal naval college, dartmouth. while a cadet at dartmouth he performed his first public duty on march 29 1911, by presenting to the mayor and corporation of that town the silver oar which they had held formerly as a symbol of the rights associated with the bailiwick of the water of dartmouth. at the close of his dartmouth training in june 1911, he was in- vested as a knight of the garter, and on july 13 1911 he was created prince of wales and earl of chester, his father having just become king. about the same time the duchy of cornwall was bestowed upon him. he was shortly afterwards invested as prince of wales in carnarvon castle, and on this occasion for the first time an english prince addressed the welsh people in their own tongue. shortly after this event the prince became a midshipman, and was appointed to h.m.s. “ hindustan,” in which ship he served for three months. during the spring of 1912 the prince spent five months in paris as the guest of the marquis de breteuil, during which period he was coached by m. maurice escoffier in the language and history of the country. [in oct. 1912 the prince entered magdalen college, oxford, with maj. the hon. william cadogan (roth hussars) as equerry. at oxford the prince took part in the corporate life of his college and the usual athictic amusements of the undergraduates. he resided in college rooms, dined in hall or at one of the university clubs, and mixed freely with his fellow undergraduates. some of his vacations he spent in european travel, visiting germany twice, in 1912 and 1913, and denmark and norway in ror4. the prince’s university career was ended by the outbreak of the world war in aug. 1914. on aug. 7 he was gazetted to the grenadier guards, and on the 11th he joined the rst battalion at warley barracks, essex. in nov. 1914 the prince, who had been appointed aide-de- camp to sir john french, arrived in france and took up his new duties at british g.h.q. at st. omer. during the next 18 months he served with the expeditionary force in flanders and in france in various parts of the line, being first attached to the and div. under sir h.s. horne, to the i. corps under sir charles monro, and later to the guards div. under the earl of cavan. in march 1916 he was appointed to the staff of the general officer commanding the mediterranean expeditionary force, and proceeded at once to egypt. he took the opportunity of seeing the troops in various parts of the line, and also went as far south as kharitum. on his return journey he paid a visit to the italian headquarters at udine, and by the middle of june had returned to the british armies in france. he was then attached to the xiv. corps (lord cavan) in flanders and france and subsequently proceeded with this corps, in oct. 1917, to the [talian front, where he remained till aug. 1918. in may 1918 the d350 prince paid a semi-official visit to rome; he then returned to france and was attached to the canadian corps, with whom he was serving at the time of the armistice. he was attached to the australian corps in belgium till the beginning of 1919 after which he visited the army of occupation on the rhine, spending a few days with the new zealand division, and paying a short visit to gen. pershing at the american headquarters at coblenz. on his return journey to england at the end of feb. ro19 the prince almost immediately took up a number of public duties which had of necessity been deferred during the war, and on may 29 was admitted to the freedom of the city of london. on aug. 5 1919 he left portsmouth in h.m.s. “f renown ”’ for new- foundland and canada, first setting foot on canadian soil on aug. 15 at st. john, new brunswick. his tour extended through the entire dominion from east to west, and five days after reaching victoria on sept. 23 the return journey began. the canadian tour ended at ottawa, and on nov. 10 the prince left for washington to pay a short official visit to the president of the united states. new york was subsequently visited, and after a long series of official engagements, the prince sailed for halifax, where he bade good-bye to canada, reaching portsmouth dec. 1. after a short stay in england the prince sailed again in h.m.s. * renown ” on march 16 1920 for new zealand and australia. the first port of call was bridgetown, barbados, and then, passing through the panama canal, the prince paid short visits to san diego (cal.), honolulu and fiji, auckland being reached on april 24 after a voyage of 14,coo miles. a month was spent in new zealand, all parts of the northand south is. were visited, and on may 26 the prince landed at melbourne. during his stay in australia he visited all the states of the commonwealth, and eventually sailed from sydney on aug. 19. on the return journey he stopped at fiji, samoa, honolulu and acapulco, and, after passing once again through the panama canal, the prince spent three weeks in the west indies. the last port of call was bermuda, and h.m.s. “ renown ” eventually reached portsmouth oct. 11 1920. after a brief holiday, spent for the greater part in the hunt- ing field, he resumed his public duties after christmas 1920. during the first six months of 1921 he was occupied chiefly in london, but found time to visit, among other places, oxford, cambridge, glasgow and the clyde; his property in devon, cornwall and the scilly is.; cardiff, newport and bristol. on oct. 26 he sailed in the “ renown ” on a state visit to india, visiting gibraltar, malta (where he opened the first maltese parhament) and aden, landing at bombay nov. 17. after several wecks in india, he sailed from calcutta for rangoon (jan. 2 1922) and proceeded to mandalay, returning thence to madras (jan 13). there, as previously at bombay, some riot- ing occurred in the native quarters on the day of his arrival; but on the whole he was splendidly received, even though attempts were made by the swarajists, with occasional success, to persuade the population to remain indoors. at delhi on ieb. 14 he received an address from the indian legislature. after visiting the northwest frontier he eventually embarked at karachi on march 7, sailing thence to japan, touching on the way at colombo, port swettenham, singapore and hong kong, and reaching tokio april 12. he remained in japan till may 9 and on the voyage home visited manila, borneo, penang anc cairo, reaching plymouth june 20. in april 1923 he paid a visit to brussels in order to dedicate the monument of british gratitude erected in that city and subsequently revisited the battlefields in flanders and northern france. on sept. 5 he sailed for canada on a private visit to his ranch in alberta, returning to england oct. 20. on april 23 1924, as president of the british empire exhibition at wembley, he received king george at the opening ceremony. he was also present at the close on nov. 1. in the meanwhile he had again spent a short time on his ranch in canada; on his way there he visited the united states in a private capacity, in order to witness the international polo matches, and took the opportunity of calling on president coolidge, with whom he had luncheon at the white house. during 1923-4 he visited 934 various industrial areas, including west yorkshire, birmingham, newcastle-on-tyne, nottingham, dundee, north wales and the potteries district. on march 28 r925 he sailed in the “‘ repulse ” for west and south africa. landing at bathurst april 4 he visited in turn gambia, sierra leone, the gold coast and nigeria. leaving lagos on april 22, he reached cape town april 30, and after a short stay proceeded through the cape province and into the native territories of the transkei. ilis journey was continued through the orange free state, and at maseru he was greeted by 50,000 basuto horsemen. during his stay in natal he opened a new dock at durban and was there welcomed by 23,000 indians. he went through zululand, swaziland and thence to pretoria and johannesburg, where he opened the university of the witwatersrand; then via mafeking and the bechuanaland protectorate he travelled to buluwayo and salisbury. on the return journey to cape town he visited kimberley. after spending three months in south africa he sailed july 29 for south america, having accepted an invitation conveyed to him in 1924 by the president of the argentine republic, to visit that country. touching only at st. helena for two days, he arrived at montevideo aug. 14. after three days spent in uruguay, he reached buenos aires aug. 17, stayed for a time in the capital, and made one or two tours in the country, including a journey of 1,500 miles to the cattle-raising districts in the provinces of entre rios and corrientes. he crossed the andes into chile, visiting santiago and valparaiso, and after some delay, owing to avalanches of snow in the mountains, returned to buenos aires. sailing from mar del plata for england sept. 27, he touched at the cape verde is. oct. 8 and reached portsmouth oct. 16. in 1926 the prince underwent a slight operation for ear trouble which temporarily interfered with his public duties. edwards, alfred george (1848- ), first archbishop of wales, was born at llanymawddwy nov. 2 1848 and was educated at jesus college, oxford. he was ordained in 1874, and in 1875 became warden and headmaster of the college at llandovery, holding this position until 1885, when he was appointed vicar of carmarthen. in 188 9 he was chosen bishop of st. asaph. in 1920, after the disestablishment of the welsh church, of which he had been one of the most active opponents, he was elected first archbishop of wales, and was enthroned by the archbishop of canterbury at st. asaph’s cathedral, june r. among his publications may be mentioned the church in wales (1888); common sense patriotism (1894); and landmarks in welsh church history (1912). eggleston, george cary (18309-1911), american journal- ist and author (see 9.17), died in new york april 14 1911. egypt (see 9.21), a kingdom of northeast africa. the international boundaries of egypt were completed in dec. 1925, by an agreement between the egyptian and italian govts. defining the western frontier. this starts from the mediterra- nean ro km. north of sollum, takes a southwesterly and southerly direction, excluding the oasis of jaghbub, and then in latitude 29° 21’ joins the 25th meridian, which it follows southward until it meets the 22nd parallel, this being the boundary between egypt and the anglo-egyptian sudan. the eastern land frontier ap- proximates to a straight line, joining rafah on the mecditer- ranean, to ‘aqaba on the gulf of that name. the total area of egypt thus. defined is 386,000 sq. miles. population (1917) 12,750,918; (1925, estimated) 14,000,000. i... political: history the policy of entrusting the egyptians with larger adminis- trative responsibility was initiated under sir eldon gorst, who succeeded lord cromer in 1907. the four years which elapsed before his premature death were too few for a fair trial of an ex- periment which stimulated rather than discouraged nationalist ag- itation. in feb. 1910 boutros ghali pasha, the first copt toattain the rank of prime minister, was assassinated by a young member of the party. nationalist influence also invaded the assembly, edwards—egypt which rejected a proposal to extend the concession of the suez canal co. after its expiry in 1968. more drastic measures be- came necessary to check anti-british manifestations. gorst, who had long been failing in health, requested to be relieved of his functions in july rgt1 and died within the month. his knowledge of the country lends special importance to his report for rgr10, in which he recognised that the new policy had failed. kitchener in egypt.—it seemed doubtful whether the appoint- ment of a former servant of the egyptian govt. to be british rep- resentative in cairo was opportune, but an exception was justifi- able in the case of lord kitchener, who enjoyed great prestige. he arrived in sept. 1911. <a fortnight later the italian landing in tripolitania followed a declaration of war with turkey. the neu- trality of egypt was declared and strictly observed by the egyp- tian people in spite of a natural sympathy with a moslem belliger- ent. but islamic sentiment was roused by the libyan war, and early in 1912 a plot was detected to kill the khedive, the prime minister and lord kitchener. kitchener’s energics were first directed to the needs of the peas- antry, and small holdings were exempted from distraint for debt. but the salient measure of his administration was a revision of the organic law of 1883 and the institution of a single legislative assembly on a broader basis than that of the old legislative council and general assembly, both of which had practically the same functions. the new assembly, with 55 members re- turned by indirect election, received extended powers, including that of initiating legislation. the president and one vice-presi- dent were appointed by the government. for the second elec- tive vice-president zaghlul pasha, recently minister of education and acknowledged as leader of the nationalists was chosen. he at once attacked his former chief, mohammed said, who had succeeded boutros, and indirectly the british agency in a chamber which the khedive encouraged to be hostile. tension with the palace then led to the resignation of mohammed said. he was succeeded by husein rushdi pasha, who remained in office till the end of 1918. the war period —after the change in the status of egypt which followed the outbreak of the world war, the sittings of the assembly were suspended and not resumed before its man- date expired. lord kitchener was on leave when great britain became a belligerent, and having been appointed secretary of state for war, he did not return to egypt. martial law was pro- claimed in egypt on nov. 2 1914. this enabled administrative measures to be enforced without reference to the assembly and, where foreign subjects were concerned, without obtaining the consent of foreign powers. a further proclamation, notifying a state of war with turkey, announced that great britain would not call upon the egyptian people for aid. units of the egyptian artillery nevertheless volunteered to defend the suez canal, and labour battalions, voluntarily raised, played an important part in the war. as the egyptians were nominally subjects of the sultan, the entry of turkey into the war created an intolerable situation. turkish suzerainty might have been terminated by a british annexation of egypt, but that policy was rejected, and a proc- lamation issued on dec. 17 1914 by the secretary of state for foreign affairs announced that:— in view of the state of war arising out of the action of turkey, egypt is placed under the protection of his majesty and will hence- forth constitute a british protectorate. the suzerainty of turkey over egypt is thus terminated and his majesty's government will adopt ail measures necessary for the defence of egypt and protect its inhabitants and interests. a further proclamation issued the following day announced that the khedive, abbas hilmi, who was in constantinople, was de- posed on the grounds of adherence to the king’s enemies, and that his uncle, prince huscin kamel, had accepted the succes- sion and would bear the title of sultan of egypt. the new status was introduced without disturbance if without enthusiasm under the direction of sir milne chectham, pending the arrival of sir henry mcmahon, who had been appointed high commissioner. the british representative then took over the control of egyp- egypt tian foreign affairs. after the abortive turkish attack on the suez canal, the prestige of the sultan increased, but the failure in the dardanelles produced some reaction and in rors his life was twice attempted. the egyptian people, however, bore with patience the disabilities and unwelcome requisitions which the war entailed, and thus laid great britain under obligations, both moral and financial, for which too little credit was given. on the other hand the withdrawal of british officials for service elsewhere opened a wider field for nationalist propaganda, which found ready lhsteners among the younger men who had not known the pre-occupation conditions. nationalist sentiment had from the first received an anti-british impulse from rivalries among the western powers, and it was at one time exploited by the khedive for his own personal ends. a dissatisfied civil service regarded the growing number of british officials as a bar to promotion and nationalist ranks were reinforced by the stu- dents, whose prospect of obtaining state employment was di- minished by foreign competition. a professed intention to train egyptians to manage their own affairs seemed inconsistent with a constant increase of british officials, disproportionate even to the expanding activities of the departments. these, moreover, had tended to absorb administrative functions and not merely to advise. as their number grew, they became a separate com- munity living aloof from egyptians, and with loss of contact their moral influence diminished. the strength acquired by the nationalist movement during the war was not sufficiently realised. at the end of 1916 gen. sir reginald wingate, sirdar and governor-general of the sudan since dec. 1899, replaced sir it. mcmahon as high commissioner. the declining health of sultan husein made a settlement of the succession urgent. ilis only son, prince kemal ed din, declined the position of heir-apparent, which was then offered to the sixth son of ismail, prince fuad, who had been educated at the military school at turin. sultan huscin died in oct. 1917. it was a misfortune for egypt to lose a ruler remarkable for his character, public spirit and thorough knowledge of his own country. find of the war.—the principles formulated by the president of the united states towards the close of the world war had a far-reaching effect on educated opinion in egypt. numerous dis- claimers by british statesmen of any intention to occupy the country permanently were insistently recalled, and the accept- ance of the principle of self-determination was represented as having given international sanction to the aspirations of egyp- tlans to govern themselves. their attitude during the war was made a plea for special consideration. when in nov. 1918, an anglo-french declaration announced that the allies contemplat- ed the enfranchisement of the peoples oppressed by turkish rule, egyptians regarded their title to manage their own affairs to be even stronger than that of syria, mesopotamia or of arabia, where an independent kingdom had already been established. public opinion was at the same time excited by the indiscreet publication of a document which was held to indicate the british attitude toward the re-organisation of the legislative assembly. sir w. brunyate, the judicial adviser who acted as financial adviser during the illness of lord edward cecil, had mooted the question of the participation of the foreign colonies in legisla- tion, if capitulations were abolished, in a memorandum submitted to the prime minister, which was only intended to serve as a basis for confidential discussion. it was represented as a british design for restricting the assembly to consultative functions and for vesting icgislative power in a senate in which the officially nominated members with a group of elected foreigners would form a majority. at the end of 1918 a nationalist committee was formed under the chairmanship of zaghlul. his proposal to proceed to england with a programme of complete autonomy was inevitably re- jected. at the same time sir r. wingate pleaded with insistence for the reception in london of rushdi pasha and adly pasha yeghen, the minister of education. as the foreign secretary was about to start for the peace conference and unable to devote due attention to egyptian internal affairs, the ministers were begged to defer their visit. rushdi and adly, however, tendered 935 their resignations and, though they were pressed to reconsider their decision, the crisis remained unsolved when sir r. wingate was summoned to london to make a personal report. by this time many moderates had rallied to the nationalists, who were receiving such general support that the ministers were unwilling to remain in office or to go to london unless zaghlul were also heard, a condition to which his defiant attitude made it difficult to accede. meanwhile, the constitution of a “‘ delegation ”’ with 12 members under zaghlul’s presidency was announced to the foreign representatives. the delegation forwarded to the sultan, who had declined to receive them, a petition clearly designed to intimidate ilis highness and prevent the formation of a new government. zaghlul and three of his most important adherents were consequently arrested march 8 ro1g9 and deported to malta. the outbreak of march 1919—the immediate effects of this measure revealed the gravity of the internal situation in egypt, which had probably been under-estimated. anti-british demon- strations in cairo necessitated military intervention. there were disturbances at tanta and in the delta provinces where british, soldiers and civilians were attacked. railway lines were torn up, telegraph wires cut and by the middle of march, cairo was iso- lated. foreign colonies were blockaded in upper egypt, and at dairut station a british inspector of prisons, two officers and five other ranks were brutally murdered in the train by a fanatical crowd. mobile columns were rapidly despatched to disturbed areas, communications were re-established and before the end of march the situation was well in hand. the nationalist leaders had probably not contemplated such a serious upheaval, which was nevertheless the direct result of their propaganda. the egyptian police behaved throughout in an exemplary manner. the egyptian army which, all but a few units, was in the sudan, remained unaffected. with these exceptions the agitation was supported by every class including the copts, whose solidarity with the mussulman was no doubt prompted by prudential considerations. if the movement was only partial among the peaceful unchanging fella- heen it was nevertheless perceptible that their experiences during the war had stirred a spirit of discontent even in the class which had benefited most from the british occupation. recruiting for the labour and camel corps had not been unpopular in the earlier voluntcer stage. but when voluntary enlistment ceased to produce a sufficient number of men some administrative com- pulsion was exercised by unscrupulous mayors who, alleging british insistence, accepted bribes for exemptions and sent their enemies to serve. the requisition of domestic animals had pressed hardly on the small farmer and still more so that of cereals. req- uisition rates, lower than market prices, tempted local officials to collect more than the quotum demanded and to sell the balance. processes of verification and repayment were inevitably slow and offered opportunity for abuses. the cost of food, clothing and fuel rose in an unprecedented manner and the average wages of the labouring class did not expand correspondingly. mean- while the producer of cotton and the privileged foreigner were notoriously accumulating fortunes. when the outbreak became serious, lord allenby, the com- mander-in-chief in egypt, who had left for paris, was directed to return at once as special high commissioner during the ab- sence of sir r. wingate. after the restoration of law and order a phase of passive resistance succeeded that of aggression. a general strike was only maintained for a few days, but students, lawyers and a number of officials declined to resume their activ- ities. lord allenby, however, adopted a policy of conciliation, and a removal of the embargo on the free movement of egyptians entailed the liberation of zaghlul and his associates. they ieft malta for paris, where their efforts to obtain a hearing at the peace conference were disappointed. early in april rushdi suc- ceeded in reconstituting a ministry with adly at the interior but, finding himself impotent to terminate the official strike, he resigned barely a fortnight later. only a stern proclamation from the commander-in-chief, acting under the powers of martial law, which threatened with dismissal all officials who did not resume duty, had the desired effect. 036 the milner mission.—the british govt. now decided to send a mission to egypt under the chairmanship of lord milner, “ to enquire into the causes of the recent disorders, and to report on the existing situation in the country and the form of the con- stitution which, under the protectorate will be best calculated to promote its peace and prosperity, the progressive development of self-governing institutions and the protection of foreign in- terests.”? it would have been well if the mission could bave pro- ceeded at once before the nationalists had completed an organ- isation which was now receiving encouragement from sections of the arab university of el azhar. but circumstances rendered its departure before the autumn difficult. after some delay, mohammed said pasha (prime minister 1910-3) formed an administration. changes in the british personnel were also re- garded as opportune. sir paul harvey, who had resigned the position of financial adviser under lord kitchener, returned. sir w. brunyate, who had acted in that capacity since the death of lord edward cecil, also resigned his judicial advisership. mr. douglas dunlop was replaced at the ministry of education by mr. r. s. patterson, director-general of accounts, and brig. gen. sir j. f. clayton became adviser to the interior. a period of drift followed during which the nationalists zeal- ously applied a boycott of the mission. capital was also made out of an alleged intention to curtail the water supply of egypt in favour of the anglo-egyptian sudan. the project actually adopted contemplated the construction of barrages at jebel aulya and sennar, on the white and blue niles respectively, to create a reservoir which would enable the waste lands of egypt to be redeemed and extend perennial irrigation to some 1,209,000 ac., which under basin irrigation produced only one crop a year. the sennar dam would feed a canal to irrigate the region south of khartoum known as the gezira, which was eminently suitable for cotton. unjustified attacks by sir w. willcocks and col. kennedy on sir murdoch macdonald, adviser to the public works dept., gave encouragement to misrepresentation and rendered inevitable a prosecution for criminal libel which re- sulted in conviction. the proposal to boycott the mission more- over gained strength from the attitude of the prime minister, who resigned when his protest against its despatch before the sig- nature of peace with turkey was disregarded. wahba pasha, the minister of finance, courageously undertook to constitute a ministry of affairs. the special mission which reached cairo on dec. 7 tg19 was thus composed: viscount milner, chairman; sir j. rennell rodd, gen. sir john maxwell, brig. gen. sir owen thomas, sir cecil hurst and mr. j. a. spender with a. t. loyd and e. m. b. in- gram as secretaries. special measures had been taken for their safety in view of an organised antagonism, in which even the cairene ladies took a demonstrative part. pickets of students watched their hotel, and individual members were followed into the provinces. a visit to tanta provoked riots in that city. dur- ing the residence of the mission in cairo, there were repeated assaults on british soldiers and no less than three attempts to assassinate egyptian ministers with bombs. the chiefs of e} azhar now openly identified themselves with the nationalists in a manifesto addressed to the high commissioner. innumerable letters and resolutions were received denouncing the protectorate. a declaration issued on dec. 29, in which the real objects of the mission were clearly stated, had some reassuring intluence. but relations with egyptians were restricted to informal discussions with individuals who had the courage to be independent. as time went on, however, such conversations became general and the mission found no difficulty in estimating the current feeling in the country. the chief british officials were consulted as well as representative members of the non-official community. the working of every department was thoroughly investigated, while sir cecil hurst devoted much time to an examination of the judicial system and the reforms which new conditions might en- tail. some days were spent in alexandria, where the views of the foreign colonies were heard. sir john maxwell and sir owen thomas also visited the sudan. before the departure of the mis- sion, in march 1920, a large volume of material had been assem- gy pt bled, and certain proposals, unanimously adopted, were provision- ally drafted pending the preparation of a final report in england. negotiations with zaghlul.—shortly after their return occasion was taken, through the goad oftices af adly pasha, to enter into relations with the egyptian delegation then established in paris which, it could no longer be doubted, represented a majority of egyptian opinion. zaghlul, with seven other delegates, came to london in june. meanwhile wahba pasha, whose health proved unequal to the strain of office, had resigned and was succeeded by tewfik pasha nessim. after deliberations extending till the middle of aug., in which adly also took an unofficial conciliatory part, a memorandum which came to be known as the milner- zaghlul agreement, was drafted. it adopted the basis of settie- ment proposed by the special mission, a treaty of alliance in which egypt contracted definite obligations in return for the recognition of independence, with certain additions such as the acceptance in principle of the rights of egypt to foreign repre- sentation. any reference to the sudan was specifically excluded. as zaghlul and his colleagues were not prepared to commit themselves to definite agreement without consulting their sup- porters, four members of the delegation proceeded to cairo. the substance of the memorandum may be summarised as follows:— to establish the independence of egypt on a secure and fasting basis it is essential to define preciscly the relations between great britain and egypt and to modify the privileges and immunities actually enjoyed by capitulatory powers. negotiations between accredited representatives of the two governments should con- template: a treaty of alliance between great britain and egypt under which great britain will recognise the independence of egypt as a constitutional monarchy with representative institutions, and egypt will confer upon great britain the rights necessary to safe- guard her special interests and to enable her to give foretgn powers guarantees which will secure relinquishment of capitulatory rights: great britain will defend the integrity of egyptian territory, and egypt will, in case of war, render great britain all assistance in her power within her own borders, this treaty will stipulate that egypt will enjoy right of representation in foreign countries, and in absence of an accredited representative confide her interests to the british representative; egypt will not adopt an attitude inconsistent with the alliance, or enter into any agreement with a foreign power prejudicial to british interests; egypt will confer on great britain the right to maintain a military force on egyptian soil for the main- tenance of her imperial communications; egypt will appoint with the concurrence of h.m,. government a financial adviser, who will take over powers now administered by the commissioners of debt and will be generally available for consultation; egypt will similarly appoint a british official in the ministry of justice, with access to the minister, to have cognisance of all matters affecting foreigners and be available for consultation regarding maintenance of law and order; egypt will recognise right of great britain to intervene should legislation operate inequitably against foreigners; the british representative will enjoy a special position and precedence; engage- ments of british or other foreign employees may be terminated by either party within two years after treaty comes into force with pension or compensation to be determined therein. further provisions dealt with maintenance of existing treaties, validation of measures taken under martial law, reorganisation of mixed tribunals, closing of consular courts, etc. zaghlul and his colleagues once more met the mission in oct. 1920, after the return of thefour delegates from egypt. the latter reported that the proposed settlement had been well received at the same time they had been urged to invite modifications of certain points, including a restriction of the functions of the financial adviser and the official attached to the ministry of justice. the mission held that no good purpose could be served by further discussion at that stage. zaghlul, whom several mem- bers of the delegation regarded as too intransigent, insisted that his efforts to promote a settlement might be compromised if he could give no undertaking regarding the abolition of the pro- tectorate. the delegates then left england and the mission for- warded a report to the secretary of state on dec. 29 1920, which was presented to parliament as egypt no. 1 (1g21}. at the beginning of 1921 adly pasha had a strong following in egypt and zaghlul’s influence appeared to be diminishing. on the other hand the resignation of lord milner was regarded as an indication that ii.m. govt. might not endorse the recommenda- tions of the mission, while a reference in a speech from the new colonial secretary to egypt as included in the elastic circle of the british empire, evoked a number of protesting telegrams. egy?) when, however, the report was published in arabic, the pro- posals were welcomed and the ascendancy of the moderate party was re-established. the following invitation was then addressed to the sultan of egypt:— his majesty’s govt. after a study of the proposals made by lord milner have arrived at the conclusion that the status of protectorate is not a satisfactory relation in which egypt should continue to stand to great britain. while they have not reached final decisions with regard to lord milner’s recommendations, they desire to confer regarding them with a delegation nominated by your ilighness, with a view, if possible, to substitute for the protectorate a relationship which would, while securing the special interests of great britain and enabling her to offer adequate guarantees to foreign powers, meet the legitimate aspirations of egypt and the egyptian pcople. adly pasha then formed a ministry with a programme de- signed to secure the co-operation of the nationalists. he invited zaghlul, who had remained in france, to collaborate in forming a delegation. but the claims which the latter advanced for his party, which included the presidency and a majority of the members, were quite unacceptable. zaghlul returned on april 5 and was received with enthusiasm. he lost no time in attacking the new government. his philippics, and the weakness of the administration in dealing with mob violence at tanta, led to out- breaks in cairo and alexandria, directed in the latter city chiefly against the greeks. a military court of enquiry attributed re- sponsibility to the zaghlulist party. sixteen of the rioters found guilty were executed and a large number were condemned to lighter sentences. negotiations with adly pasha, 1921.—six months had elapsed since the presentation of the milner report before a delegation under the presidency of adly, pledged to demand the abolition of the protectorate and the maintenance of the reserves formu- lated, proceeded to london in july ro2t to negotiate with lord curzon of kedleston. in the ensuing conversations, all reference to the sudan was avoided as it had been in negotiations with the mission, and the egyptians appeared to have disinterested them- selves in the abolition of the capitulations. certain divergencies seemed capable of adjustment on a basis of compromise, while others, such as the control of foreign affairs, presented greater difficulty. but the negotiations, which were adjourned for some weeks and resumed in sept., broke down completely on the military issue. the british govt. were unable to give the dele- gation an assurance that british troops would withdraw towards the canal zone as soon as conditions in egypt were stabilised. adly, while ready to accept the permanent establishment of a british military force to protect imperial communications, claimed that it should be restricted to a defined area in peace time, and that there should be no interference in the internal affairs of egypt. a draft treaty, embodying conditions accepted by h.m. govt. but unhesitatingly rejected by the delegation, was published on dec. 2 1921, together with the letter to the sultan in which it was forwarded. having failed to achieve a settlement, adly resigned. the problem of finding a successor under prevailing conditions proved insoluble. the administration, though fortified by a number of british assistants, could not be carried on without the machinery of an egyptian govt., in default of which no real co-operation could be expected from egyptian officials. the assent of h.m. govt. to the restoration of an egyptian minister for foreign affairs, the revival of whose office might legitimately be regarded as a preliminary step to the modification of the protectorate policy, encouraged sarwat pasha in his efforts to form a minis- try. but they were unavailing. there was in practice an admin- istrative strike. a visit to egypt of some members of the labour party, while the london negotiations were in process, was followed by, if it did not actually stimulate, renewed activity on the part of the ex- treme nationalists. zaghlul himself attempted a progress through upper egypt but encountered such a hostile reception at assyut that he abandoned the project. he continued, however, to agitate in lower egypt, where demonstrations assumed a menacing character after the publication of the note to the sultan, and two british soldiers were shot. in view of their o57 / defiant attitude, zaghlul and his chief supporters were ordered to retire to their country estates; as they proved recalcitrant, he and five others were deported by the british authorities. egevpt declared independent.—the disturbances, which had taken a serious form in cairo, were vigorously suppressed and by the end of the year (1921) conditions were favourable for a fur- ther endeavour to terminate a situation which could not be allowed to continue. no progress could be made until some form of settlement assured co-operation from the egyptian element. ii.m. govt. were concerned not to surrender a position of vital importance to the empire without adequate guarantee for the future. on the other hand repeated postponements and abortive negotiations had produced an internal situation in egypt from which there was no issue save on the one hand by draconian measures, or on the other by a voluntary abandonment on the british side of non-essential points. lord allenby therefore pro- ceeded to london to lay the situation before the cabinet. the following declaration was sent the sultan on feb. 28 1922:— whereas h.m. govt. in accordance with their declared intentions desire to recognise egypt as an independent sovereign state, and whereas the relations between ii.m. govt. and egypt are of vital importance to the british empire, the following principles are hereby declared :— (1) the british protectorate over egypt is terminated and egypt is declared to be an independent sovercign state. (2) so soon as the govt. of [fis highness shall pass an act of in- demnity with application to all inhabitants of egypt martial law as proclaimed on nov. 2 1914, shall be withdrawn. (3) the following matters are absolutely reserved to the discre- tion of h.m. govt. until such time as it may be possible by free dis- cussion and friendly accommodation on both siles to conclude agreements in regard thereto between h.m. govt. and the govt. of egypt: (a) the security of the communications of the british empire -in egypt; (6) the defence of egypt against all foreign aggression or interference direct or indirect; (¢) the protection of foreign resiclents in egypt and the protection of minorities; (d) the sudan, pending the conclusion of such agreements, the sfut#s guo in all these matters shall remain intact. if the report of the special mission had convinced the british govt. that the protectorate was not a relation which could be permanently maintained, the rejection of the general settlement then proposed had not rendered the situation more favourable, it had been established in the preliminary negotiations with the mission that agreement on the points reserved and certain others should be a condition of the recognition of egyptian independ- ence. the concession was now made unilaterally and the british postulates were to await an opportune time for discussion and solution. in the meanwhile, however, the s/afus quo was main- tained in so far as a british army remained in occupation. sarwat pasha was then able to form a ministry with a pro- gramme contemplating a democratic constitution, ministerial responsibility and the revocation of martial law. after the british parliament had approved the declaration of feb. 1922, the sultan assumed the title of king and proclaimed egypt a monarchy. an egyptian minister for foreign affairs was once more appointed. the british govt. informed the powers that special relations between great britain and egypt would always be maintained as an essential british interest. they could admit no question or discussion of those special relations, and any in- terference in the affairs of egypt by any other power would be regarded by them as an unfriendly act. the constitution, drafted by a representative commission, was completed by oct. 1922. h.m. govt. took exception to the as- cription to king fuad in the draft of the title of “ king of egypt and the sudan ”’ as well as to other clauses referring to the latter region. acute differences also arose between the ministry and the king, whose views regarding the suitability of democratic institutions for egypt seemed hardly consistent with his public utterances, sarwat consequently resigned in nov. and tewfik nessim became prime minister for the second time. a further obstacle to progress was presented by a series of outrages on british subjects, which culminated in the assassination in broad daylight of prof. newby robson by three students. ° the egyp- tian govt. were informed that the continuance of these attacks would make impossible the abolition of martial law. 938 evenis in 19023.—tewfik nessim was anxious to promulgate the constitution before announcing an indemnity act. but the king strenuously resisted a modification of his title, and a period of tension ensued which only ended after his signature of a docu- ment formally accepting the views of the british government. tewfik pasha then resigned and an interregnum of five weeks followed, during which a recrudescence of murder and bomb- throwing rendered a severer application of martial law inevitable. yehia ibrahim pasha finally formed an administration which assumed office in march 1923. shortly afterwards zaghlul pasha was released unconditionally from detention at gibraltar to un- dergo a cure at aix-les-bains. yehia’s govt. found themselves at once in conflict with the sovereign, who had availed himself of the compliance of tewfik nessim to introduce modifications into the constitution, which would greatly have increased the author- ity and prerogatives of the crown. the firmness of the prime minister secured their withdrawal and the constitution was promulgated on april 19 1923. the old legislative assembly ceased to exist and a new electoral law came into force. the new constitution.—a constitutional monarchy is thereby established with two houses, a senate and a chamber of depu- ties, and a ministry responsible to the lower chamber. depu- ties, 220 in number, are chosen by universal suffrage, under the old system of indirect election, for five years. the senate cannot be dissolved. two-fifths of its members are appointed by the sovereign and three-fifths are elective, with a mandate for ten years. one half of each category are renewable every five years. a two-thirds’ majority in each house is necessary for a revision of the constitution. an act of indemnity prohibiting any process or plea calling in question acts under martial law was issued in july and that jurisdiction, continuously in force since nov. 1914, was then terminated by a proclamation of the commander-in-chief and an exchange of notes between the british and egyptian govern- ments. yehia also carried through a law governing the retirement and compensation of foreign officials in the egyptian service. after the abolition of martial law, zaghlul and his associates were free to return to egypt. considerable enthusiasm was dis- played on his landing at alexandria and the coming elections proved that his influence was still predominant in the country. the internal situation at the end of 1923 was not very reassur- ing. a revival of arbitrary action became manifest after the re- moval of direct british control, nepotism began to reassert itself and a general sense of insecurity prevailed. on the other hand the continual intrigues of the ex-khedive abbas hilmi for the re- covery of his throne had culminated in an attempted coup d’etat which proved a complete fiasco. vigorous efforts to repress the murder campaign had also been successful. a large number of students were arrested and three turned king’s evidence. of 14 who were tried, five were acquitted, three were sentenced to death, three to penal servitude and the remainder to lighter sentences. events of 1924.—when the elections to the chamberof deputies were completed in jan. 1924, the return of 176 supporters gave zaghlul an overwhelming majority. he was equally strong in the senate. yehia, who had deserved well of his country during the transitional period, resigned and zaghlu! formed a ministry. the almost simultaneous advent to power of a labour govt. in eng- land revived egyptian hopes that the sudan policy would be reconsidered.’ but a declaration made (june 25) in the house of lords by lord parmoor that the british govt. did not intend to evacuate the. sudan evoked violent protests from zaghlul. nor was the statement in the house of commons by mr. ramsay macdonald a few days later more encouraging, though he ex- pressed the hope that the egyptian prime minister would come to england to discuss the issue. the latter, who was now completely master of the situation at cairo, had repeatedly affirmed that he would only accept discus- sion on the basis of the incorporation of the sudan in egypt. in view of the unequivocal attitude of the british govt. and parlia- ment, he tendered his resignation, which was, however, not ac- cepted. when about to start for alexandria, where the court was established for the summer, he was shot at and wounded by a egypt young egyptian who appeared to be of unbalanced mind and not closely connected with any political movement. he recovered quickly and proceeded to europe to recruit his health. meanwhile nationalist propaganda had transferred its activ- ity to the sudan, and disturbances, of which there had been some premonition a few weeks earlier, broke out (aug. 9-11) at khartoum, the atbara post and port sudan. a proposal from cairo for an egyptian-sudanese commission of enquiry elicited a firm reply from h.m. government. the governor-general was alone responsible for order in the sudan. egyptian and other troops which were guilty of disaffection would be removed and re- placed by such british troops as might be considered necessary. alter the recognition of independence, the egyptian govt. claimed an exclusive right of decision in certain international issues hitherto dealt with by the british government. they de- clined to be bound by the result of negotiations undertaken in their behalf regarding the boundary of cyrenaica and the pos- session of the oasis of jaghbub, which the british govt. proposed to regard as italian territory in return for a rectification of frontier at sollum.! direct negotiations would therefore be opened with the italian government. they also contended that, having ceased to be a dependency of the sultan, egypt could no longer be held liable for the tribute to turkey. as the tribute had been made the security for two turkish loans, the disclaimer of liability presented serious difficulties. it was proposed that a conference of interested powers should study the question or that it should be referred to the international court at the hague. after june 1924, moreover, the egyptian govt. ceased to make an annual contribution towards the cost of the army of occupation. this contribution had been fixed at {150,000 per annum by an exchange of notes in 1907. meeting of prime ministers —a meeting between the british and egyptian prime ministers eventually took place in london (sept. 25—-oct. 3 1924), but it was fruitless in results owing to the inordinate pretensions of zaghlul who, when once egyptian independence became an accomplished fact, repudiated any ob- ligation to reciprocal concessions. he was informed by mr. ram- say macdonald that no british govt. could divest itself of its interest in guarding the suez canal, for which security must be provided in any agreement between great britain and egypt. effective co-operation might have been established by a treaty of alliance. the british force to be maintained in egypt would neither interfere with the functions of its govt. nor encroach upon its sovercignty. he adhered to the declaration made in the house of com- mons that no arrangement which would jeopardise the adminis- tration and development of the sudan could be contemplated. the british govt. had the duty of maintaining order there, and there could be no question of abandoning the sudan until the work of great britain was completed. at the same time the spe- cial interest of egypt in the water supply was recognised as well as certain financial claims against the sudan government. these interests great britain was prepared to secure.’ the contrast between the two points of view was irreconcilable . and zaghlul’s govt. responded by replacing men of moderate opinions in the public service with uncompromising nationalists. a phase of acute tension between zaghlul and the palace now became manifest and the king was openly accused of violating the constitution. at the same time a sense of preoccupation in egypt at the indefinite prolongation of unsettled conditions was appreciable after the failure of negotiations with a govt. the atti- tude of whose members in opposition had aroused unwarranted anticipations. the minister of finance, tewfik nessim, resigned, and zaghlul himself, confident of evoking a renewed demonstra- tion of popular support, also offered his resignation on the eve of the mecting of parliament. the king, impressed by the una- nimity of parliament and popular opinion, refused to accept it. the agreement for the rectification of the frontier between egypt and cyrenaica by which the oasis of jaghbub was recognised as italian territory was signed on dec. 6 1925. 2the results of these conferences are summarised in a despatch (oct. 7) from mr, ramsay macdonald. (cmd. 2269 of 1924.) kgypt murder of sir lee stack —on nov. 19 1924 sir lee stack, the sirdar and governor-general of the sudan, was shot in broad daylight while driving through the streets of cairo and his aide- de-camp was wounded. the assassination roused a storm of in- dignation in great britain. rigourous measures were called for. the demands put forward by lord allenby (british note of nov. 22) were tantamount to an ultimatum. they required:— 1, an ample apology for the crime. 2. an enquiry into the authorship of the crime with the utmost energy and without respect of persons, and the condign punishment of the criminals, whoever and whatever their age might be. 3. the prohibition and vigourous suppression of all popular po- litical demonstrations. 4. the payment forthwith to the british govt. of a fine of £500,000. | 5. the withdrawal from the sudan within 24 hours of all egyptian officers and the purely egyptian units of the egyptian army with the resulting changes to be specified later. 6. notification to the competent department that the sudan govt. would increase the area to be irrigated at gezira from 300,000 feddans to an unlimited figure as need might arise. 7. the withdrawal of all opposition in the respects to be specified later to the wishes of the british govt. concerning the protection of foreign interests in egypt. if these demands were not immediately complied with, the british govt. would at once take appropriate action to safeguard their interests in egypt and the sudan. the sth and 6th of these demands being declared unaccept- able, while an evasive answer was returned to the 7th, the british authorities took immediate action. the egyptian govt. were informed of instructions sent to the sudan govt. to effect the removal of all egyptian officers and of the purely egyptian units. the restriction of the irrigable area of the gezira to 300,- ~ 000 feddans would be regarded as no longer binding. at the same time the customs at alexandria were occupied by a british force. certain individuals under suspicion of conspiracy were arrested by the british but handed at once to the egyptian authority. these vigorous measures inevitably led to the resignation of zaghlul, who was replaced by ahmed pasha ziwar, the president of the senate, with a ministry of moderate views. they lost no time in negotiating a settlement with the british govt. which secured the evacuation of the customs, after which they were joined by ismail sidky pasha. a mutiny in a section of the sudanese troops at khartoum which broke out at this moment was rapidly suppressed. the egyptian parliament was ad- journed and finally dissolved at the end of 1924. an appeal which it had addressed to the league of nations and to the parliaments of other countries for intervention remained without response. events of 1925.—the elections which followed the dissolution left the political situation uncertain. a new union party uitihad), formed under the inspiration of the palace, had for its object to draw away from zaghlul’s party, the h’afd, many of those to whom his intransigence had become distasteful, and while a number of his former adherents adopted the union programme, others who stood as independents professed their. intention if returned of joining either the unionists or the liberals. on the reassembling of parliament, however, zaghlul defeated the min- isterial candidate for the presidency of the chamber by a major- ity of 40, and it became evident that the independents had re- pudiated their undertaking to separate themselves from the wafd. in view of the support thus openly given to the leader whose policy has led up to the british ultimatum, the ministry could only recommend the king to dissolve thenewly elected parliament. a commission under the chairmanship of ismail sidky, in which the liberal element predominated, was then appointed to revise the electoral law so as to restrict the suffrage to egyptians whose education and interests would render them less amenable to popular agitation. the opposition appeared for the moment disconcerted and disarmed, and ziwar pasha, the prime minis- ter, was able at length to contemplate a cure in europe, leaving the administration in the hands of yehia ibrahim pasha, the minister of finance. lord allenby took advantage of this period to retire from the high commissionership. sir george lloyd, afterwards lord lioyd, was appointed to succeed him. by the time he arrived to take up his post the 939 political situation threatened once more to become critical. dur- ing the absence of the prime minister, the influence of nashat pasha, the head of the king's privy cabinet, his most trusted ad- viser, became paramount. in promoting the formation of the /if1- had party his object had been to eliminate from power the lib- erals, who were strenuously opposed to any extension of the royal prerogative. a plausible pretext having been found for the dismissal of the minister of justice, the liberal colleagues of the latter tendered their resignation, as also did sidky pasha who was at the time in europe. the liberal party, in return for zaghlul’s promise that the selection of candidates for the coming election would be made on a basis of administrative capacity, now entered into intimate relationship with the wajfd. but the promise made was not fulfilled, and at the meeting of the coali- tion on feb. 19 1926, the solidarity of the opposition was scriously endangered. zaghlul lost no opportunity of impressing on the liberals, as well as on the [efikad, their dependence upon his support. the collapse of the latter was marked by the transfer of nashat to a diplomatic post—the first indication of the influence exercised by lord lloyd.. the general election.—meanwhile the prime minister took the wind out of zaghlul’s sails by announcing that the revised elec- toral law had been withdrawn and that elections would be held under the law of 1924; namely, by direct democratic represen- tation. the meeting of the opposition consequently confined itself to passing resolutions charging ziwar’s govt. with having violated the constitution by dissolving parliament, an accusation for which there was in fact no legal justification. despite their tactics the liberals soon found themselves in the position of having paid a heavy price for an alliance which benefitted them not at all. nevertheless, every attempt to induce other egyptians to join the cabinet in their place proved abortive. but if the prestige of this body declined that of ziwar remained high. at the instigation of the opposition a certain number of omdas had refused to draw up the electoral lists under the revised indirect suffrage law; they were dismissed by ziwar who on this and on several occasions showed courage in stand- ing by his policy. and when he agreed to return to the ivafd electoral law of 1924, his promise that the elections should be held under the fairest possible conditions, was duly carried out. the elections which took place in may 1926 resulted in an over- whelming majority for the nationalists who were returned with some 150 candidates against about 30 libcrals, 5 nationalists, 20 independents and to unionists. , the efforts of the police authoritics and the support which they reccived from ziwar had succeeded by the beginning of 1926 in bringing before the egyptian courts the remainder of the culprits responsible for the political crimes which had occurred in egypt since 1920. the miscreants who still remained to be accounted for were brought to trial in may 1926. among them were two members of zaghlul’s government, ahmed maher for- merly minister of education, and mahmud nekrashi, under- secretary of theinterior. after unsuccessfully attempting to place the blame for the murder of sir lee stack and others on the shoul- ders of a revolutionary socicty of their own organisation which had its head quarters in khartum, the wafd had for some time past made efforts to secure the acquittal of these two personages. to the consternation of the more moderate egyptians and all foreigners, the trial at the end of may 1926 ended in their acquittal, but the verdict also involved, as a protest, the resig- nation of judge kershaw, the british member of the tribunal on the grounds that it had becn given by his two egyptian col- leagucs in defiance of the evidence brought before the court. prior to the elections, zaghlul pasha had several times an- nounced that it was not his intention to form a government him- self. but this wise policy, apparently dictated by the unfor- tunate consequences which his previous term of office had had, was soon abandoned when the result of the elections and of the acquittal of ahmed maher and mahmud nekrashi were an- nounced. his volfe-face received immediate attention in london, during the first week in june the high commissioncr announced that the british govt. would take steps to sccure that a 940 similar miscarriage of justice was not repeated. certain demands were presented, in this connection and upon sundry other points. they were made conditional upon zaghlul assuming the premicr- ship. but their effect was to induce him to return to his original decision, himself to remain in the background. so in his place adly pasha was requested by the king to form a cabinet'in which three prominent liberals and an independent were included. bibliograpiy.—the standard authorities for the political history of egypt after the british occupation remain lord cromer’s afedern egypt, 2 vol. (1911); lord milner’s england in egypt, revised edition (1904), and the annual reports on the finances, administration and condition of egypt, the publication of which ceased on the outbreak of the world war. w.s. blunt, the secret [history of the english occupation of egypt (1923) presents the partisan view of a strongly biased critic; sir j. rennetl rodd, social and diplomatic memories, second series (1923) deals with the international situation arising out of the khartum campaign; sir a. colvin, the afaking of modern egypt (1906); mustafa sabri, la revolution egyptienne (1919- 21): p.g. elgood, eevpt and the army (1924); m. t. symons, britain and egypt (1925). (j. r. r.) ii. education and public health feducation.—the university mosque of el azhar is the largest and most important of seven well-endowed moslem institutions in egypt which provide instruction on traditional religious lines. there are also scattered throughout the country a large number of mosque schools conducted on the same basis. the teaching of moslem religious law and the instruction of sheikhs are carricd on in two special schools. steady effort has been directed to develop this indizenous structure without undermining it, not without success, particularly in the case of the last two schools. upon it a modern system of education, with its primary, secondary and higher stages, and its provision for specialisation, has been imposed. as elsewhere, the competing demands upon the taxpayer have restricted the funds available for purposes of national education. until the change in 1922 of the status of the country the govt’s. con- sequent policy may be described as a gencral concentration upon the development and encouragement of mosque schools, and primary education and the maintenance of a few secondary schools in cairo and alexandria, intended to serve as nuclei and models for the con- duct of secondary education by the local educational authorities (provincial councils}, moslem educational trusts and private enter- prise. since the school year 1922-3 there seems to have been a definite move towards taking over secondary schools and direct assumption of the development of secondary education by the state. the provision of higher and general professional education has throughout been icft to the state and effected in a series of separate schools under various ministries. some of these schools, notably the school of medicine at qasr el aini, have acquired more than a local reputation; but the local demand for higher education is great and many egyptian students go to europe and amcrica to obtain it. the desirability of uniting the above institutions as faculties of a modern egyptian university has long been under consideration, and was reported on favourably in detail by a special commission in 1921. owing, however, largely to difficulties in securing suitable accommodation and to differences in regard to means of govern- ment and methods of teaching, the realisation of the project has been continuously delayed. although these difficulties have only been partially overcome, the formal and administrative incorpora- tion of the specified higher schools to constitute a university was enacted by royal decree in march 1925. (e. m. d.) public health all the capital towns of the mudcrias (provinces) have now been furnished with up-to-date water supplics, either of filtered or of deep well-water, besides many other of the larger towns. as efficient water supplies were installed, water-carriage drainage followed, and it was found that main drainage systems had to be undertaken in order to prevent the land becoming sewage-logged. drainage sys- tems have now been installed in cairo, alexandria, port said, suez, tanta, el mansura and kafr ez zaiyat, and schemes are under con- sideration for zagazig and damietta. establishments coming under the law dealing with ‘‘ ¢tablissements insalubres, incommodes et clangereux,’’ which corresponds roughly to the british factory acts, are now registered and are visited by special inspectors. a new “ milk law,” controlling the collection, distribution and sale of milk, and laying down standards for the fat-content, etc., has been drawn up. a “ pure food law ” is (1926) under consideration. very great progress has been made in the prevention and control of epidemic disease. plague, both bubonic and pneumonic, has been reduced to practically negligible proportions, only a few hundred cases occurring annually over the whole country. the whole organi- sation for the prevention and combating of cholera epidemics has been remodelled and, although infection has frequently been brought into the country from infected areas, cholera has been prevented from developing into epidemic form, partly owing to an excellent system of port control, under which cases can be traced from the port of arrival and put under observation in their own homes. egypt typhus and relapsing fever have been combated on modern lines, and by means of careful delousing of patients and contacts the number of cases in the country have been enormously reduced. systematic vaccination with revaccination in infected areas has now reduced smallpox to an almost negligible quantity. in 1918 an anti-malaria commission was instituted, on which the irrigation and main drainage and public health departments are represented, and a great deal of work in draining and filling in swamp- ing areas has already been completed in districts known to be malarial. active cainpaigns have now been started against ankylos- tomiasis and bilharzia, and travelling hospitals and dispensaries are at work throughout the country treating the infected peasants. a large number of ophthalmic hospitals have been built and opened throughout the country, and there is now a permanent ophthalmic hospital in every provincial capital. the imperial war graves commission have built an ophthalmic research laboratory as a memorial to the men of the egyptian labour corps and camel transport corps who gave their lives in the world war. a new general hospital of modern design has just been opened at damietta. dispensaries now exist in all the markaz towns and free medical treatment is given to the poor. a new pharmacy law has been pro- mulgated, as also a law controlling the importation and sale of stupefacient drugs. under the new law, firms importing cocaine operate under licence, and are to all intents and purposes rationed. a number of children's dispensaries (welfare centres) and maternity homes for the poor have been opened all over the country during the period under review. there is now a children’s dispensary and maternity home in practically every mudceria. the death-rate, though considerably reduced during the period under review, is still high. this is very largely owing to the high infantile ro rm (ww, tea. iii. economic and financial history area and population (see g.21).—the cultivable area, as now developed, covers some 12,000 sq. m., excluding the fringe of still unreclaimed maritime lakes. in addition to the navigable use of the main irrigation waterways, the cultivated area is well served by networks of broad- and narrow-gauge railways, of telegraphs, of telephones and of roads. the four former have been per- fected, and the majority of the roads built since 1910. except after unusual rain the road system, which includes the larger canal banks and is for the most part unmetalled, provides very serviceable ways for motor traflic, now fast extending in all forms. it is, however, the development of the irrigation system and especially its steady extension of the margin of cultivation in the delta, the completion of the conversion of some 40,000 feddans! south of cairo from single to double crop production, and the reduction to a negligible figure of the 90,000 feddans pre- viously in constant danger of being rendered entirely unproduc- tive by a low flood, made possible by the construction (1902) and heightening (1912) of the aswan reservoir and the building of the asyut (1902) and isna (1909) barrages, that more partticu- larly mark the improvement in egypt’s economic resources dur- ing the period 1911 to1925. furtherimprovement depends upon the execution of storage works on the upper reaches of the nile now under construction or consideration. but although egypt’s economic progress would have been im- possible without these great developments of her natural advantages, it is the unremitting industry of her agricultural peasantry, stimu- lated by light and equitable taxation, by the establishment of a great measure of public security and economic freedom, and by care for the public health, that has been the motive force which has turned all these favourable conditions to such remarkable account since 1885. private and public wealth was gradually built up thereby from impoverishment and bankruptcy, and provided funds which enabled the use of the cultivable area to be progressively extended and a greatly increased population to be supported. in 1882, when the first modern census was taken, the population was 6,800,000 or about 570 to the sq. m. for the most part living and regarded, in their own expressive phrase, as cattle. the population in 1925 was approximately 14,000,000 or about 1,170 to the sq. m.: and in spite of much squalor, difficult to remove under deltaic conditions, 1 by law no. 9 of 1914 three measures of length, one of weight and one of capacity are defined in terms of the metric system. yhese are respectively the dira’ baladi=58 cm., used for textiles; the dira’ ma’mari or pic =75 cm., used by architects; the qasaba = 355 cm., uscd for agricultural land; the dirhem = 312 centigrammes; and the ardeb =198 litres. the derivatives most commonly used and quoted abroad are the feddan =1-038 ac. and the qantar=99-05 lb. cotton prices are regularly quoted in egyptian dollars of 200 milliemes, per qantar. these can be converted with close approximation into pence per |b. by halving. otherwise the metric system is used and understood. egypt the general advance in independence and standard of life has been even more striking. with an area closely corresponding to that of belgium, the cultivated area of egypt now supports very nearly twice the population, and is probably the richest and most densely populated land of its size in the world. owing to the absence of appreciable rainfall, except along the northern coastline, 98 °, of egypt's large territory is desert, support- ing a population of under 100,000, and only of economic importance for the production of a certain amount of building stone, road metals and minerals, the camel still constitutes the essential means of desert travel; but the use of the motor-car is increasing and its em- ployment may be expected to extend steadily as bad places are made passable. during the war railway connection with palestine was effected across northern sinat and has since been maintained. mines.—during the 20th century a systematic effort has been made by the egyptian govt. to facilitate mineral discovery and de- velopment. the geological survey of the country, started in 1896, has been steadily pursued ever since; while some 10 years later, standard mining licences and leases were substituted for monopolistic concessions of mineral rights over extensive areas, which closed such areas to gencral prospecting and only involved tenuous obligations. the mineral output from 1907 to 1924 expressed in millions of metric tons includes 1-7 of petroleum, 1-1 of phosphate rock, 0-6 of man- ganese ore; while 58,000 oz. of fine gold and {i-.55,000 worth of peridots were also extracted. currency.— before the world war the monetary system of egypt was on a gokl monometallic basis, the nominal unit being the egyptian pound subdivided into 100 piastres and 1,000 milliemes. the british sovereign was fegal tender at the rate of 975 milliemes, and constituted the real basis of the system. the notes of the national bank of egypt were current to a limited extent, but were not legal tender, being payable in gold on demand. at the outbreak of war the international circulation of gold stopped, and it was found necessary to make these notes legal tender and relieve the bank of the obligation to pay them in gold on demand. it was, however, arranged that adjustments of cover to the note issue could be effected in gold or securities in london, while all the local banks were authorised to deposit or withdraw cash in london against deposit or withdrawal of notes in cairo. the govt. and the bank co-operated loyally and effectively, and the egyptian public rapidly accustomed themselves to the use of notes and the disappearance of gold. the measures taken worked admirably and their effect is still operative. they stabilised the sterling exchange at par throughout the war and provided a steady currency which adjusted itself automatically and without any disturbance to all subsequent requirements, egypt has now returned to a gold basis, but the notes of the national bank of egypt remain inconvertible for internal circulation. cotton and foreign trade.—the gross returns of egyptian foreign trade since i911 are given in table i., and a comparison of its dis- tribution in 1913 and i924 among the principal countries concerned in table ii. with the exception of turkey, those countries whose political boundaries have been radically altered in the interval have been excluded in the second table. egypt's disposable wealth for purposes of foreign trade is predominantly represented by the value of her cotton exports, as reterence to table i. will show. although o41 demand for egyptian and american standard cottons in the market of the most important outside purchaser, the maintenance of the higher quality of which they are the reflection is of outstanding im- portance to egypt, as otherwise her cotton would become a satellite of american and follow its price levels. while egypt’s primary economic interest is thus the maintenance of the present pre-eminence in the quality of her cotton, the'danger that this advantage may be discounted by a falling off in quantity also calls for serious attention. as table iii. illustrates, the general statistics of the crop have in- dicated for a long time past that there has been a steady diminution in the yield per feddan. but even assuming the dependability and equal weight of the statistics throughout, there have been im- portant disturbing factors at work, which make it advisable to accept with caution as yet the deduction that the culture of the cot- ton plant is, for one or other reason, generally less successful than it used to be. among such factors may be mentioned the extension of cotton culture into less fertile districts and the cultivation of varieties, such as sakellarides, which appear to combine better quality lint with lower yield. (see cotton.) table i. annual returns of value of imports and exports in millions of £f. ae abs : im- ex- otton, , im- ex- -otton, year ports | ports | cotton year ports {| ports | cotton products? products! toll "|, 27°3-.|-28°9 26:4 1919 | 47°4| 75°9 69°1 1qi2 25:9 | 34:6 32:0 1920 } loi-g | 85-5 79°4 1913 | 27-9 | 31-7 29:2 i92t | °55°5.|' 39-4 3155 1914 | 21-7 | 24-1 21-4 1922 | 43:3| 48-7 43°7 i9i5 iq-f | 27°0 22°'0 192: 45'°3| 58-4 54°3 i916 | 3i'l | 37°5 32°3 192 50°7 | 05-7 o14 iol7 | 33:2 | 41-1 36°1 192 58-2 | 59-2 55-2 1918 51-2 | 45-4 40:8 1this includes cotton, raw cotton, cotton seed, cotton seed cake, cotton seed oil, cotton yarn, cotton waste and grey picce goods manufactured in egypt. no re-exports are included. apart from raw cotton, the only other exports of importance are cottonseed, cottonseed oil and cake, manganese ore, phosphates, raw flax and wool, cigarettes and eggs. the chief imports in 1924, to- gether with the value of each expressed in millions of le., were cotton picce goods, 8-8; wheat flour, 2-3; coal, 1-6; woollen and worsted clothes, 1-0; and kerosene, 1-0. general review, 1910-25.—in response to world demand, ap- proximately from r902 onward the price of egyptian cotton in- creased greatly, so that the country became rapidly and, so far as any effort of its own was concerned, fortuitously enriched. this fortuitous accession of wealth led to a speculative boom in egyptian affairs, which was succeeded by a sudden and com- plete slump in 1907. the reaction was inevitable, and was in no way due to any setback in the yield or price of the staple prod- uct of the country; but it left the latter with a load of unproduc- table ii. distribution of foreign trade in 1913 and 1924 expressed in thousands of £e. imports from these exports satisfy only about 4° of the world’s consumption, the length and strength of the best egyptian fibre enables it to command a marked premium in price over practically all other cottons. it is this virtual monopoly of the finest cotton and the great rise in the price of cotton generally which have set the scale of egypt's leap into prosperity. no reliable analysis can be given of the amount of the total payment annually remitted by other countries to egypt for her cotton, which represents this premium: but its importance and the seriousness of the loss if egyptian cotton did not possess the advantage mentioned can be gauged from tables [. and iii. while the premiums quoted are simply indices of the relative i-xports to country 1913 1924 1913 | 1924 value % value 90 value yi value yo belgium 1,100 4:0 1,898 3:8 100 0-3 285 o-4 france 2,300 8-3 4,689 9:2 2,800 8-9 8,614 13-1 germany. 1,500 5-4 2,947 5°8 4,000 12-6 3,972 6-4 great britain 7,700 27-6 13,994 27-6 13,509 42-4 31,956 48-6 greece 500 1-8 22 1-8 50 0-2 405 0-6 india . = “as yl 500 1-8 1,781 3°5 30 ol 216 0-3 italy 3 < @ 4 1,400 5:0 5,231 10-3 1,000 3:2 4,069 6-1 japan “ai ¢ ay bird 973 1-9 ; = 1,509 2-4 russia goo 3:2 810 1-6 2,200 7:0 75 o-i switzerland 130 0-5 638 1-3 i,000 462 2,299 3°5 turkey . ... 1,900 6-8 827 1-6 500 1-6 142 0-2 united states of a. 500 1-8 1,799 3°6 2,500 7-9 7,086 10:7 other countries o43 33-8 14,227 28-0 3,982 12:6 5,106 7+ totals 27,865 100-0 50,737 100-0 31,622 100-0 734 100-0 tive debt which constituted a new and heavy charge upon its production. during the next seven years two tendencies were in conflict. on the one hand a succession of abundant cotton crops realised at good prices tended to add steadily to the wealth of the country: on the other the pressure of indebtedness and the insidious practice of seeking relief in further debt operated to impoverish it. | the immediate effect of the outbreak of war was to reduce the price of cotton by a third and thus deprive the country at a stroke 942 of the increased income it had enjoyed for some 12 years previ- ously. the sudden diminution of the country’s purchasing power reacted severely on economic activity, imports fell off heavily, many debts were left undischarged and even gold hoards were dispersed. as elsewhere, emergency measures were taken. a general moratorium was proclaimed, advances were extended to cultivators on their cotton and the notes of the national bank of egypt were decreed legal tender and inconvertible. these and table. iil. average annual return of production and value of cotton crop for groups of seasons 1895-6] 1902—3)1907-8 1914-5/1921-2 group of seasons to to to to to iqoi~2/1906—7 191 3-4) 1920-1/1925-6 planted area in millions of feddans crop in millions of qantars yield in qantars per feddan average price pence per lb.: american middling egyptian! standard premium per cent of egy pe tian f value of cropin millions £fe. ifully good fair brown till 1916-7; fully good fair sakellarides 1917-8 onwards. other measures could, however, only be palliatives operating to reduce the shock of an economic setback which would have been very serious if it had continued. fortunately the price of cotton, stimulated by the demand for war purposes, gradually recovered until by the end of rors it again reached its pre-war level. the conversion of egypt into a huge british military base for the near eastern theatre of war and the paradoxical political connection between the two coun- tries, which characteristically gave egypt the benefits of being on the winning side without the financial drain of actual bellig- erency, combined with the demand for egyptian cotton, com- pleted the economic rescue and converted it to prosperity. thus the maintenance of egypt as a great base involved con- siderable expenditure on labour, military works, supplies and commodities of all kinds, which was defrayed by the british govt. or by the troops themselves, and materially contributed to the financial recovery of the country. it caused the british govt. to provide and ensure the import of the coal necessary for the working of the railways, of the water supply, lighting and sewage systems of the towns, and of the thousands of irrigation pumps on which the cotton, food and fodder harvests largely depend. it necessitated the protection of the maritime routes to egypt and brought large volumes of shipping to her ports, which greatly facilitated the export of cotton and the import of food, fuel and other necessaries. these favourable conditions continued throughout the war, and were accompanied by a steady increase in cotton prices and a great growth in the wealth of the country.: in the middle of 1919 the prices of egyptian cotton soared in response to a feverish post-war demand and early in 1920 stood at more than 10 times the pre-war figure. soon after reach- ing this peak, prices, in response to an abrupt cessation of de- mand brought about by the contemporary world crisis in pro- duction, fell as precipitously as they had risen, till in march 1921, they stood at little more than their pre-war level. the combined effect of the abnormal expansion in wealth when cot- ton prices were soaring and of the contemporary relaxation of war-time restrictions on transport is reflected in the record 1m- port and export returns for 1920. the shock of the subsequent sudden contraction of the national income to the pre-war stand- ard was felt most severely by the landholding population, which was in a good position to stand it, having been able to accumu- late profits practically untouched by taxation during the previous years. on the other hand, the general fall in prices brought relicf to the classes which had suffered from the continuous increase in ehrlich the cost of living. for the growth of the national wealth since 1914 had been most unevenly distributed, and was accompanied by extreme contrasts of ease and want. the poorer classes in the towns, and large numbers of officials and others on small fixed salaries or purely money wages had suffered severely. the sudden fall in prices also caught the govt. with large stocks of depreciated coal and cereals in its possession. for, as in other countries, the obligation to ensure essential supplies and partially to redress depreciation of the pay of public servants led the govt. during the war to adopt special measures of food and fuel supply and in supplement of salaries. the liquidation of practically all these special liabilities and the reaction on public finance of the heavy fall in cotton prices fell into the working of the financial year 1920~1, which accordingly may most fittingly be held to terminate the war period for egypt. she emerged from it, as reference to table iv. will show, at a net cost to her public finances of just over £e.2,500,000; with moderately in- creased taxation and with greatly increased national wealth. table iv. summary of public finance, roro-25, in millions of {e. in the pre-war, war and post-war periods total total revenue | expendi- over each } ture over period jeach period consol. debt! reserve fund date and period jan. 1910 to march 1914 . april 1914 to march 1921 . april 1921 to march 1925 . 1f-xcluding the ottoman tribute loans. 2of which the govt. and the caisse de la dette held 8-5 in march 1924. in the above table revenue and expenditure are totalled for each period, and the reserve fund and consolidated debt for first and last ycars of each period are given. in reading the totals the unequal lengths of the periods must of course be considered. while there have been important private losses, notably owing to investments in, and speculative purchases of, depreciated cur- rencics, egypt’s economic position has been greatly fortified both absolutely, and even more relatively, as a result of the war and of the post-war stabilisation and recovery that followed. this is established by many indices covering the period 1910-25. among these may be mentioned a great growth in egypt’s for- eign trade, a great increase in bank deposits, a notable transfer of the egyptian debt from european to egyptian holders, the high level of egyptian securities, a marked discharge of agricul- tural debt. table i. illustrates the first, table v. the last. table v. afortgage debts due to four leading banks in rorr and 1925 expressed in millions of le. bank credit foncier egyptien 27°9 18-7 agricultural bank of egypt 8-2 27 land bank of egypt. 3°5 4°2 mortgage company of egy pt 2:0 31. totals 41-6 28-7 brsiiograppny.—l. g. roussin, ‘‘ le regime monetaire actuel de egypte,” l'egyple contemporaine (cairo, feb. 1924); see also annual reports by h.m. commissioner on finances, administration and condition of egypt (up to 1920); reports of the department of overseas trade on the economic and financial situation of egypt (1920, etc.); reports of the geological survey and department of mines; reports of the public works depariment; comptes rendits des travaux de la commission de la deite publique d’egypte (annual); annual reports of the financial adviser; annual budget of the egyptian government; annual statements of account of the egyptian govern- ment (supplement to journal officiel). (e. m.d.) ehrlich, paul (1854-1915), german bacteriologist, was born in silesia march 14 1854, of jewish parentage. he was educated at breslau and strasbourg, where he studied medicine. ele was soon drawn toward research in chemistry, and in his earlier years carried out various important investigations in aniline dyes. ile was at the same time winning fame us a bac- einstein—elbe teriologist, and in 1907 discovered a red dye, known as “ trypan red,”’ which effected the complete sterilisation of animals in- fected with trypanosomes, a work of enormous importance for the treatment of diseases caused by these parasites. he con- siderably improved the technique of serum preparation, and also discovered a method by which the potency of the anti- diphtheria toxin could be tested. he also investigated the problems of cancer. ehrlich’s most famous discovery, however, was made in connection with his researches into venereal diseases. it was announced in 1910 that he had prepared an arsenical compound, known as salvarsan or “‘ 606,” which was a cure for syphilis. he lectured in london in 1907, and in 1913 attended the medical congress held there. in 10908 he, together with mechnikov, was awarded the nobel prize for medicine. te received many honours from his government and marks of distinction from almost every university and scientific society. he died at homburg aug. 20 1915. see paul ehrlich: eine darstellung seines wissenschafilichen wirkens, festschrift zum 60. geburtstage des forschers (1914). einstein, albert (1870- ), german-swiss physicist, was born of jewish parents at ulm, wiirttemberg, may 14 18709. his boyhood was spent at munich where his father, who owned electro-technical works, had settled. the family migrated to italy in 1894, whilst albert einstein went to a cantonal school at aarau in switzerland. ile attended lectures while supporting himself by teaching mathematics and physics at the polytechnic school at ziirich until 1900 and finally, after a year as tutor at schaffhausen, was appointed examiner of patents at the patent office at berne, where, having become a swiss citizen, he remained until ro09. it was during this period that he took his ph.d. degree at the university of ziirich and published his first papers on physical subjects. these were so highly thought of that in 1909 he was appointed extraordinary professor of theoretical physics at the university of ziirich. in 1911 he accepted the chair of physics in prague, only to be induced to return to his own polytechnic school at ziirich as full professor in the following year. in 1913 his pre-eminence had become so evident that a special position was created for him in berlin, clirector of the kaiser-wilhelm physical institute. he was elected a member of the royal prussian academy of sciences and given a stipend suf- ficient to enable him to devote all his time to research without any restrictions or routine dutics. he was elected a foreign member of the royal society in 1921, having also been made previously a member of the amsterdam and copenhagen academics, while the universities of geneva, manchester, ro- stock and princeton conferred honorary degrees on him. in 1925 he received the copley medal of the royal society and in 1926 the gold medal of the royal astronomical society in recognition of his theory of relativity. he received a nobel prize in 1921. einstein’s work is so important and has proved fertile in so many various branches of physics that it is not possible to do more than enumerate a few of the most salient papers. the work by which he is best known, the theory of relativity, was begun in 1905 with the publication of the restricted prin- ciple with its consequences (sce relativity: space-time). though considered fantastic by many, it had secured fairly general acceptance in germany in 1912, and was followed by the generalised theory in 1915. but einstein’s work has been by no means confined to such abstract questions. one of his earliest publications gave the complete theory and formulae of the phenomenon known as brownian motion, which had puzzled physicists for nearly 80 years. he showed that the heat motion of particles, which is too small to be perceptible when these particles are large, and which cannot be observed in molecules since these themselves are too small, must be perceptible when the particles are just large enough to be visible, and gave com- plete equations which enable the masses themselves to be de- duced from the motions of these particles. much of his time again was spent on the obscure problems usually combined under the heading “ quantum theory.’”’ the importance of these has become more and more evident, and the difficulty of reconciling the apparently inevitable discon- 943 tinuities of the product of energy and time which experiment indicates, with our accepted habits of mind, always had a peculiar fascination for einstein. sooner, probably, than any- body else he realised the far-reaching implications of the theory propounded by planck. his paper on the variation of the specific heat with temperature, which appeared in 1907, was the first extension of planck’s fundamental hypothesis, and its verifica- tion in essentials is one of the most convincing arguments in its favour. numerous other papers on molecular physics, including an experimental research on magnetism, appeared in the pre- ceedings of the russian academy of science, the phystkalische acitschrift, the proceedings of the german physical society, the annalen der phystk, etc. (hn. l:) eisner, kurt (1867—1919), bavarian politician and writer, was born in berlin may 14 1867 he became a journalist, and at an early stage of his career had the first of his many experiences of imprisonment because of the socialist tendency of his writings. he was successively on the editorial staff of voerwderts in berlin (1898-1905) and of socialist newspapers at nuremberg and munich. after the outbreak of the world war he turned against his old allies, the social democrats, and attacked them for supporting the war. convicted of treason in jan. 1918, he was released on account of his candidature for the reichstag, and was in time to organise the mass meeting which was held at munich on nov. 7 19t8 and resulted in the overthrow of the bavarian monarchy. a bavarian revolutionary government, with eisner as its president, was established. he was opposed to the re-establishment of the federal system of the german reich and to the election of a national constituent assembly. his revelations regarding germany’s responsibility for the war increased his unpopularity with the bavarian reactionaries; and on his way to open the bavarian assembly on feb. 21 tg19 he was shot dead in the street by count arco. among eisner?s various written works are psychopathia spiritualis (1892); eine junkerrevolte (1899); wilhelm liebknuecht (1900); feste der festlasen (1903); and die neue zeit (1919). elbe (see 9.161), a river of central europe. under article 331 of the treaty of versailles the elbe from its confluence with the vitava (moldau) was declared international. the adminis- tration of its system was entrusted to an international commis- sion composed of four representatives of the german riparian states, two of czechoslovakia, and one each of great britain, france, italy and belgium. ‘this commission drew up the navigation act signed at dresden feb. 22 1922 (league of nations treaty serics, vol. 26, no. 6490, 1924). the commission has to provide for freedom of navigation and equality of treat- ment; to take decisions on complaints arising out of the applica- tion of the act; to see that the navigable waterway is kept in good condition and to supervise improvements. its jurisdiction may be extended, subject to the unanimous consent of the com- mission, by decision of the riparian state or states concerned. a supplementary convention signed at prague jan. 27 1923 laid down detailed regulations for navigation tribunals and for appeal. railway competition —the question of railway competition has become important. the railway practically follows the same route as the river and thus naturally competes with river-traffic. moreover, before the war the german railways had granted exceptionally favourable tarifis to encourage railway transport from saxony and bohemia to hamburg, in competition with the transport to trieste. at the same time saxon railways assisted shipping by granting special tariffs to traffic to or from elbe ports in saxony. the peace treaties prohibited germany for a time from granting special tariffs to seaports, while maintaining the favourable tariffs to trieste; czechoslovak traffic was thus diverted. in 1920 the german railways introduced low rates for long distance traflic, and recently re-established exceptionally favourable tariffs for seaports, but not for the fluvial elbe ports. the shipping companies have formed a combine, which since dec. 31 1923 has applied only to downstream traffic. in 1924 a new common fluvial tariff was introduced for both the german and the czechoslovak sections of the river, which introduced bills of lading at flat rates, applicable to the chief ports above teschen 944 in respect of shipments consigned to hamburg. the elbe is divided into (1) the czechoslovak zone, with fixed rates; (2) the saxon zone, with rates varying according to whether the goods come from near the river or not; (3) the middle elbe zone, with variable rates. the results have been fairly satisfactory, and although the railways have captured part of the heavy goods traffic from the waterway, the waterway has secured the transport of certain classes of valuable goods. statistics show that the proportion of shipments at hamburg by rail to those by water in 1924 was ap- proximately the same as before the war (1924: 64% by water, 36% by rail). czechoslovakia has considerable interests in the elbe navigation. the total quantity of goods exported from czechoslo- vakia in 1924 amounted to 1,112,000 tons (321,550 tons of sugar). in addition 181,855 tons of timber were tloated. the total tonnage entering the ports of hamburg, harburg and altona from up- stream was 3,023,833 tons. the total tonnage shipped upstream from these ports was 3,317,248 tons, of which 754,455 tons went to czechoslovakia. (r. rn.) electoral laws, changes in (sce 9.169).—a survey of the world’s electoral laws since 1910 shows a steady democratic development, most marked since the end of the world war. the various implications of accepted democratic theory are swiftly on the way to complete legal consummation in almost every self-governing country in the world. the end, already in sizht, is to make the franchise direct, equal, universal, with the minimum of property qualification, or none at all, to make the ballot secret, and registration simple. the universality of the franchise in any real sense has come to mean its extension to women. and further, in pursuit of the principle of equity of representation, the systems of proportional and minority repre- sentation have been adopted in many countries. the age at which the citizen is entitled to vote varies widely; in sovict ruszia and in modernised turkey and in argentina it is 18, in germary and switzerland 20, in norway 23, in italy and den- mark a:cd japan it is 25, in great britain a woman must be 30 before she is entitled to be registered. women’s suffrage.—the new european states, in whose com- position the democratic doctrine was necessarily an essential ingredient, have given women the ri, ht to vote, with the excep- tion of monarchial yugoslavia. the european states which still deny the women the parliamentary franchise are belgium, france, greece, portugal, yugoslavia and spain. it is curious to find france in this category, since she was the pioneer in the realisation of universal male suffrage. the many projects before the french chambers have foundered against the latin-chris- tian objection to women having aught to do but with domestic politics. in the united states the ratification, in 1920, of the 19th amendment to the constitution, put women on an equal footing with men. the amendment runs: “ the right of the citizens of the united states to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the united states or by any state on account of sex. congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legisla- tion.” this clause has the more importance since the 17th amendment, in 1913, commands the election of senators by direct vote of the citizens. the dominion elections act of 1920 gave women in canada an equal right with men to vote. in australia the female franchise is of date prior to rgrto. south africa has defeated several projects for women sufirage, in argen- tina the election law of 1912 gave the vote to males only of 18 years of age, and in brazil political practice has excluded women from the franchise. nor have women the suffrage in japan. the mexican constitution of 1917 gave the vote to all mexican citi- zens: that is, to all over 21 if unmarried, and all over 18 uf married. compulsory voting—the vote in mexico is for all electors, not merely a prerogative, but 7 duty. if the duty is not fulfilled and that ‘ without sufficient cause,” then according to the con- stitution the ri, ht is suspended. this conception of the vote as a civic duty finds its counterpart in the recent enactments of compulsory voting for the australian commonwealth house of representatives and senate (1924), for the queensland legisla- tive assembly (1915) and in the argentine republic (1912) electoral laws, changes in where the penalties are not strictly administered, and the bel- gian compulsory vote enacted in 1896. the substance of the electoral laws of great britain, germany, japan and india have since toro undergone the most far-reaching alterations of all with the exception of soviet russia, whose system is based on a radically different principle, and canada, where the dominion elections act of 1920 laid down a federal qualification overruling previous provincial legisiation. changes in various countries great britain.—in great [britain the representation of the people act, 1918, cleared away the diversity of franchises then existing. occupation as owner or tenant for six months is the basis of the franchise for both men and women of 21 in local government elections. a woman may receive a vote not as occupier in her own right, but as wife of a local government elector. the parliamentary franchise is, for men, based upon a six months’ residence in a con- stituency; or upon six months’ occupation of land or premises of not less than £10 yearly value. holders of university degrees have a further vote. women are entitled to vote where they are over 30 and entitled to be local government electors as occupiers, but their occupancy must be of £5 annual value. they may also be registered if they are wives of local government electors, but here the occupancy, atain, must be of £5 annual value. they also have a university vote. plural voting was restricted to two votes, inclusive of the university vote. receipt of poor relief is no longer a disqualification for the local governnient franchise. the shortening of the registration period to six months, and the institution of two registers per year substantially decreased the existing evil of disqualification through industrial migra- tion. in 1917 there were 8,357,000 men on the registers. in 1923 there were 10,419,820 men and 7,831,583 women. the act also regu- lated the maximum amount of election expensesallowable. in counties expenses are at the rate of 7d. per registered elector, in boroughs 5d. germany.—the german constitution of ig1g swept away the three-class and indirect systems of elections of the various german states and substituted a system of equal and direct suffrage through- out the entire reich, for imperial, state and municipal elections. proportional representation was aso instituted, and, its execution necessitating larrze constituencies, resulted in a redistribution of seats which rectified the crying political injustice done since 1867 to the populous parts of the country. the system was enacted in detail in the law of april 1920. japan.—the growing potency of the democratic idea in tapan in the last quarter of a century, immensely quickened by the war, and marked by some 15 attempts at substantial electoral reform, gained a partial reward in rg20, when the direct-tax qualification was re- duced from 12 to 3 yen. the electorate was thercby increased from about 1,500,000 to 2,800,000, and this had expanded to 3,500,000 by 1925. in that year an electoral law regulated the franchise with greater approach to completeness. male suffrage was enacted for all over 25 resident in their constituency for six months prior to registration, and with their own means of subsistence. the elec- torate increased to over 14 million. india.—the indian constitutional reforms of r919 worked a small revolution in the electoral system and franchise opportunities in that country. the rules under section 7 of the reforms act (elec- toral rules for provincial levislative councils) and under section 23 (electoral rules for the indian legislature) are too detailed to be summarised here with any pretence to exactitude. proportional representation during the war, the neutral nations of denmark (1915), hol- land (1917) and switzerland (1918) adopted the system of pro- portional representation for the lower house of parliament; and after the war, the system favoured in some cases by the necessity of making provisions for racial minorities was adopted for parliamentary and generally also for local, relations by ger- many and austria (1919), italy (this was abandoned in 1921 under the fascist rezime), luxembourg and poland (19109), czechoslovakia, estonia, latvia, lithuania, norway and jugo- slavia (1920). a similar development has been taking place in english-speaking countries. in great britain the speaker’s conference on electoral reform of 1916-7 recommended a partial adoption of proportional representation for the house of commons, extending to about one-third of the seats. this rec- ommendation was rejected by parliament, but the principle of proportional representation applies in university elections. the system is provided for parliamentary elections under the consti- tution of the insh free state. south africa (rq09) instituted proportional representation for municipal elections, but has rejected the system for the national representative assembly. proportional representation has been introduced in canada for some municipalities and in one provincial constituency, i.e., the hlectricity: nature and uses city of winnipeg, but projects for its national application have been rejected. the alternative vote has been adopted almost universally in australia. argentina and brazil have adopted systems of minor- ity representation. france is not happy under its system insti- tuted in 1919, because an unfortunate compromise has resulted in a hybrid regime of majority representation with a small and accidental element of proportional representation. the german system puts the power of organising the lists of candidates into the hands of the party machine, and “ star” candidates carry in lists of mediocre colleagues. miscellaneous matters the soviet franchise.—the development of political repre- sentation so far indicated went along familiar paths. but the russian system, as planned by the bolshevik theorists, consti- tutes a startlingly new orientation. to the orthodox democratic theorists the vote itself was an abstract attribute of a theoret- ically perfect body of citizens, between whom there could be no discrimination at the polls. the integrated complex of material results likely to be consequent upon the exercise of the vote was rarely the impetus or the guide to reform. the granting of the vote was prior to the aim of the vote. the bolshevik theory denies the validity of such political liberalism. it commences with a definite conception of the kind of state it wants, and pro- ceeds to arrange its electoral system to bring about the desired result. the ‘ non-workers ” in russia have not the franchise. this class includes all persons who hire others for profit-making purposes, those who have unearned incomes, merchants and middlemen, the satellite helpers of the bourgeoisie, monks and ministers of religion, and former police officials. all ‘‘ working ”’ citizens over 18 may participate in the elections. the second point in which the soviet regime diverges from its contemno- raries is in its denial of the principle of the direct representation of a constituency in the supreme legislative body. popular con- sent in the soviet system is attainable through the councils, called soviets, established in the smallest town and rural dis- tricts; and thence by a process of pyramidical delegation, up- wards through various district and gubernial congresses or soviets, to the all-russian congress of soviets. elections take place annually, since short periods of election are deemed to intensify political activity and increase the vividness of the representative quality. cconomic councils.—economiic councils centring in the fed- eral economic council (das reichs:etrischaftsrat), in germany, embodied in article 165 of the constituilon, constitutes a system of representation of the citizens on the basis of their vocations, occupations or professions. it stands by the side of the reich- stag in an advisory capacity. it is the outcome of the idea of the representation of estates of the realm, and the acknowledgment of the importance of vocational groupings and the difficulty of obtaining a true micro-mirror of the weal and knowledge of the citizens by the old orthodox method of territorial representation. secrct voting.—almost all countrics now make provision for secret voting, with more or less careful regulations for ensuring their object. some, notably great britain, the dominions, the united states and belgium, use the australian ballot system, 1.¢€., ballots prepared by the state and distributed under proper supervision to the voter in the isolated booths. others, like argentina (1912), italy (1912), france (1913-4) and germany (1919) allow ballots, conforming to certain regulations to be dis- tributed by the parties, and then a state-provided envelope is handed by the officials in the polling station to the voter in which to enclose his completed ballot paper. hungary and russia are exceptions to the rule of secret voting. in the former, by the electoral rules of april 1922, rural constituencies, numbering 2090 out of a total of 245, are subject to open voting. in russia the constitution and various decrees establish public voting, with a curious procedure. voting takes place in specially convened ““ works ” and “ institutional ” assemblies, and there is a “ gen- eral’? assembly for people outside these categories. where the district is small there is a general meeting of all categories of 945 voters. tere lists of candidates are publicly put forward by parties, trade unions or groups of electors. the electoral com- missioners are not impartial. being the agents of the communist party, they invariably prepare and present the lists of candi- dates, and they are entitled to oppose the election of persons who have previously shown “incapacity” in office, and by order of the gubernial authoritics may unseat those elected. bintiograruy.—g,. d. h. cole, social theory (1920); s. and b. webb, a constitution for the socialist commonwealth of great britain (1920); sir hugh fraser, the representation of the people acts, rgr8~27, 2nd ed. (1922); julius hatschek, dentches und preussisches staatsrecht, bd. 1. (berlin, 1922); leon duguit, droit constitutionnel, vol. 2 (paris, 1923); h. finer, representative government and a parliament of industry (1923); ii. finer, the case against protor- tional representation, fabian society (london, 1924). = (h. f1.) electricity: nature and uses.—reference should be made to the following articles: atmospheric electricity; atom; atomic weights; broadcasting; chemistry; dynamo; conduction, electric; ether; gases, electrical properties of; isottores; magnetis«n; matter; photorlectricity; quan- tum theory; rays; relativity; spectrum; super-power; ‘telegrapity; wireless telegraphy. remarkable progress has been mace since 1910 both in the scientific study of clectric and magnetic phenomena and also their application for technical purpose. on the scientific side these advances have peen c.osely con- nected with an increased insight into the nature of material atoms as electrical structures and our powers of interpretation of ob- served effects have been enhanced by the introduction into physics of a novel hypothesis called the quantum theory, originally suggested by max planck about tgo0o to explain the distribution of energy in the spectrum but since found to have important applications in all atomic phenomena. electrons.—there is now but little doubt that the agency we call negative or resinous electricity exists in small, indivisible particles called electrons (see elecrron) and that these are con- stituents of all material atoms. the mass of an electron is about 1/t8ooth of that of an atom of hydrogen and its electric charge (c) according to the careful determinations published by r. a. millikan in tor3 is (4:774 4-009) x107! electrostatic units. thus 6:28 million billion electron charges are nearly equal to one coulomb or that quantity of electricity conveyed by one ampere in one second. the mass (v7) of an electron is 0-899 x 10°”? of a gramme. ‘the theory of atomic structure widely adopted at the present time is that an atom (see atom,) comprises a central nucleus which ts very small compared with its over-all dimersions and that round this circulate a number of electrons in various orbits. this view, originally suggested by sir ernest rutherford in 1911, is called the nucleus theory of the atom and by the aid of the quantum theory has been developed of late years (in 1913) by niels bohr, arnold sommerfield and others in a manner which gives a plausible explanation of the properties of the atom in radiating and absorbing energy. protous.—the nucleus of the atom is assumea to be a structure built up of elements called protons, which are the units of positive electricity in the same sense that electrons are units of negative electricity. since similar units repel each other the protons must be held together by electrons owing to the strong attraction be- tween electrons and protons, but the protons outnumber the electrons in the nucleus and the total gravitative mass is almost entirely due to that of the protons, the electric charge on the proton being equal but opposite in sign to that of the electron but the mass nearly 1,800 times greater. on this theory the simplest atom is that of hydrogen, which consists of one electron and ore proton revolving round their common centre of mass. in other words, the proton or unit of positive electricity is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. in the nuclei of other atoms the number of protons in excess of the nuclear electrons is called the atomic number. in electrically neutral atoms the number of planetary electrons circulating round the nucleus in various orbits is also equal to the atomic number. isotopes.—the atomic weight of the atom is the sum of the weights of all the protons plus a small excess due to the electrons. 946 the true atomic weight is therefore an integer multiple, or nearly so, of the weight of the hydrogen nucleus. if the mass of the nucleus is increased by adding an equal number of protons and electrons to it the atomic weight is increased but the atomic number remains unaltered. atoms of equal atomic number but slightly different atomic weights are called isotopes (sce [so- topes) and many of the elementary substances, for example chlorine and mercury, are mixtures of isotopes. hence the re- sultant or mean atomic weight is not always an integer multiple of that of the proton. it has been shown that the chemical prop- erties of an atom depend more upon its atomic number than upon its atomic weight. there are, for instance, two kinds of lithium atoms of atomic weights 6 and 7 respectively, and two kinds of chlorine atoms of atomic weights 35 and 37, and ordinary chlor- ine gas is a mixture of these two varictics. ‘the search for iso- topes has been conducted of late with great success by t°. w. aston, employing a method devised by sir j. j. thomson cle- pending on the deflection of the so-called positive rays in a vacuum tube. quantum theory—the theory of atomic structure now in vogue is that the planetary electrons circulate round the nucleus in elliptic orbits arranged in different planes. niels bohrin 1913 introduced the novel idea that an electron cannot revolve round its nucleus at any and every distance but only in certain distict orbits called quantum paths or stationary states and that when rotating in these orbits it dloes not radiate its energy. also there is a relation between the dimensions of the possible orbits and between these and the nuclear electric charge. if the orbits are circular the radii of the successive orbits would be in the ratio of the squares of the integers 1, 2, 3, etc.; or 1, 4, 9—and the size would be inversely as the atomic number or charge on the nucleus so that the orbits would be more compact the greater the nuclear charge. bohr’s second principle is that an atom radiates cnergy only when an electron jumps from one orbit to another or falls back into an orbit from outside. these orbits reckoned from the inmost one are called the k, l, m, etc., orbits. an electron can be expelled or moved from one orbit to another by the action of x-rays or of ultra-violet light rays. when this happens the energy of the atom changes suddenly from one value, say a, to another, say a» when an electron falls back into an orbit it vibrates in settling down into its quantum path and sends out radiation (see electric radiation) of a frequency (#7). this frequency is fixed by the equation f= ae— axi, where /ris planck’s unit of action, an extremely important constant in modern phy- sics, the numerical value of which according to recent work is (6-55) x 1072" (sce quantum theory). the rydberg constant—when a neutral atom has lost one or more electrons it is said to be ionised and when it takes back an electron and emits radiation this last consists of vibrations of one or more definite frequencies. the radiation can be examined spectroscopically by a prism or diffraction grating or, if of very short wave length, by the use of a crystal section as a grating in the manner devised by laue and bragg. bohr was able in 1913 by the aid of his postulates above mentioned to arrive at a formu- la which enabled him to predict exactly the wave length or fre- quency (7) of the radiations emitted by a hydrogen atom, which consist of a series of lines in the visible spectrum called the bal- mer series and also a series in the ultra-violet part of the spectrum called the lyman series and again a series in the infra-red part of the spectrum called the paschen series, all of which are pre- | | i 4 determined by a formula = r{——-—, }, where n-, has respec- no ny tively the value 1, 2 or 3 and 2-2 the values 3, 4, 5, etc.; or 2, 3, 4, etc.; or 4, 5,6, etc.; and r isa constant called rydberg’s constant. bohr deduced as a consequence of his theory of stationary or non- radiative orbits that the rydberg constant should have the value mt 3 2m where e and m are the charge and mass of the electron and # a is planck’s unit of action. taking the measured values of these constants, viz., €=4°774 x10 !*, m =0-809 x10 7? and h=6-55x 10 “7, we have r= 3-27 x10 " which agrees closely with an ob- electricity: nature and uses served value, viz., 3:29 10 of the rydberg constant. this suc- cess of bohr’s theory is a strong indication that it has in it a large element of truth. x-rays.—great attention has been given to the problem of the structure of the atomic nucleus. rentgen discovered in 1895 the type of radiation called x-rays, and ch. barkla and others proved in 1904 that there are two kinds of x-rays, one consisting of pulses produced when electrons have their velocity suddenly changed and the other, called the characteristic radiation, pro- duced when electrons strike a target of material substance and set some part of the atoms of that target vibrating very quickly, which radiation consists of two or more rays of short but definite wave lengths. spectrography.—ll. g. j. moseley, a young british scientific man who unhappily was killed in the world war in 1915, pub- lished in 1914 an account of a very important investigation in which he photographed the characteristic x-ray spectrum for various metallic elements by placing them as anticathodes in an x-ray bulb and employing a crystal as diffraction grating. he found that as the atomic number of the metal increased the wave lengths of the corresponding spectral lines dlecreased, so that the square root of the frequency is proportional to the atomic number or nuclear charge. this enables the position and atomic number of missing or undiscovered elements to be fixed and shows that the nuclear charge is an exact multiple of that of the hydrogen atom. ‘this work, since moseley’s death, has been continued by m. siegbahn and we therefore know the atomic number of all possible or known elements between hydrogen (=1) and ura- nium (= 92) (see culemistry). r. a. millikan has pointed out that the lyman ultra-violet lines in the hydrogen spectrum are the x-ray radiations belonging to its innermost or k-orbit. the cor- responding x-ray vibrations of uranium would have a frequency 92xo92= 8,464 times as great ashydrogen. we are therefore now acquainted with a range of x-ray radiation extending over about 6 octaves, using the term in its musical sense, below the shortest of the ultra-violet rays, of which last there are 5 octaves beyond the end of the visible spectrum. beyond the x-rays there are 5 octaves of still shorter wave radiation commonly called the gamma rays. infra-red rays.—extending beyond the red end of the visible spectrum there are 9 octaves of infra-red radiation overlapping with very short ifertzian waves, which last shade into the longer waves usec in wireless telephony and telegraphy. the longer dark heat rays were isolated toward the end of the last century ly h. rubens and his co-workers by a method depending upon repeated reflection of heat by polished surfaces of certain materials, which reflection selects those rays which would be most strongly ab- sorbed by the reflecting substance on transmission. rubens called these the “‘ reststrahlen ” or residual rays. hertzian (short) \waves——up to the year torr such dark heat rays had been isolated and studied by rubens, nichols and r. w. wood with wave lengths up to about 4 mm. but there remained a considerable gap between these longest heat waves and the shortest hertzian waves studied by righi, bose and others. in 1923 i. i’. nichols and j. d. tear succeeded in creating by hertzian methods electric waves only 1/100 in. or 4 mm. in wave length and measured this wave length by a form of interferometer. the same appliances served to measure the wave lengths of restsrahlen of 1/75 in. wave length. hence hertzian waves created by purely electrical methods have now been made of shorter wave length than known dark heat rays. more recently still a. glacolewa-arkadiewa in russia (may 1924) has created hertzian waves of only 0-082 mm. in wave length. . the spectrum.—the work of the period 1910-26 has therefore filled in the gaps on the two sides of the visible spectrum (see spectrum) and has made us familiar with a range of more than 60 octaves of radiation, extending from the shortest gamma rays emitted by radium, which have a wave length near to one- fifteenth of a hundred millionth of a centimetre, up to the long- est wireless waves of 20,000 metres or more in wave length. the evidence shows that all this radiation is electromagnetic in electricity: nature and uses nature and it travels through space with identical velocity of 3108 metres per second. ether —a question which has been much discussed is the nature of this wave propagation. scientific opinion until a few years ago, was almost unanimous in describing it as a vibration of some kind in an imponderable space-filling ether. the celebrated michelson and morley experiment first performed in 1887, which seemed to show that the velocity of light was the same in all di- rections, was considered by many to prove that as relative motion of the earth in its orbit (about 30 km. per sec.) and an assumed stagnant ether could not be detected by optical means, cloubt was therefore thrown upon the existence of any such medium. as a matter of fact all that this experiment showed was that this rela- tive motion of the earth and the assumed ether at the surface of the earth was, as far as could be judged by the experiment, not greater than 7-5 km. per second. that is to say, a greater relative velocity could have been detected but not a much less. recent prolonged experiments of the same kind in 1921 to 1924 per- formed at the mount wilson observatory, u.s.a., by prof. dayton c. miller and others show that there is at that elevation a difference in the velocity of light in different directions relative to the earth’s orbital motion and ether of as much as to km. per sec. in certain directions. this suggests a partial drag of the ether by the earth which decreases with altitu:le. if, therefore, the experiment could be performed, say at the summit of mount everest, this difference might amount to much more than 10 km. per sec. and might even approximate to 30 km. per sec., and in such a case would demonstrate a motion of the earth relative to the ether. relativity.—starting, however, from the assumption that relative motion of matter and ether cannot be detected and that the velocity of light is an absolute constant, independent of the motion of the observer or of the source of light, a. einstein founded on it in 1903 his special theory of relativity (sce rela- tivity), and in 1915 he promulgated the general theory of relativity in which a new and radical departure was made in the mode of viewing physical phenomena. space and time were no longer to be regarded as separate entities or concepts in- dependent of each other, but merely as modes of division of a single entity called space-time having four dimensions just as the two-dimensional plan and elevation of a house are not separate realities but only modes of viewing a section of a single solid thing of three dimensions. the ether, at any rate by some relativists, was then dismissed as an unnecessary hypothesis and the newtonian concept of force regarded as a mathematical fic- tion, the observed effects being simply due to a curvature or distortion of the space-time in proximity to material substances. the hypothesis of an ether seems, however, essential as a starting point for logical thought (see etner). if there are un- dulations in space through which radiation is passing, then there must be something which undulates. we know that there are two periodic vectors or directed quantities in a ray, the electric and the magnetic vectors, and these have directions in space and make that space physically different from places where the ray does not exist. moreover, the radiation conveys energy and this exists in the space after it has left the radiating atom and before it reaches the absorbing atom. we cannot attribute these properties to mere emptiness and to speak of space as having properties is to endow it with reality equivalent to the hypothe- sis of an ether. on the other hand, we cannot rightly attribute to the ether such qualities as elasticity or inertia, or earmark a portion of it and consider it as retaining identity during displacement or distor- tion. if it is hypothecated to explain the properties of matter, it must be in essential nature different from and more funda- mental than the material substance, the powers of which it is invoked to explain. : photo electrics.—the properties of short wave radiation in caus- ing discharge of electricity from metals by liberating electrons from their atoms and also ionising gases, have been much studied during the last 15 years and are described as photo-electric phenomena (see photoelectricity). the first observation was 947 made by h. hertz in 1887, who noticed that when ultra-violet light fell upon spark bells it promoted electric discharge. in 1888 hallwachs made the discovery that a negatively charged conductor of zinc or aluminium rapidly loses its charge when ultra-violet light falls upon it. this effect is better exhibited in the high vacuum. p. lenard discovered that the velocity of the electrons emitted is independent of the intensity of the light and other observers found that the number of electrons emitted per second is proportional to the intensity: the speed of ejection of the electron increases with the frequency of the light. in 1905-6 a. einstein suggested that planck’s quantum theory must be valid in connection with photo-clectric effects and pro- posed the equation $v°=/n-p where m and v are the mass and velocity of the ejected electron, a is planck’s constant, # is the frequency of the incident light and p is the energy neces- sary to liberate the electron from the metal. ten years later this relation was fully established experimentally by r. a. millikan, who made use of it to determine the value of planck’s constant. the equation shows that unless the light has a frequency ex- ceeding a certain limit, no photo-electric effect can take place; also that the more electropositive the metal, the greater the wave length of the liberating light can be, thus ultra-violet light is effective in causing electronic emission in the case of zinc but ordinary visible light in the case of potassium. properties of gases.—the ionising power of x-rays was noticed soon after their discovery by the fact that they make gases electrically conductive when sent through them (see gases, electrical properties of). ‘the remarkable thing is that a beam of x-ray does not ionise every atom in a mass of gas through which it passes. this extraordinary fact has been held to prove that the energy of light is not uniformly distributed over the wave front but confined to certain places. this theory, however, is quite inconsistent with the facts of interference of light. nevertheless it is evident from photo-electric phenomena that radiant energy must be concentrated in some way in certain parcels, or quanta as they are called, the unit of energy for any frequency # being 4 where # is planck’s constant. the vibrating atom radiates and absorbs only in integer multiples of this unit. no one has yet been able to reconcile this quantum theory of radiation with the classical wave theory of uniform distribution of energy over the wave front. conduction phenomena.—another department of electric re- search which has claimed much attention is concerned with electric conductivity especially in metallic conductors. it has long been recognised that the conduction of electricity through gases and liquids depends upon the atoms or molecules being ionisell. a gas composed of electrically neutral atoms is a nonconductor. if, however, exposed to x-rays or ultra-violet light, electrons are separated from the atoms by a photo-electric action the atomic residues being left positively charged. un- der the action of an electric field, these ions move in opposite directions and constitute an electric current through the gas. the theory was originally suggested by riecke and p. drude, that the conduction of electricity through metals is due to a drift, under the action of impressed electro-motive force, of free electrons which exist and are moving irregularly in the inter- spaces between the metallic atoms. these electrons may there- fore be compared with the molecules of a gas. when set drifting by an e.m.f. they collide with the atoms of the conductor and give up energy acquired during the motion from atom to atom. if we make the supposition that the velocity of free motion is much greater than that of the drift motion, which is equivalent to assuming that the electrons are moving with the same average kinetic energy that the gas molecules would possess at the same temperature, we can show that ohm’s law is fulfilled in that the conductivity will be dependent on the e.m.f. or current. also if we postulate that heat conduction consists in an equalisation of electronic energy in a metal in which electrons are moving more rapidly in one part than in another, we can show that the wiedemann-franz law is predicted, viz., that the ratio of electric to thermal conductivity is constant and is proportional to the absolute temperature. in spite of these confirmations of 948 the theory there is the serious difficulty that the postulate of equi-partition of the heat energy between atoms and free elec- trons leads to a value of the specific heat which is much greater than that which is actually observed, and it would not decrease with tempcrature as the observed specific heat value does (see conduction, electric). low temperature effects ——very important experimental re- sults have been obtained since rort by kamerlingh onnes at leyden on the electric cenductivity of metals at very low tem- peratures. using liquid helium he was able to obtain tempera- tures down to about 1-5° k (absolute). it had long been known that the electric resistance of pure metals was greatly reduced by cooling in liquid air and hydrogen, but onnes found that the resistance of a thread of pure mercury vanished completely at 4°1° k. similarly, that of tin vanished at 3-78° k, lead at 7-2°k, thallium at 2-3°k. these metals became as he called it, ‘‘ supra- conductive.’’ electric currents in such helium-cooled metals continue to flow without any impressed e.m.f. thus in a lead ring, in which an e.m.f. has been created by drawing a magnet away from it, a current of 320 amperes flowed for 30 min. without 1% reduction in strength and in a cooled lead wire of 1,000 turns the current did not decrease 1% in an hour and would have been detectable for days. bridgman in the physical laboratory of ilarvard university, u.s.a., has studied the effect of enormous pressures up to 12,000 atmospheres on the electric conductivity of metals. usually, but not always, this great pressure increases electric conductivity by about 10%, but it is 40% for sodium, 70°% for potassium and 25% for bismuth. : this electron theory of conduction has been chiefly developed by h. a. lorentz and ably discussed by sir j. j. thompson, m. planck, m. wien and n. bohr. although it has much in it to commend it, there are many unsolved difficulties. if there are free electrons possessing inertia in the interspaces of the atoms of a metal, then if a rod of this metal is set moving longitudinally and suddenly stopped, the free electrons should lurch forward ike passengers in a train when there isa collision. experiments by r. c. tolman and j. d. stewart in the u.s.a. in 1916 have shown that there is an effect of this kind in a suddenly arrested moving coil of wire which is considered by ii. a. lorentz to give strong support to the electronic theory of electric conduction. atmospheric electricity —the ionisation of the earth’s atmos- phere by solar light or radiation or cosmic dust creates a state of electric conductivity in the upper air and gives rise to the cf- fects of atmospheric electricity (see atmospiteric electricity). these have been much studied of recent years as they are of great importance in long-distance wireless telegraphy. it is gen- erally believed that the earth as a whole has normally a charge of negative clectricity, though the source of this is obscure. this charge is continually escaping or being neutralised by a downward flow of positive electricity from the air and it must therefore be renewed in some way. as we go up into the air, the positive potential increases at an initial rate of, roughly, 150 volts per metre rise but it varies very greatly with time and place. according to the measurements of prof. c. t. r. wilson this earth-air current 1s 2x10 16 amperes pcr sq. cm. or the total current for the whole earth is about 1,000 amperes and the total charge of the earth is some 700,000 coulombs. rain brings down, in general, positive electricity, but sometimes negative. there is also a discharge of electricity between air and earth in the form of lightning. the nature of thunderstorms has been par- ticularly studied of late years by prof. c. t. r. wilson. although lightning is not frequent in temperate climates yet the number of thunderstorms taking place over the whole carth per day is very large and there is therefore a continual passage of electrons to and from the earth. the study of wireless telegraphy and also of aurorae has shown that there must be a highly ionised or con- ducting layer in the earth’s atmosphere at a height, roughly, of 70 to 100 kilometres. there are, however, great differences in the state of ionisation on the sides of the earth turned toward or from the sun and great changes at places of sunset and sunrise and variations with the changes in the state of the solar surface. electricity: nature and uses these cause corresponding differences in the facility with which wireless waves travel by day and night and in different directions. also the incessant lightning discharges cause vagrant electric waves called “ atmospherics ” which are a source of great trouble in wireless telegraphy and telephony. (see broap- casting; wireless telegraphy.) magnetism —the subject of magnetism has also engaged much attention since the year 1910. even in spite of all the investigation which has taken place we are still in ignorance as to the true cause for the peculiar magnetic properties of three common metals, iron, nickel and cobalt. remarkable alloys have been prepared of late years which are non-magnetic, though con- taining a considerable percentage of iron. in addition to the non- magnetic mangancse steel (12% of mn.) produced by sir robert hadfield in 1882, there is now a non-magnetic cast iron prepared in 1920 by s. e. dawson and messrs. ferranti containing 85% of iron, 5% manganese and 10% nickel. certain nickel-iron alloys such as the 25% ni. alloy can exist in either of two states, magnetic or non-magnetic, according to the previous heat-treat- ment. again alloys have been prepared which are magnetic and yet contain no iron, such as the heusler alloys of manganese, copper and aluminium. permatiov.—perhaps the most notable magnetic discovery of recent years is the nickel-iron alloy prepared in the laboratories of the american telephone and telegraph, and western electric companies, united states of america. it consists of 78-5% nickel and 21-5% iron. jt has a magnetic permeability of 13,000 for nearly zero magnetic force, whereas the best soft iron has not more than 100~200. for magnetic forces not exceeding 0-05 c.g.s. units its permeability may reach 100,000 or more. the meaning of this is that for very weak magnectising forces or in very fecble ficlds this alloy, called permalloy, can attain a magnetisation hundreds of times greater than that of the purest iron. this alloy is being used for the “ loading ” or over- winding of submarine telegraph cables and the result is to in- crease the speed of signalling through the cable to two or three times that in a similar unloaded cable. magnetic theory has also been revised in the last few years. in 1922 sir alfred ewing, whose researches on magnetism are classical, published an important paper suggesting fresh ideas on the process of magnetisation. structure of tron.—the methods of examining the arrangement of atoms in solids by x-ray spectrography devised by sir william bragg and his son, prof. w. l. bragg, have been applied in study of the molecular structure of the various types of iron. this metal is now recognised by metallurgists to exist in two phases at least: called alpha-iron and gamma-iron. the form of crystal lattice in each is different. alpha-iron is magnetic but gamma- iron is non-magnetic. there is, however, no definite relation be- tween magnetic properties and crystal lattice structures so far as at present known. technical advances hydroelectrical progress —the advances in the technical ap- plication of electrical science must next be noticed. in the period 1910-26 great progress has been made in the erection of stations for generating electric current on a very large scale. these sta- tions are either hydroelectric, that is, derive their power from fall- ing water, or are steam driven by boilers and engines consuming coal as fuel. in a few cases internal combustion (diesel) engines are used. as regards type of current generated they are cither direct current or else single-phase or three-phase alternating cur- rent supply. for large scale transmission of power for factory supply or traction, the generation and transmission are by three- phase current and it is then converted by rotary convertors or mercury arc rectifiers into direct current (see dynamo). in hydro- electric stations, power may be derived from a high fall of water driving impulse turbines of the pclton wheel type or else low fall of water in large volume actuating reaction or inward flow tur- bines. the dynamo or alternator is then coupled directly to it. automatic arrangements are provided for controlling the water supply as the load on the dynamo varies. in typical cases a hlectricity: nature and uses three-phase electric current is generated at a frequency of so periods per sec. and at a voltage of a few thousand volts, which pressure is raised by transformers to 100,000 or 220,000 volts for transmission and then reduced again in voltage by other transformers for utilisation. similarly large hydroelectric sta- tions exist for utilising either high or low falls of water from high level natural lakes or valleys dammed by barrages, or low falls from rivers by diverting a portion of the water into canals which short circuit bends of the river. a cubic metre of water falling in one second through a height of one metre is equivalent to 13 h.p. and about 70% of this can be captured and transformed into electric current power by modern machinery. in the case of steam-engine and boiler electric stations the com- bustion of 1-25 lb. of coal under good modern boilers is capable of yielding one kilowatt-hour of electric energy at the dynamo terminals when employing the best types of steam turbine and direct-coupled dynamo. as the calorific power of coal varies much it is generally stated that to to 11 lb. of steam are required for producing one kilowatt-hour. the economical production of electric power is, however, largely controlled by the scale on which it is carried out and by the load factor of the demand, that is, by the ratio of the total energy taken up in any time to the total quantity which would be taken if the plant were always working at full load. transmission problems.—the problem of the economic gen- eration of electric power involves also that of transmission from place of generation to that of consumption. the line is, generally speaking, the most costly part of the installation if the distance is at all large, say 20 m. or more. the power transmitted electrically is measured by the product of three factors, viz., current, voltage and the power factor of consumption, which may be anything between o-7 and 1:-o. the use of large currents involves thick and therefore expen- sive copper conductors, hence for long distance working high voltages and aerial, overhead, relatively thin conductors are used. this requires high insulation which is achieved by sup- porting the wires by chains of porcelain insulators attached to the cross arms of wooden or steel lattice poles or masts. the cur- rent is generated at a pressure of a few thousand volts and raised in voltage by static transformers and reduced again for use. great improvements have been made in these. the use of silicon steel for the transformer cores has greatly reduced the magnetic losses. the use of aluminium is increasing greaily and in spite of disadvantages ts efficient as a material for conductors. knowl- edge has been expensively acquired as to the best way to pre- pare and purify the insulating oil in which the transformers must be immersed and means have been devised for recording the temperature of this oil when the transformer is working. alternating transformers up to 10,000 kilowatts (13,000 h.p.) are now made and used for electric pressures up to 100,c00 volts (see electricity, transmission of). corona effect.—the means necessary to protect the transform- ers and alternators from damage by electric surges set up by lightning discharges striking an aerial line or those produced by flash-over discharges on the insulators have been much studied in switzerland, canada and the united states. in the case of high voltage aerial lines there is a notable loss of power due to the ionisation of the air. this is called the corona effect since it makes the lines appear luminous in the dark. it may amount to many kilowatts per mile. its causes and variation have been very thoroughly studied in recent years. the damage done to acrial lines by lightning is no longer considered very serious. telegraphy.—the progress made in the arts of telegraphy and telephony must be very briefly mentioned. the direction of im- provements in telegraphy of late years has been to abolish the necessity for skilled labour in sending or interpreting messages and substitute for it transmitting machines with keyboards like typewriters which prepare a strip of paper punched with holes in a certain way for each letter key depressed. this strip is then sent through another instrument which sends groups of electric currents into the line corresponding to each letter. by means of a distributor several messages can be sent at the same time, the 949 letter signals being sandwiched in between each other so that the line is never idle. at the receiving end a machine employs these received currents to punch holes in a paper strip which are identi- cal with those in the sending strip. this again passing through a second machine like a typewriter reproduces the message in type ready for sending out (see ttelegrapily). telephony.—-in telephony the great advance in the last 15 years has been the extended use of ‘ loaded ”’ lines, that 1s, lines having inductance coils inserted at intervals of 1 to 10 or 12 m., the effect of which is to decrease the ‘‘ distortion ”’ of the electric waves sent along these lines when telephonic speech is trans- mitted. in some cases the loading is effected by iron wire closely coiled round the copper conductor and both the coil and this uniform loading have been applied with success to improve the speech through submarine telephone cables. the most important improvement has, however, come from the introduction of the thermionic repeater as a telephone relay. this appliance, which is the basis of modern wireless telegraphy and telephony, consists of a small incandescent lamp with glass bulb and a tungsten filament or else a platinum iridium wire coated with oxides of barium and strontium. the bulb is highly exhausted. the fila- ment is surrounded by a spiral of wire called the grid and this again by a cylinder of metal called the plate; a battery of cells is connected between the filament and plate,and another circuit between the grid and filament. the filament when incandescent emits electrons copiously and any change in the potential or voltage of the grid is instantly followed by a corresponding change in the electron current. this instrument is also called a thermionic valve. it can be used to magnify electric currents. telephone speech, electric currents flowing along a line, are weakened by its resistance but the thermionic repeater can be used to impart to them fresh energy and send them on their way reinvigorated. hence the use of thermionic repeater stations en- ables smaller and cheaper trunk conductors to be used. another great advance is in so-called carrier wave telephony in which high-frequency electric currents are transmitted along a line and thermionic valves and microphones used to modulate these cur- rents so as to reproduce the speech sounds at a distance. many cutrents of different frequencies can be transmitted along the same line and multiple telephony conducted. (see amplifiers.) wireless telegraphy.—tin the case of wireless telegraphy (see vacuum tube; wireless telegraphy) the thermionic valve (vacuum tube) is used not only to detect but to generate the high frequency currents and electric waves required. the most striking advance of recent years is the invention of the ‘“‘ beam ”’ system by marconi. employing electric waves from 30 to 100 metres in wave length it is possible to use skeleton parabolic mirrors to project a beam of electric radiation in a given direction, which beam is concentrated along a rather narrow path. there is great economy in power, far less interference and much less obstruc- tion by ionisation of the atmosphere. marconi has in this way communicated not only signals but speech to the antipodes. broadcasting.—in wireless telephony the most wonderful ad- vance during the period 1910-25 has been the creation of the new art of broadcasting music and speech (see broadcasting) which can be picked up anywhere by proper receiving appliances and telephones. most large countries now possess many broadcasting stations at which there are powerful thermionic valve trans- mitters and from which music and speech are sent out. the manufacture and sale of appropriate receivers to be used by the public has created a vast new industry and the industry itself has added a new pleasure to life. the uses of wireless telegraphy and telephony in aerial and marine navigation have been greatly improved and, without the use of directional wireless, aerial travel would be impossible in cloud or fog, but by its means the position of an aeroplane can be exactly located and given to it, and the same with a ship at sea. the improvements in thermionic valves themselves have been many and important. one of these is the dull-emitter filament made of tungsten in which thorium is incorporated, and this can give a large electron emission even when worked at only a dull red heat. (j. a. f.) . 950 electricity, transmission of (see 22.233) —substantial progress was made during the years 1911-26 in the art of transmitting electricity. this progress was due distinctly to the stimulus of the world war and the imposed necessity for economy of fuel and other sources of energy. the development of the art during this period may be gauged from the fact that the maximum quantity of power transmitted over one circuit increased from 20,c00 to nearly 200,000 kva., the maximum line voltage being raised from 110,000 to 220,000, and, while the longest distance covered by a straightaway transmission remains at approximately 250 miles, individual lines have been grouped and interconnected so as to form widespreading systems involv- ing a number of generating and receiving stations electrically tied together (see super-power). progress in various countries great britain.—in this country the advances in the science of transmitting electricity have been significant but less spectacular than elsewhere. this is partially due to the reasonablv wide distribution of the coalfields and to the early growth of a large number of steam-power stations, each serving its own limited area according to its own specific needs. unfortunately, this has led to a serious diversity in the type of current, frequency and voltage employed; consequently, the desirability for intercon- nection is discounted by the difficulty attending its achievement. early development of overhead power transmission in great britain was also hindered by two causes: (a) the difficulty of securing way-leaves from local authorities and property owners, and (8) the ultra-conservatism of the rules provided by the electric lighting acts of 1882, e¢ seg., administered by the board of trade under which all overhead construction was regulated. to some extent these factors stimulated the use of underground high tension cables, but the cost of such installations 1s too high to permit of widespread transmission of electricity. in 1922 a code of regulations was issued by the newly formed electricity commission, which superseded the board of trade in administering the various electric lighting acts. this code calls for safe construction which may at the same time be entirelv economical. among other matters, it recognises aluminium as well as copper conductors, and specifies that overhead lines shall be designed to withstand a loading of 3 inch ice on the wires together with 8 lb. per sq. ft. wind pressure with a maximum stress in the wires of one-half the ultimate figure. for steel poles or towers the maximum working stress shall not exceed 40% and for wood or concrete poles 28° of the ultimate strength. suitable rules are framed for the crossing of telephone lines and highways. earthing devices are to be provided in case the wire fails at a crossing. needless to say, this code of regulations dis- tinctly encourages the increase of high-tension power trans- mission, and a number of installations have been constructed in england and wales which would not have been economically possible under the earlier code. notable modern british transmission line construction is illustrat- ed by a very extensive network in south wales operating at 20,000 volts. this is built with both reinforced concrete and lattice stcel poles using pin-type insulators with suspension units at tension positions. another important system is that of the north wales power co., operating at 35,000 volts using both wood pole and steel tower construction. the highest voltage employed is 66,000 on the overhead system of the county of durham electric supply com- pany. this latter incorporates the use of heavy-type creosoted poles with steel cross-arms and suspension insulators, and both mechan- ically and electrically represents the highest grade of engincering. united states and canada.—these countries have shown the most rapid development and afford the most important illustra- tions of modern transmission practice. at the beginning of the period under review some five systems in the united states and canada were operating at a voltage of 110,000. earlier installa- tions using pin-type insulators were virtually limited to 66,000 volts, but the introduction of the suspension design, in which a number of units are linked together according to the require- ments of the operating voltage, opened a new field in the direction of high-tension working. electricity, transmission of a characteristic 110,000-volt line incorporates the use of galvanised structural steel towers supporting two circuits on three cross-arms, one circuit is arranged on each side of the tower, usually with the centre conductor slightly offset out of the vertical plane to minimise possibility of short circuit. an average span is 600 ft., giving eight to nine towers per m., cach tower betng of the order of 70 ft. high and weighing from 5,000 to 7,000 pounds, at occasional intervals in the line it may be necessary to introduce an anchor or dead-end tower which would probably weigh 50° more. conductors are gencrally of stranded copper 0-16 to 0-25 sq. in., or the equivalent aluminium. along the top of the towers it has been customary to string a gal- vanised steel earth wire to increase the capacity of the line to ground and minimise inductive interference. three-phase alternating current is universal with a frequency of 60 cycles predominating. transformers are generally connected y on the high tension side with the neutral point connected directly to earth, so as to ensure the quick operation of relays in the event of a short circuit. before long the limitations of 110,000 volts began to be felt, and in i912, 140,000 volts was used by the au sable power co. in michigan, followed a year later by the adoption of 150,000 volts for the big creek system transmitting to los angeles, 240 m. away. in this case single circuit towers were employed, each carrying the three conductors in a horizontal plane 17 ft. apart. a number of other systems were built of 130,000, 150,000 and 165,000 volts, this voltage being selected more with reference to the load to be carried than the distance of transmission. in the year 1923 the big creek system, after reinsulating the lines and raising some of the towers, changed to 220,000-volt operation. shortly after this the pacific gas and electric co. began operation of a 220,000-volt line from pit river to vaca, california, 202 miles. in addition, two further 220,000-volt transmission lines were under construction in 1926: (2) great western power co., brighton to merced, california, 103 m., and (2) pennsylvania power and light co. from wallenpaupack to allentown, 60 miles. a fifth 220,000-volt line was planned in connection with the conowingo development on the susquehanna river, which would transmit to philadelphia. in the united states and canada there are not less than 30,000 m. of circuit operated at 110,000 volts or over, all of which has been put into operation since the year 1910, germany.—since the adoption of 100,000-volt transmission constitutes such an important step in the art, it is interesting to note its successive introduction into countries where electric development is most fully advanced. the first european 100,000-volt line was built from lauchhammer to riesa in saxony in i9ii, transmitting 15,000 kva. over 30 miles. steel structures of the lattice type were used set in concrete founda- tions. by the use of extra long cross-arms cach circuit was arranged in an equilateral triangle, while the relative position of the con- ductors was transposed 36 times in the length of the line. this care- ful method of balancing the reactances would seem to be quite un- necessary, and has probably been the cause of mechanical trouble on this jine. construction has been standardised in favour of lattice steel poles set in concrete carrying three cross-arms of heavy channel section. the conductors are for the most part of stranded aluminium 0-189 sq. in. or of steel core aluminium 0-11 sq. in. section. suspen- sion insulators are usual together with a steel earth wire. italy.—in the year 1912 the first 90,000-volt system was operated in italy, followed by further installations at 100,000 to 135,000 volts, and the art became more fully developed in this country than any- where else in europe. all these lines are of the most modern design with steel construction. notable installations are the following: societa interregionale from brugherio to reggio emilio (95 m.), societa lombardo, val brembana to lecco, cislago, etc. (56 m.), societa adamello, tema to san polo (140 m.), socicta piemontese, ponte tresa to novaro (38 m.), socicta tridentina, mcran to san polo (168 miles). in addition to the foregoing a considerable further mileage of £25,000-volt transmission was already planned in 1926; and lastly the societa forze idrauliche is constructing 600 m. of transmission to operate at 150,000 volts extending from sila to naples and across the straits of messina to palermo. india.—the year 1912 also saw the first 100,000-volt transmission in india, this being the double circuit line from the tata hydro- electric plant at khopoli to bombay, a distance of 43 miles. this in- stallation was the first of its type to be designed and carried out by british engineers, although in some of its characteristics it resembled the high-tension network in the transvaal, which had been designed by the same group and put into operation about two years earlier at 88,000 volts. some elements of the mechanical design in the tata transmission are similar to those of the early german designs, espe- cially in respect of the long cross-arms and equilateral conductor arrangement. these have not been repeated in later installations. in 1926 several systems were being constructed in india to operate at 110,000 voits. spain.—the ebro irrigation and power co. inaugurated in i914 the first 100,000-volt transmission system in spain from a plant on the sagre river to barcelona, 105 m. away. american engineers were responsible for the work, and the designs followed those em- ployed on certain installations in mexico. a somewhat unusual electricity, transmission of feature was the use of pedestal type insulators on the ebro system, this being the only instance of their use on 110,000 volts. subsequent experience has not confirmed this practice, and more recent exten- sions to the ebro transmission network employ suspension strings. this transmission now compriscs about 500 m. of 110,000-volt line, in addition to which two or three other systems have been built in spain for the like voltage. japan.—the first 110,000-volt transmission in japan was a double circuit steel tower line from lake inawashiro to tokyo built in 1913, a distance of 144 miles. this line followed american engineering practice very closely. conductors were of copper 0-155 sq. in. scc- tion with seven and eight unit suspension insulators. towers were spaced 550 ft. apart on the level and the customary steel ground wire was strung. since the year 1914 there have been built in japan four important trunk transmissions operating at 150,000 volts, while a fifth is under construction. each of these lines is from 150 to 200 m. in length. in addition, an interconnection line of 127 m. in length is planned for operation at 220,000 volts. 120,000 100,000 80,000 40,000 kilovoltamperes per circuit 7s pt in ho 165 thousand — volts. fic. 1.—diagram showing increased capacity per circuit, at higher voltages. o 55 france.—in 1918 the first 100,000-volt transmission was built in france. prior to this time industrial districts had been tied in with power plants (notably in the pyrenees and the mediterranean coast) with power lines of economical design but operating at much lower voltage. in the year mentioned a 110,000-volt steel-tower line carry- ing 15,000 kva. was constructed from goesgen in switzerland to pouxeux in france, a distance of 115 m., of which one-half was in each country. lattice steel, concrete-set poles were used of single circuit design carrying two conductors on onc side and one on the other. the wires used are of stranded copper 0-12 sq. in. section suspended on 8-unit insulators with standard spans of 591 ft. and special crossings up to 1,600 fcet. subsequent to the reclamation of the war zone a series of transmission networks: was developed under government control to supply energy for the work of recon- struction. these systems have since been extended and now connect vincey, nancy and mohon, with 120,000-volt lines, amounting to 135 m. in length in what is known as the eastern system, con- struction was being completed in 1926 on the northwest system of a 100,000-volt network connecting labuissere, beuvry, bully, abbe- ville, amiens and calais, a mileage of more than 300. it is estimated that the total circuit mileage of 100,000-volt line in france is not less than 2,500. sweden.—the waterfalls at trollhattan have long provided a source of power for the southwestern peninsula of sweden. the pow- er was developed under government control prior to 1910, the energy being transmitted at 50,000 volts. in 1921, however, a power line was built across the entire width of the country from trollhattan to vesteras, a distance of 200 m., and this is being extended to stock- holm. this installation is designed for 132,000 volts with ultimate operation at 220,000 volts. single circuit construction is used, the 951 wires being hung from a horizontal crosssarm. for part of the route the twin structures supporting this cross-arm are of lattice steel, and for the other portion reinforced concrete poles are employed, the intention being at a later date to add a third pole to each support and extend the cross-arm sufficiently to accommodate a second cir- cuit. this line is remarkable in respect of the economy and simplicity of its construction. a similar transmission line is planned which will extend from stadforsen in the north to vesteras, a distance of nearly 300 miles. a ustralia.—from the great 125,000 kva. power station at yallourn to melbourne, a 112-m., 132,000-volt, double-circuit transmission line was constructed in the year 1922, this being the highest operating voltage in british territory. the design of the line was on american principles, but in some respects it marked a distinct advance. the average span employed was 1,056 ft., a procedure made possible by the use of stecl-cored aluminium conductors of 0-264 sq. in. section. a further mileage is now being added to this system. the foregoing summary is not to be regarded as complete, because it takes no account of the construction of 100,000-volt transmission in south africa, chile, austria and switzerland, as well as in other countries where the transmission of power is beginning its development. connductors, insulators and supports conductors.—the most important element in overhead trans- mission is the conductor. copper wire is the most widely used in the hard-drawn form, such wire having a density of 8-89 at 68° f. and a resistivity based on the international standard of o-15328 ohms-metre-gramme. for practical purposes conductors are stranded to achieve maximum strength and flexibility, from 3 to 37 wires being laid up in spiral form, giving a sectional area of from -o25 to +75 sq.in. (british engineering standard). in america it is usual to strand a smaller number of heavier wires. to allow for the twist it is customary to add 2% to the weight and resistance. tensile strength of hard-drawn copper is from thousands of volts 1910 (9/4 918 1922 1926 year fic. 2.—diagram showing successive increase in maximum trans- mission-line voltage. 51,000 to 65,000 lb. per sq. in. with an elongation of from 1 to 23 °% on ro in., depending upon the size of the wire. aluminium wire is now very extensively used; it has 60% the conductivity of copper and about one-third the density; consequently the equivalent conductor will be only half the weight of copper with a diameter 30% greater. in most cases the aluminium is rein- forced with a core of high tensile steel wires, thus forming a composite conductor. this development is one of the most important in the art, and it is estimated that since its commercial introduction in the year 1910 more than 150,000 m. of aluminium-steel conductor have been installed. the high ratio of tensile strength to weight 952 makes it possible to erect with long spans and so cconomise con- struction cost. being some 40% larger in diameter than the equivalent copper, the corona loss is minimised or climinated en- tirely. copper-steel and copper-bronze composite conductors are also coming into use for special purposes, notably for catenary wires on electric railways. copper-clad wire is used as a con- ductor on special long-span construction as well as for earth wire. it is drawn down from a composite wire bar made by casting copper around a steel billet. steel conductors have a limited use for long crossings, some of which are as long as 6,200 ft. between towers. in such a case the highest tensile strength is necessary; the steel must be thoroughly galvanised, and usually is painted periodically in addition. a variety of rope strands is used with such steel wire to secure the best combination of flexibility and strength, ag ny ary a 6b “ss 1% : a8 e mi re wp as a fic. 3.—view of a modern 220,000-volt transmission line. insulators —the modern high-tension line usually incorporates porcelain insulators of the suspension type. in most cases the unit consists of a disk with metal attachments such as a cap and pin, which are cemented to the porcelain element and provide a means of linking two or more units together. certain designs have been brought out, especially in germany, by which the attachments are fixed without the use of cement; in another de- sign (the hewlett insulator) two metal links engage in holes through the porcelain. only the perfection of insulator porcelain has made 220,000-volt transmission possible, and although the ceramic art isan old one it has to be modified by the most careful precautions in this industry. a mixture of clay (usually english ball clay and china clay) with potash feldspar and flint forms the basis of porcelain. the last two constituents are ground very finely and mixed with the clay in a digester or ‘‘ blunger,”’ next filter pressed, and the resulting “ body ”’ set aside to age. it is afterwards kneaded in a pug-mill, which ex- trudes the pug in a suitable form for moulding, which is done on a modification of the potter’s wheel. the shells are then oven-dried, trimmed, glazed, kiln-fired, cemented, tested and issued as a com- plete insulator unit.- careful inspection follows almost every opcra- tion. most of the earlier troubles with insulator porcelain have been eliminated. ‘‘ blebs ” or air bubbles have been eradicated by ageing or by the use of vacuum pumps for handling the slip. capillary holes have been traced to threads from the filter lawns; brittleness and porosity have been corrected by carcful thermostatic control of firing temperatures. cracking in service due to hydration and swelling of the cement has been prevented by setting the cement in an atmosphere of high pressure steam as well as by an admixture to provide elasticity. insulator testing has also developed to an advanced stage. the customary porosity test on a batch of shells after firing is to break up a sample and immerse in an alcoholic solu- tion of red fuchsine for 24 hours under a pressure of not less than 2,000 |b. per sq. in. (british engineering standard). any porosity will be shown by permeation of the red dye. the above standard electricity, transmission of specification calls for a flash-over test of 300,000 volts dry and 220,000 volts wet on a 100,000-volt insulator, the same to withstand a voltage of 525,000 under oil without puncture. a mechanical load 23; times that used in service is to be applied without failure of the insulator. the number of units per string is of course a function of the voltage, the usual practice varying from four or five on 66,000 volts up to 13 or 15 on 220,000 volts. for tensioning positions where the mechanical stress on the insulator is greater, the electrical stress is reduced by adding one or two extra elements to the string. the same applies to districts liable to considerable fog or smoke. for the highest voltage service it is customary to suspend a metal shield ring round the lowermost unit; this equalises the voltage drop across the various ponents as well as protecting them by carrying any arc which may orm, supports.—steel construction is coming to be universal except in regions where suitable timber is unusually good and plentiful ot steel is difficult to obtain. at 110,000 volts a spacing of 10 to 12 ft. between conductors becomes necessary; this requires very long cross-arms, and although twin poles would carry one circuit a simple design of steel structure will accommodate two with a greater factor of safety and probably double the life. in europe such a support is generally designed as a pole or beam having a relatively narrow base three to six ft. square set in a block of concrete. the post is built up of four corner angles laced together, usually shop assembled by rivets. three heavy channel cross- arms are used of graduated length, usually with the shortest at the top, which provides svmmetry and reduces the torsional loading. conductors are hung from suspension insulators at the extremities of the arms, and as they are in different vertical planes there is little risk of contact due to excessive sag. this tvpe of structure is virtually the standard in france, germany and italy; it will be seen that it requires a very heavy concrete block to resist overturning, and is not of the best design to resist torsional loads. the american type of double circuit tower overcomes these difficulties but occupies a much greater area, the base being from 15 to 25 {t. square, and each post is separately anchored to a steel footing buried in the ground or in a light concrete footing. overturning moment is therefore con- verted into a thrust and pull. actual design of the tower is that of an entirely determinate structure; it can therefore be laid out with economy. the same general rules apply to single circuit towers which support the three conductors in the same horizontal plane. they have the merit that “ whipping ” and short circuit due to ice load on the wire are precluded, and this type of struc- ture is favoured for mountain regions where altitudes are high, snow and ice frequent and spans long. a double circuit tower in american practice may weigh from 5,000 to 9,000 |b. and a single circuit from 4,000 to 9,000 ib., including foundation steel. heavy anchor or strain towers are used at important points along the line; these will probably weigh up to 50°, more. in amcrican practice, which is also followed in japan, australia, india and south africa, the tower members are bolted together in the field. galvanised sections are universal, but in europe there is a ten- dency to paint the towers wholly or partially. mention should be made of reinforced concrete, which, al- though not widely used, appears on at least one very important installation—the transmission from trollhittan to vesteras in sweden already referred to. here a structure consists of two 60-[t. hollow concrete poles set 20 ft. apart and supporting a horizontal steel cross-arm from which the conductors are hung. each pole is fully reinforced and made by the schleuder centrif- ugal process; it tapers from 20 in. to 9 in. and weighs 8,000 pounds. a transverse load of 7,000 lb. applied at the top has been withstood with safety. the chief merits of the construction are its simplicity, small disturbance of the ground when setting, ab- sence of painting or other protection and economy in first cost. the disadvantages are those attaching to the great weight, the hizh cost of transportation and the heavy tackle necessary in the field. some special problems lightning—successive increase in the operating voltage of high-tension systems has eliminated some problems and intro- duced others. for example, lightning in its direct or indirect effects is no longer feared on the highest voltage lines because electric lighting the quality of the insulation employed is so high. ground wires and lightning arresters are therefore being eliminated on these systems. flashover due to an induced surge will take place at one of the many arcing rings without damaging the insulators. current difficulties —charging current is a most embarrassing problem, because the capacity of transmission lines has in- creased owing to the increased length and size of wire. adding the effect of the extra high voltages employed, the charging current has become in many cases commensurate with the load current. in starting up the line, therefore, the generator must supply virtually full load amperes of leading current, with the result that 1t becomes self-exciting and a dangerous rise of voltage results. the solution of this and other difficulties has been found in the so-called synchronous condenser or motor permanently connected at the receiving end of the line with adjustable ex- citation by which the line current can be made to lag or lead or to run in phase. in starting up, the under-excited synchronous motor is brought up to speed with the generator, and it sup- plies approximately half the charging kilovolt-ampcres. instability —this is an effect of resonance or tuning by which a line of given frequency and physical characteristics may be liable to excessive rise in voltage and other abnormal conditions. at a frequency of 60 cycles a complete alternation occupies a dis- tance of 3,000 miles, and one-fourth of this, or 750 miles, is occupied by a rise in voltage from zero to maximum amplitude. a line of this critical length is virtually impossible to charge. while such long distance lines have not yet been built, they have al- ready been planned, and it has been made obvious that an entire- ly new set of conditions has te be met which will probably be by means of distributed synchronous condensers throughout a sectionalised line. coroua.—this is an important phenomenon, especially at high altitudes; it connotes the breaking down of the insulating proper- ties of air, and is shown by a purple glow surrounding the con- ductor. the voltage at which corona takes place is higher for large conductors and wide spacing, and it can therefore be kept under control by careful design, use of aluminium-steel or other large conductors. the actual loss will be proportional to the square of the difference between the operating voltage and the corona voltage if the former is the higher. for 220,000-volt operation at sea-level under good conditions it has been found that one inch is the minimum practicable diameter of conductor. according to f. w. peek, who has made many years’ research of this problem, for 1,000,000 volts a 6-in. diameter conductor would be necessary. underground transmission—the high engineering and eco- nomic status attained by the overhead transmission line will react against any very wide use of insulated cables. nevertheless, there are occasions where the high cost of these may be justified and the gradual development of extra high-tension cables is promising. according to c. hl. merz, many miles of 33,000-volt underground cable are in use in england with satisfactory results, and not less than 8 m. of 66,000 volts. in holland there is an important installation of 55,c00-volt cable. all these examples are of three-core construction; although single-core cables have been made for much higher voltage, they cannot be regarded as a final development. bibliography.—general: electrical werld (new york); elektro- technische zetischrift (berlin); journal of amer. instit. electr. eng.; transactions nat. elecir. light assoc.; praceedings of (biennial) international high tension conference (paris); proceedings of world power conference, london, 2924 (1925). electrical: h. b. dwight, constant voltage transmission (1915); c. p. steinmetz, theory and calculation of electric cireuits (1917); theory and calculation of transient electric phenomena and oscilla- tions, 3rd ed. (1920); h. b. dwight, transmission line formulas, 2nd. ed. (1925); a. e. kennelly, the a pplication of ityperbolic unc- fions to electrical iingineering, 3rd ed. (1925); l. f. woodruff, electric power transmission and distribution (1925). mechanical: r. d. coombs, pole and tower lines for electric power transmts- ston (1916); a. still, electric power transmission, 2nd ed. (1919); f. kapper, frezleztungsbau (1921); e. v. pannell, zfigh tension line practice (1925). (e.v. pl) 953 electric lighting.—progress in electric lighting since 1910 is chiefly a story of the development and application of the tungsten filament lamp and its accessories. see also illuminat- ing engineering. filament lamps.—from 1907 until ro11 the tungsten fila- ment was extremely fragile, but in the latter year coolidge developed ductile tungsten. the ductility of the tungsten wire made it possible to construct the filament in various forms, which greatly increased the application of the filament lamp. ex- tremely controllable light was now available, because point sources could be approximated and various optical principles could be taken advantage of in designing reflecting, refracting and transmitting accessories. in 1913 langmuir developed the gas-filled lamp, in which the filament is wound into a fine helical coil, and the bulb is filled with nitrogen or argon instead of being completely exhausted, as in the case of the so-called ‘‘ vacuum ” lamp. this helical coil is in effect a thick filament, and it was found to lose a relatively smaller percentage of energy by con- duction than a thin one for equal amounts of emitted light. the efficiencies of these gas-filled lamps are approximately twice those of the vacuum lamps. the lumen has been introduced as a unit of quantity of light, and lamps are now rated in lumens per watt or in total lumens.! the temperature of the filaments of vacuum lamps is of the order of magnitude of 2050° c., and their average efficiency approximates 9 lumens per watt. the higher efficiencies of the gas-filled lamps (from to to 25 lumens per watt) are due to the higher temperatures (up to about 3,000° c.) at which the fila- ments can be operated satisfactorily when immersed in a gas. the blackening of tungsten flament lamps is due to the evapora- tion of the filament material, and this metallic vapour is depos- ited upon the relatively cool bulb. the function of the gas is to reduce this evaporation. other improvements have been made which reduce the blackening by the insertion of chemicals that alter the metallic vapour to compounds which are iess black. filaments after a period of operation at incandescence used to sag considerably. this was undesirable in the vacuum lamps, and was very objectionable in the fine helical coils of the gas-filled lamps. pacz developed a process which produced “ non-sag ” filaments, thereby removing a serious cause of lamp deterioration. in earlier lamps it was necessary to use platinum for that part of the leading-in wire which was sealed into the glass of the bulb. a relatively inexpensive substitute has been developed by using a copper-sheathed nickel-iron wire of the proper propor- tions, so as to have the same expansion coefficient as platinum or glass. this equality of expansion coefficient is necessary in order that a leakage may not develop at the place where the wire is sealed into the glass. a later improvement was the intro- duction of the tipless bulb. this was achieved by exhausting the bulb through the tubular stem which supports the filament. a still later development was the evolution of “ inside-frosted ” bulbs, which were introduced in the smaller sizes up to 100 watts. this frosting diffuses the light and reduces the brightness of the lamp. it makes it possible to standardise lamps, thereby reduc- ing the number of kinds through a reduction in the number of different finishes. simultaneously various shapes of bulbs have been eliminated, with great resulting economies in manufacture. this development fits nicely into the programme of shaded light which better lighting demands. the filament lamp possesses the great advantage of divisibility, and this is evidenced by the extreme range of sizes which have been produced. the smallest is about the size of a grain of wheat, and the largest actually used by 1926 was 30,000 watts. the increased efficiency of light production made it possible to produce lights of various quality. for example, by the use of a special blue-green bulb the so-called daylight lamp emitted a light approximating daylight in quality. by the application of a yellow-orange coating on the bulb the so-called “ flametint ” lamp was produced. this provided the “‘ warm ” light of flames. 1a lumen is the amount of light that would fall on a surface so placed that all its parts are at a distance of 1 ft. from a light source of one-candle power. 954 the average luminous efficiency of all filament lamps sold in the united states in 1910 was 4-42 lumens per watt. ‘this aver- age steadily increased so that in 1924 it was about 12-5 lumens per watt. this great increase in luminous efficiency is responsi- ble for almost the entire decrease in the cost of light during that period, and this decrease in cost greatly increased the amount of light used. however, the usual intensities of artificial illumination were still far below what is best for vision as evolved under natural light. consumption of electric lamps—linasmuch as the tungsten filament lamp is a good index of development of electric lighting, the following approximate statistics for 1922 are of interest:— % of number of lamps total entire world 706,000,000 100-0 united states 337,000,000 47°7 europe 266,000,000 37°06 germany 95,000,000 13°5 japan 37,000,000 35°3 france 28,000,000 4:0 great britain 24,000,000 3°5 italy . 22,000,000 371 in 1922 the average consumption of filament lamps per person was as follows: lamps per capita lamps per capita entire world 0-12 norway . 1-54 united states 3:10 sweden i-30 switzerland 1-75 france 0-70 canada 1-70 =©60 great britain 0-50 germany 1-60 from 191t to 1922 the percentage increase in the per capita consumption of filament lamps for various countries was as follows: united states, 227; germany, 220; japan, 114; the netherlands, 93; sweden, 81; france, 67; italy and belgium, 60; switzerland, 49; great britain, 18. the percentage increase for europe was 40. other light sources -——the mercury vapour lamp was some- what improved, but no radical developments took place. the gaseous-conductor lamp, employing various gases and producing light sources of various colours, was introduced to a slight degree in special fields. the use of the arc-lamp for lighting rapidly receded in the face of the invasion of the gas-filled tungsten lamp. magnetite and flame arcs were still being installed to some extent in “ whiteway ” street lighting. the tungsten arc confined in a bulb was commercialised for very special purposes. fields of lighting. —lin all fields the intensities of lumination generally increased markedly, and with the introduction of better equipment great strides were made in controlling and diffusing light and in shading the light sources from the eyes. in street lighting arc-lamps were generally superseded by filament lamps; the watts per unit increased; and more attention was paid to ornamental equipment. highway lighting outside the cities began to develop. in industrial lighting the tendency toward higher intensities of illumination became particularly marked. intensities as high as 20 foot-candles were found in many factories and offices. where, in ro910, three foot-candles were recommended, in 1926 10 foot-candles were commonly suggested. industrial lighting equipment became gradually more or less standardised. the tendency away from the earlier localised lighting to a general distribution of light became well established, although localised lighting became recognised as a desirable supplement to general lighting. localised supplementary lighting was mace practicable through filament lamps. in residence lighting the tendency moved toward more adequate wiring, the increased use of portable lamps, and the shading of light sources. in stores and schools the diffusing glass lighting unit became widely adopted, and improvements were marked throughout these fields. sign lighting and electric signs developed very greatly after 1910. so it is with stage and show window lighting, where the filament lamps of higher efficiencies add greatly to the case electric power, generation of with which lighting effects may be produced. the use of light as an expressive medium has been extended enormously since 1914. by the use of spot-lights, of lamps concealed behind archi- tectural details, of coloured accessories, etc., theatres and other public buildings have become palaces of light. flood-lighting of exteriors almost entirely developed since 1910, not only for spec- tacular and artistic purposes but for utilitarian needs, such as the flood-lighting of railroad yards and the grounds of industrial plants. one of the most spectacular displays was the illumina- tion of niagara talls. in headlighting for automobiles and loco- motives, filament lumps very generally superseded the flame light sources. in signals and traflic control, filament lamps were responsible for most of the development. electric lighting has been extensively developed for night-flying. in the projection of motion pictures the arc lamp has been dispensed with. it was apt to set fire to the easily combustible film and also to burn out in the middle of a reel. bipniiograrny.—m. luckiesh, color and its applications (1915); the lighting -lrt (1917); university of pennsylvania, lectures, iuminating engineering practice (1917); l. gaster and j. s. dow, modern illuminants and illuminating engineering (1920); m. luckiesh, alrtifictal light (1920); lighting the home (1920); l. block, lichitechnik (1921); j. w. t. walsh, elementary principles of light- ing and photometry (1923); m. luckiesh, light and work (1924); f. e, cady and h. b. dates with nine collaborators, ///uminaling fingineering (1925); see also trans. iiium. feng. soc. u.s.a. (new york); licht und lampe (berlin); jour. of good lighting (london a ne, 1) electric power, generation of.—a marked advance in the utilisation of clectrical power has taken place since 1910, as is shown in the development of water-power resources in many countries and in the extent of high-pressure transmission covering vast distances; the electrification of main and suburban railways and the advance in the installed capacity of power stations and in the sizes of the units of plant contained in them. marked improvements have also been effected in fuel-fired stations by reason of the greater evaporation capacities of the boilers (see borters), higher steam pressure, the admission of pre-heated air to the grates, the use of pulverised fuel and of oil fuel and the consequent progressive improvement in the thermal efficiencies of boiler house plint. for example, in great britain, while the average thermal efficiency of public power stations in 1924 was only 12-45%, the efficiency of the barton generating station of the manchester corp., taken over a whole year’s operation, was 20°, while recent records show an advance even on that figure and nearly 22° has been obtained on a 55 % station load factor. developments are also being made in the processes for the low temperature carbonisation of coal (sce fuel problems) enabling valuable by-products to be recovered, such as heavy oils and other derivatives from which dyes and other necessary products can be distilled, and by which smokeless fuel with valuable properties can be obtained for domestic use. this process, combined with power station practice, would enable boilers to be gas-fired or fired with the by-product coke applied in a pulverised form and though, according to the latest report of the fucl research board of great britain, no process has yet been evolved which can claim to be commercially suc- cessful, developments and improvements are continually taking place which may render this process of great utility, not only by reason of the valuable by-products resulting therefrom, but also in the application to steam raising in combination with electrical power stations. the employment of large water-tube boilers working at high steam pressures, the usual figure nowadays being from 350 to sso lb. persq.in., but with experimental plants already working at pressures considerably in excess of these figures, viz., up to 1,200 lb.; the employment of super-heated steam at 750° f.; marine casings and settings which climinate air leakage; the adoption of pre-heated air and of both induced and forced draught fans so as to obtain a balanced draught in the boiler grate; overhead economisers and steel stacks—enable a self-contained boiler unit to be designed which is of great value in the lay-out of the larger and more important stations. electric radiation to these advantages may be added the improved grates of the two main forms, namely, chain and underfced types: the water-trough system of ash disposal and the closed system of feed water supply combined with the further de-acration of the whole or the make-up portion only of the feed water, the conservation of heat from the condensate delivered from the main turbine condensers, supple- mented by live steam ‘ bleeding ” from one or more of the stages of the turbine, and by exhaust steam taken from some of the steam- driven station auxiliaries, have all brought up the boiler house efficiency, so that figures well over 80% are now (1926) claimed. the most recent practice in feed water supply is to run constant speed motor-driven turbine pumps in parallel with variable speed steam pumps for easy regulation. the instrument attachments which readily enable records of the draught and percentage of co: to be obtained as well as tem- peratures at various points in the flue circuit and in the feed water circuit, super-heater temperatures, etc., are a recent addition con- tributing greatly to the increased efficiencies obtained during the last few years; in fact boiler house practice has been greatly improved and is now generally carried out in a thoroughly scientific way. reference should also be made to automatic control of boiler plants, a popular system being one which regulates both the pres- sure and proportion of cos. in the engirie-room, turbines are commonly constructed for speeds of 3,000 r.p.m. on a so-cycle system, which is the adopted standard frequency in europe, up to sizes of 20,000 kv.a., while for speeds of 1,500 r.p.m. units of 30,000 and 40,000 kv.a. are in use. in the united states single units and combination units with an aggregate output of 60,cookv.a, or more are in vogue. improvements in the steel and alloys employed (see [ron and steel; metallurgy) have enabled these large machines to be constructed and a notable advance in design has been made in recent years. turbines continue to be made of both the impulse and the reaction types and in some cases the combination of the impulse type for the h.p. end with reaction type for the l.p. end have been employed. in another design both the stator and rotor of the turbine revolve, and so double the rel- ative velocity by which an increased efliciency has been ob- tained with a reduced steam consumption. generally speaking, a steam consumption well under 9 ib. per kw. hour can now be relied upon with the larger machines when running at full load. improvements in the metals used and in balancing have brought about a great advance in the reliability, eficiency and cost of these large units. -_ improvements have been made in the closed system of air ventila- tion of alternators which minimise the risk of serious combustion of the insulation of the machine in the event of faults developing. the “ closed ’’ system of circulating the air over or through coolers supplied with water in shunt to the main circulating water system is generally used to-day. in thesurface condensers and pump equipment the general prac- tice now is to employ dry and wet air pumps (see pumps), gener- ally of the rotary or injection type in conjunction with, or as an alternative to, asystem of high- and low-pressure steam and water jets to deal with the incondensable gases, with a supplemental condensate wet pump to raise the condensed steam to the hot well and boiler feed system. from the turbine to the switch- board it is now general practice to introduce a buffer in the shape of reactance coils and thus to minimise the effect of a breakdown on any part of the distribution system or occurring in the power house. the most modern practice is to put the reactance into the machines themselves. alternatively where, as is now quite com- mon, step-up transformers are used, the necessary reactance is embodied in the latter. {n the switchroom the practice now is to provide a central control- room, from which not only can the boiler-house and engine-room plant be controlled by simple telegraph systems, but also, through remote control, effectively to command the various oil break switches controlling the various gencrators and outgoing feeders, and to sec- tionalise the station in emergencies or during special tests. it is the general practice to sectionalise the busbars, and to insert reactances between the seclions so as to minimise fault disturbances. switching is gencrally now confined to the stepped-up voltage and smaller currents. much research has been made into the design of heavy oil break switches with valuable results upon their rehability. the american practice for extra high voltage is to install outdoor switches and transformers, indoor gear being now regarded as out of date. the tendency in modern stations is to design them on big lines and to employ large units of plant. the self-contained 090 boiler unit referred to enables simplicity of design to be made effective and reduces the cost of buildings while maintaining ample room for inspection and overhaul. the construction of large stations of 500,000 kw., or more, generally embodies the grouping of, say, five sections, each self-contained and equipped with 100,000 kw., with complete fucl handling, condensing and switchroom arrangements which, from economic and even military reasons, is an advantage in design and does not ad- verscly affect the economic cost of the equipment. power stations of this size are under construction at crawford avenue, chicago; in the philo station of the ohio power co.; east river, new york; at barking creck, london, and else- where. briefly, the modern tendency is toward the establish- ment of larger generating stations ranging from 200,000 to 500,000 kw., properly situated with reference to economic fuel supplies and liberal supplies of circulating water and also to interconnect such stations with others by transmission lines working at high pressure (see super-power). the advance in design has resulted in a notable increase in the thermal efficiency of the equipment due (a) to boiler equipment improvements, (5) to turbine design at higher speecls consequent upon the improved materials available, (c) to the practice of extracting live steam from one or more of the later turbine stages for feed water heating, and thus reducing the volume of steam exhausted into the condenser—a matter of importance with the very large machines now employed and (d) the utilisation of the waste ilue gases to pre-heat the air required for combustion. the transverter has been evolved during the last few years, a machine consisting of fixed transformer and commutator with brushes revolving at synchronous speed, by which three-phase alternating current energy can be converted to direct current at one end of the line and re-converted at the terminal point, thus substit ut- ing two conductors for three and indeed only one conductor for three if the earth be used as a return, as in the thury system. two transverters may then be used to provide a link between two systems of differing frequencies. experimental trials of a favourable charac- ter have been carried out, but the transverter can hardly be said to have yet emerged from the experimental stage, though giving great pronuse of success. to sum up, tt may be sald that circumstances arising out of the world war and the economic disturbances which have followed have given a great impetus to electrical development in recent years in the utilisation of water power, in the transmission of energy over wide areas, in the increased use for railway trac- tion and in the wider use for industrial and metallurgical require- ments and domestic applications. all this has developed a ten- dency toward generation on a concentrated but greatly increased scale, coupled with schemes of inter-connection between widely separated centres of generation. it would appear that this constant expansion, bringing in its train cheaper and more efficient production and wider distribution, must inevitably grcatly extend the use of electricity to meet the necessary require- ments of civilisation in the immediate future. (j. sn.) electric radiation.—raiciation, in the most general sense of influences travelling with finite speeds along definite paths, has been concerned intimately in all the most striking dis- coveries of physics since 1910 with the exception of the general theory of relativity. but the word is generally used in one or {two narrower senses. radiation may mean the class of rays to which light belongs, distinguished from rays which consist of material particles by travelling with the same speed and by possessing a periodicity which is displayed in interference. hx. perimental knowledge of such radiation has been greatly ex- tended by the definite proof that x-rays and y-rays are forms of it, and differ from light only as light differs from hertzian waves, namely in possessing a much greater frequency. radia- tion in a still narrower sense may mean the form which is emitted from hot bodies and determined by their temperature. saha’s vicws.—this temperature radiation was the main subject of the earlier article (22.785); subsequent investigation has not added much. all doubts have been removed concerning the validity of planck’s formula, which has become the basis of all modern methods of measuring the highest temperatures (see thermometry, 26.821). the most important theoretical ad- 956 vance is due to saha, who suggested that temperature radia- tion may contain part or the whole of the line spectrum of the elements from which it is emitted. he applies gibbs’ thermo- dynamical theory of chemical equilibrium to an assemblage of similar atoms, and supposes that the energy required to ionise an atom may be taken as analogous to the heat of dissociation of a chemical compound. in such an assemblage there will be a rate, increasing rapidly with the temperature, at which the atomic electrons are raised to higher states, including that of ionisation, and an equal rate of return; the lines of the spectrum will therefore appear with an intensity proportional to the rate of the corresponding transitions (sce below). temperatures attainable in the laboratory are generally so low that this spec- trum is masked by the continuous spectrum; it was formerly believed that line spectra could not arise from pure temperature excitation. but a re-examination of the facts in the light of saha’s theory indicates that such excitation plays an important part in the high temperature arc and in “ furnace ” spectra. in the stars, conditions are much more favourable; there the theory has wide application (sce astronomy; spectroscopy). origin of spectra—concerning radiation in the sense of all rays similar to hght, the chief question mentioned in the earlier article which has been the subject of later investigation is that of the origin of spectra. this question has been completely answered. according to bohr’s theory, which is the key to modern physics, line and band spcctra arise from the transition of the emitting system between two stationary states of different energy content. if the transition takes place from a stationary state of higher energy wi to one of lower energy ws, y, the fre- quency of the line emitted, is given by hy= w,— we, where h is planck’s constant (see quantum theory). line spectra are emitted by atoms, the different stationary states of which are different orbits of the electrons about the nucleus; band spectra are emitted by molecules, the different states of which are dif- ferent orbits of both the electrons and the nuclei. the problem of the interpretation of various spectra is simply that of deter- mining the stationary states; it belongs to the study of the struc- ture of the atom (@.v.). nature of radiation.—the great modern problem of radiation in the wider sense had only just appeared when the earlier article was written; and a question which was thought to have been quite settled has arisen again. what is the fundamental nature of radiation? for two generations the work of young and fresnel had seemed to leave no doubt that light was a form of vibration; the only question that remained was what form. a mechanical theory was first attempted which assimilated the vibratiors that constitute light to the transverse vibrations of an electric solid. by the end of the 19th century it was recognised that no aether could be devised, reacting to disturbances like any ma- terial medium and yet propagating these disturbances according to optical laws. the theory had been abandoned in favour of the electromagnetic theory which assimilated light vibrations to those originating from the oscillations of charged particles and consisting of alternations in the electric and magnetic fields at a distance from it. this theory was also in a sense ‘‘ mechani- cal,” although it did not refer radiation to the motions of material particles. for, by the time of its appearance, the princi- ples of newtonian mechanics had been generalised by lagrange and hamilton so as to cover a field much wider than that of the motion of material particles. the laws of electromagnetism were consistent with these general principles; and since mechan- ics had come to mean the wider field rather than the narrower, the electromagnetic theory of light was as mechanical as a theory of an elastic solid aether could have been. the electromagnetic theory explained all those laws of the propagation of radiation through empty space that are expli- cable by any wave theory, and, unlike the electric solid theory, it related the speed of propagation to other natural constants. further, in conjunction with the electric theory, it could explain many of the mutual reactions of radiation and matter. it cov- ered qualitatively the whole and quantitatively a very great part of the known optical laws. but in the early years of the klectric radiation 2oth century difficulties had already begun to attract attention. diticulties 11° theory.—the first discrepancy was much less striking than those which appeared later and was disclosed only by somewhat abstruse arguments. it concerned tempcrature raciation. according to generalised mechanics, if any system is left undisturbed to reach a state of equilibrium, its energy will distribute itself equally on the average between all its “ degrees of freedom,” that is to say between the different independent ways in which the system can change. the degrees of freedom of radiation are plausibly identificd with its different frequencies, for experiments seem to show that the energy associated with any one frequency can vary independently of that associated with any other. the number of degrees of freedom is infinite, but the ratio to the total number of those lying within a given range of frequency dv increases with the frequency, being pro- portional to v°*dv. it seemed therefore that when radiation is in equilibrium, as it must be in an undisturbed enclosure of uniform temperature, the energy of radiation between v and v+dy must be proportional to v*dy and increase indefinitely with the fre- quency. but according to planck’s law, established by experi- ment, at any temperature t has a maximum at a finite fre- quency vmax given by pmas/t = constant. difficulties arose again in the study of spectra. electronic theory indicated that the origin of spectra must be sought in the disturbance of the electrons of the atoms emitting the radia- tion. if the electrons vibrated under quasi-elastic forces after disturbance, the emission of radiation of definite frequency would be a direct consequence of the electromagnetic theory. but on this theory the series discovered in the spectra of a single element (sce spectroscopy) must indicate the different modes of vibration possible to disturbed electrons in its atom. but all attempts failed to devise atomic models, subject to mechanical principles, which would actually possess these modes. the third, simplest and most striking discrepancy arose from the study of photoelectrics 7.¢., the ejection of electrons from material bodies under the influences of radiation. electro- magnetic theory could well explain how radiation might exert forces on electrons and thus eject them from their atoms; but no mechanical theory could explain why the energy of the ejected electron should be independent of the intensity of the radiation and dependent only on its frequency. these discrepant or “ unmechanical ”? phenomena can be related to each other by means of the quantum theory (@.v.). as applied to the photoelectric effect, the theory states little more than the experimental facts, namely that if an electron takes up energy from radiation of frequency v, then whatever the intensity of the radiation, it will take up an amount of energy hy, neither more nor less; the intensity determines only the chance of its taking up any energy at all. as applied to the origin of spectra, it denies that the frequency of radiation is that of the system from which it is emitted. as applied to temperature radiation, it states again that energy of frequency »v can be gained or lost only in quanta hy, and therefore, since ‘‘ equipar- tition of energy ” follows only if energy is gained and lost by infinitesimal steps, that this doctrine must be abandoned. the equal distribution of energy among the degrees of freedom is replaced by an equal probability of the occurrence of certain distributions of energy among the radiators. as for the mecha- nism by which the equilibrium between matter and radiation is established, the theory of einstein, departing somewhat from the original conceptions of planck, supposes that a given radia- tor influenced by the radiation has a chance of gaining quanta and another chance of losing them, the first being wholly, the second partly, dependent on the intensity of the radiation; equilibrium is attained when the intensity is such that these chances are equal. by assigning suitable values to these chances planck’s law can be deduced very simply. common explanation impossible—thus all these unmechani- cal phenomena are explained in the sense that they, and many other phenomena having no direct connection with radiation, are deduced from a few simple and self-consistent principles. these principles have the same right as those of mechanics to be electric radiation regarded as fundamental. if the mechanical or optical phe- nomena were explained by the quantum theory the discrepancy would be solved as satisfactorily as if the unmechanical were explained by the mechanical theory. but they are not; indeed so long as the two classes of phenomena are described in terms of the concepts which have so far seemed appropriate to them, a common explanation for both appears logically impossible. for, consider a source of radiation surrounded by matter. if we are to explain how the matter produces regular reflection, refraction, diffraction, or interference of this radiation, we must suppose that the influence of the radiation on the matter is con- tinuous both in space and time; we must imagine that at each instant the radiation is influencing all the matter; that between two regions separated from each other there is a continuous series of intermediate regions each differing infinitesimally from its neighbour; and that each elementary region of the matter undergoes a regular sequence of change passing from one state to another through a continuous intermediate series. on the other hand, if we are to explain how the radiation produces the photoelectric effect and its associated phenomena, we must suppose that the influence is discontinuous both tn space and time; we must imagine that at any instant all but a very small fraction of the matter is wholly uninfluenced by the radiation; that the isolated points at which influence is being exerted at any instant are widely separated from each other by regions in which there is no influence; and that the instants at which the radiation influences a given region are separated by intervals of much greater duration in which there is no influence. but if these two sets of phenomena are aspects of the same process, this process must be either continuous or discontinuous; it can- not be both. possible reconciliation—one way to reconciliation is yet open. it is just possible that the whole process is really dis- continuous and that the continuity js only apparent, or, con- versely, the continuity real and the discontinuity apparent. suggestions have been made in both these directions. the first possibility is represented by j. j. thomson’s theories of radia- tion and by einstein’s light-quanta. thomson proposes to attribute physical reality to the ‘ lines of force ” which faraday introduced as the mechanism of all electromagnetic actions. in the simplest form of thomson’s theory, the line of forces are supposed to consist of discrete strings which are attached to the electric charges emitting the 1adiation and along which the vi- brations are transmitted. the wave-front would consist of dis- continuous specks at the points where it cut these strings; the appearance of continuity is due to the large number of strings concerned in radiation of ordinary intensity. einstein’s theory does not profess to give so definite a mechanical picture, but it also assumes that the radiation 1s made of discrete bundles, separate in space, the energy associated with each bundle of frequency v being hy and the momentum hp/c. on either of these views, interference must arise from the interaction of two strings or bundles and should vanish if the intensity of the radia- tion and the number of the bundles is sufficiently reduced, so that the chance of an encounter becomes small. no sign of such diminution of interference can be detected experimentally. the second possibility is represented by theories which sup- pose that the action of radiation on matter appears discontinuous because atoms can store the effects of the action without obvious change, until it ultimately produces instability; an analogy is to be found in a striking clock, where the continuously progressive change manifests itself only in discontinuous changes separated by intervals very long compared with their duration. here again the direct experimental test fails; no evidence of any kind can be found that in the interval between the discontinuous changes the atom undergoes any alteration whatever, either spontaneously or as the result of radiation incident on it. more- over no theory of this kind is of much value unless it can suggest the mechanism by which the continuous changes are stored until the final catastrophe. numerous mechanisms of this kind have been invented, but they are all enormously elaborate, and none of them give any adequate account of the relatively simple 957 laws, of which bohr’s quantum theory of atomic structure zives so strikingly successful an explanation, the only remaining alternative is to deny that the con tinuous and discontinuous phenomena are really aspects of the same process. continuity appears in the action of matter on radia- tion; discontinuity in the action of radiation on matter. it is not possible to divorce these processes quite completely from each other; for in all optical experiments what is immediately observed is an action of radiation on matter, which probably is always reducible ultimately to a photoelectric effect; and on the other hand, we cannot fully describe the influence of the quality of the radiation on its action on matter without the concept of frequency, derived from optical experiments. but if we agree to overlook the experimental methods by which our knowledge is attained and consider only theories to explain it, divorce may be possible. conservation of energy and of am omentum.—one of the reasons why it has appeared necessary hitherto to regard the action of radiation on matter and that of matter on radiation as merely different aspects of the same process, lies in the doctrines of the conservation of energy and of momentum. if matter changes the energy or momentum of radiation, then, if these doctrines are true, there must be an exactly corresponding change of the energy or momentum of matter. bohr, kramers and slater have proposed to deny these doctrines in their detailed applica- tions and to regard them as merely statistically true. on this view the electromagnetic theory is true of radiation itself. ra- diation consists of continuous waves, the frequency, intensity and distribution of which are determined, according to that theory, by the atoms from which it arises and with which it is m contact. conversely, it determines changes in these atoms. but while a change in the state of the atoms immediately and definitely produces a change in the radiation, the converse is not true; a change in the nature of the radiation merely alters the chance that the atoms it encounters will undergo certain changes of state. if an atom a suffers a change of state such as is associ- ated, by the quantum theory, with the emission of radiation of frequency », then there is established round this atom a field of radiation which confers on all atoms in it a definite chance of suffering the converse change; this field will endure until some atom b somewhere actually suffers this converse change. in the interval between the two changes, the cnergy lost by a and later acquired by b does not reside in the radiation; for, on the electromagnetic theory, the energy required to maintain a given ficld of radiation in a given region is proportional to the time that the field endures; this time is determined wholly by chance and may be infinite or infinitesimal. energy is conserved only in so far as the energy lost by a is acquired sometime by b. on this theory the complete divorce is eflected. the action of matter on radiation is determined by one set of laws, definite and regular; the action of radiation on matter by another set in which chance is a fundamental factor. the concepts involved in the two sets are essentially different; and the only connection possible between them is that of numerical laws, formal and physically inexplicable, of which planck’s quantum relation 1s the chief and the type. the other laws necessary for a complete formulation of the theory may be derived from bohr’s ‘ prin- ciple of correspondence ” (see quantum theory) which states roughly, that in certain limiting cases, when the discontinuities pass over into continuity, both sets of laws must become iden- tical and the concepts in one set must correspond, term by term, with those in the other. it has proved possible, for example, to establish a ‘‘ quantum theory of dispersion ” in which the refrac- tive index (a concept derived from the continuous laws) is related numerically to the chances and energy-diflerences of quantum states (concepts derived from the discontinuous laws); but it must be remembered that this is not a theory in the sense of suggesting a reason why this relation should hold or in reduc- ing to common concepts the quantities between which it holds. the bohr-kramers-slater theory has aroused great interest, but unfortunately there is evidence against it. in the scattering of x-rays, there is known to be interchange of energy and 958 momentum between the scattered ray and the scattering electron which. recoils from it (see x-rays). on this theory the inter- change should be merely statistical; recoil electrons on the whole should receive the energy and momentum lost by scattered rays on the whole; but in the scattering of any individual ray, there should be no constant relation either in time or in mag- nitude between the scattering of the ray and the recoil of the electron. experiment has shown on the other hand that there is a correlation as close as would be expected if energy and mo- mentum were conserved at each encounter. in view of these experiments bohr is inclined to abandon theory in favour of the yet more revolutionary ideas of heisenberg. since there cannot be contradiction between facts, heisen- berg suggests that our difficulties arise because we import into our description of the facts things that are not facts and quan- tities which are not actually observed. thus we do not actually observe temporal periodicities in radiation; the frequency is measured by experiments in which there is no change with time; the conception of frequency must therefore be dismissed from our description. with it must go most of the spatio-temporal conceptions that dominate much of physical theory, including the conception of radiation. there are left a few conceptions, such as energy and the transition from one state to another, which do not necessarily involve either space or time. hleisen- berg proposes to state in terms of such conceptions, general principles which shall cover the range of both quantum and mechanical theory, and to reject as meaningless the principles of narrower range but (so far at least) of deeper content which lead to nothing but inconsistency. his theory is too recent and as yet too incomplete for discussion here; but it becomes every day more likely that the dithiculties which have so far beset the theory of radiation are to be overcome only’ by a fundamental reconstruction of physical theory far more sweeping even than that introduced by the general theory of relativity. biblrography.—for saha’s theory see m. n. saha, phil. mar., vol. 40 (1920); it has been greatly developed by r. h. fowler, phil. afag., vol. 45 (1923), and r. ie. fowler and e. a. milne, jfonth/y notices roy. astr. soc., vol. 83 (1923), vol. 84 (1924). j. 11. jeans’ report on radiation and the quantum theory, 2nd ed. (1923), 1s an admirable summary of the position at that date. for later develop- ments, see an article by n. bohr, nature, vol. 116 (dec. 5 1925), which gives full references to the most important papers. (n. r. c.)