EAST INDIES, NETHERLANDS

asiatic posses- sions of the netherlands. their area is 733,667 sq. m. and the population 49,350,834. political development.—the economic and technical progress of the islands after 1900 did not at first affect the general organi- sation of the government, but in the long run the extension of the european-conducted agriculture, mining and industry cre- ated a demand for skilled labour and accelerated the process of differentiation in the mass of the native population. this devel- opment, coupled with the tendencies commonly described as the awakening of the east, resulted in more or less popular ol! movements of political character. the chinese revolution of 1911 led some sections of the chinese community to assume an overbearing attitude towards the natives, who retaliated by founding a society of politico-religious character, the sarekat {siam, aiming in the first instance at breaking the chinese ascend- ancy in inland trade, but soon developing into a numerous and influential political party. other associations of a distinctly political character appeared about the same time, such as budi utomo (1909), whose mem- bers belong to the native professional and intellectual class, and an indian party under eurasian leadership and with the avowed object of separation from holland. the latter disappeared after some years of very lively agitation, the eurasians (who are legally and socially treated as europeans) having realised that their community would be the first to suffer by separation. the sarekat islam split into a communist or “ red ” wing and a rela- tively moderate reform party. labour unions of the continental socialistic type have been formed among the industrial working class; after the russian revolution many came under communistic influence. by an act of 1916 a central representative body, called the volksraad (national council), had been created at batavia, one-half elected, the other nominated. although its functions were advisory only, its powers of criticism and advice in matters of budget, legislation and administration were large enough to secure for it at once an influential position. in 1922 the revision of the dutch constitution was made the occasion for the further reform of colonial institutions in order to place the task of legislation and administration as much as possible in the hands of authorities and bodies resident in the colony, and ensure to the resident population as large a share in those bodies as would be found practicable. under the new colonial constitution, which was worked out by an act of 1925, the vwolksraad becomes, in conjunction with the governor- general, the regular legislature for all matters of internal policy, except in so far as the imperial parliament deems proper to legis- late by act or to empower the crown to regulate on specified subjects by order in council. the reorganised volksraad con- sists of a president, appointed by the crown and 60 members, of whom 25 are to be natives (20 elected by native members of local councils and 5 nominated), at least 30 netherlanders (15 elected) and three to five others (three elected). officials may serve on the volksraad as elected or nominated members, and in both cases are as free to speak and vote as non-officials. population.—the table following gives the population according to the census of nov. 1920, with the figures of the census of dec, 1905 in brackets. java and other madura islands total europeans (including half-castes, amicri- cans and japanese) 135,288 34,420 169,708 | (65,535) (15,375) (80,910)! natives 34:433,.476 | 13,871,144 | 48,304,620 (29,715,908) | (7,304,552) | (37,020,460) chinese 384,218 425,429 809,647 (295,193) (268,256) (563,449) | arabs . ; 27,806 17,115, 44,921 | (19,148) (10,440) | __ (29,588) other foreign orientals 3,383 18,555, 21,983 2,842) (20,128) (22,970) total — 34,984,171 | 14,366,663 | 49,350,834 (30,098,626) | (7,618,751) | (37,717,377) ' the figures for 1905 do not include the europeans serving in the army and navy, totalling 15,866. the density for the colony as a whole is 67 per sq. m.; for java (including madura), 689; some districts of java are scriously over- populated. the government has tried, with some measure of suc- cess, to create a current of emigration to south sumatra, and the plantations in the cast coast district of sumatra, the straits settle- ments, the federated malay states and surinam employ javanese qiz as indentured labourers, but only part of them settle down in their new home. the average mortality is 21 per 1,000. in the crowded native and chinese quarters of the old seaports it is much higher; among the coolies on modern plantations it has been brought down to 12 per 1,000, hducation.—the principal aims at which the educational policy of the period ig10—25 were directed were: (1) increase the number of vernacular schools for the mass of the people; (2) develop a type of school with dutch as the medium for the higher classes (dutch- native and dutch-chinese schools); (3) create secondary schools adapted to the special requirements of the country (suitable for all races alike) in addition to the older secondary schools copied on the holland model and (4) develop higher general, scientific, technical and professional education. in 1920 a college for civil engineers was opened at bandung. batavia has a college for lawyers, opened in 1924, and medical schools exist at batavia and surabaya. a board of education was instituted in 1918. exports and im poris.—notwithstanding the disturbance caused by the war, the history of the netherlands i:ast indies (xn. i.) in the first quarter of the 20th century was one of almost constant progress. (rder was firmly established by 1900, and native and [:uropean pro- duction increased. total imports and exports doubled in value be- tween 1900 and 1911; in 1913 they were valued at 1,177 million guil- ders. capital was attracted, not only from the netherlands as before but also from other european countries, large sums being invested in rubber. food crops were not extended at the same rate, and impor- tation of rice became increasingly necessary; in java, where little arable land was available for extension of food crops, the yearly rice imports in 1913 amounted to 258,000 mctric tons. just before the war progress scemed to have come to a standstill owing to a general fall in prices of tropical products, and the outbreak of war paralysed ail foreign trade for a while. but soon another tendency set in, and during some years colonial products were in great demand. intercourse with holland being hampered by war measures, the export trade had to seck other markets in japan, china, british india, australia, the united states, chile and south africa. regular shipping lines to these countries were established, and for some time a good number of the imports that formerly came from europe were supplicd by them. the years 1917-8 were years of growing difficulties. the seagoing tonnage was diminished by the german submarine war and the seizure of many dutch ships in american ports on a plea of angary; large quantities of produce ‘could not be disposed ae and the importation of rice for consumption decreased. the government had to step in and organise the collec- tion and distribution of rice to prevent starvation in many districts. with the armistice this crisis came to an end, and prices went up to fantastic heights (sugar rose from 5 guilders per picul in 1918 to 45 in 1919 and 72 in 1920), with the inevitable results of over-produc- tion, overtrading and speculation. frnance.—the general rise of prices and wages and the pressing needs of increased transport and harbour accommodation made reat demands on the public finances, and a period of deficits set in which reached a climax in 1921, when the revenue amounted to 756,- 000,000 guilders and expenditure to 1,060 million. the funded public debt rose from 83,000,000 guilders in 1913 to 1,176 million in 1923. reaction set in by the middle of 1921, but the profits of the favour- able years enabled most of the older firms to stand the strain. public finances were set in order by a strong policy of retrenchment and the fiscal year 1924 showed a surplus, with revenue at 707,000,000 guilders and expenditure at 662,000,000. the monetary system had been maintained in sound condition, so that by april 1925 nether- lands india was able to return to the gold standard. production and trade. native agriculture in 1925 was still mainly concerned with food crops; on java and madura the area of trrigated rice fields in 1924 was 7,800,000 ac., other crops (non-irrigated rice, maize, cassave, peanuts, etc.) covering 10,900,000 acres. asa result of the government policy of education the natives are taking more i 1910 1923 1923 | (quantity) (quantity) (value) sugar . 1,179,576 1,827,518 499 rubber 2,768 143,661 i7i kerosene, gasolene (1,000 litres) . 801,434 889,518 118 other petroleum pro- ducts (value) 5-6 es 61 tobacco 62,856 52,246 86 copra . : 248,148 320,362 85 tin and tinore he 20,277 60 tea. ; 15,338 48,114 76 fibres (kapok, sisal- hemp, ctc.) 19,718 44,422 31 coifee . ; 14,730 348,608 30 cassava products 11,719 iii,451 20 quinine 11g 251 ii cinchona bark 71235 7,058 z, pepper 26,189 28,618 ii east london-—ebert and more to growing export products, in java especially copra, tea, tobacco, kapok; in the other islands rubber, pepper and coffee. still, the bulk of the exported products is grown on european- managed estates. the principal articles of export are given in the table in the preceding column, with quantities (when not otherwise indicated, in tons of 1,000 kilos) and values (in million guilders) for 1923. ge 1924 the total value of exports and imports, including coin, was 2,286 million guilders. rubber.—rubher, which was first planted in 1876, increased in importance. the industry suffered heavily from the crisis of 1920-1, and the government was asked to join in the working of the steven- son scheme (see rubber). dutch planters and government alike refused to adopt this compulsory restriction policy, but the british owners of rubber plantations in sumatra, many of them also owning estates in malaya, for the greater part voluntarily adopted the restriction policy. the rubber boom that followed the rise in prices stimulated not only the european-conducted planting industry but also the native production, which in 1923 already supplied more than one-third of the total exports from netherlands india. for 1924 the production of native rubber was estimated at 53,000 tons (of 1,000 kilos) as against 90,292 tons of plantation rubber; native production was still fast increasing. the capital invested in the rubber estates is supplied largely by non-dutch countries; in 1924 31-:9°, of the area under rubber in netherlands india, 34-9°% of the estates in production and 30-9 “5 of the production were british. bibliograpiy.—a. cabaton, java, sumatra, and the other islands of the dutch east indies. transl. from the french (london and leipzig, t911); hl. colyn and others, neerlands indie (amsterdam, 1912); j. charlley-bert, java ef ses habtiunts, 4th ed. (paris, 1914); tencyclopaedia van. netherlandsch indie, 2nd ed. (the hague and leyden, 1917-22); il. t. colenbrander, aeloniale geschredenis (the hlague, 1925). see also: dept. of overseas trade, reparts en the ficonomic situation of the netherlands east indies (annual); statisti- cal abstract for the netherlands east indies (annual official pub- lication in dutch and english). (ke. mo.) east london, south africa (see 8.836), had population (1921), including suburbs, of 34,673, of whom 20,374 were whites. east london, which ranks as the fourth port of the union, has grown in importance as the entrepet for an extensive agricultural dis- trict and it exports a large proportion of the wool produced in the province. alterations at the harbour designed to secure a large enclosed space at the mouth of the buffalo river were in progress in 1925. the tonnage of ships entering the port was 1,906,000 in 1913 and, after falling to 325,000 in 1919, had reached 2,043,000 in 1923. the average value of imports in 1910-4 was £4,261,000; in 1923 the value was £5,142,000. the average value of exports was {2,067,000 in 1910-4; in 1923 exports were valued at £5,517, ooo. though eclipsed as a holiday resort by cape town, east london attracts many visitors, as does also the neighbouring mu- nicipality of cambridge, whose population (4,890) is included in that of east london. | eastman, george (1854- ), american inventor (sce 23.431), manufacturer and philanthropist, was born at water- ville, n.¥., july 12 1854. ife was educated at rochester and became interested in photography. in 1880 he began to manu- facture dry plates, and four years later produced the first prac- ticable roll film. in 1888 he invented the “ kodak.” he devoted the greater part of his fortune to the advancement of education, and had given by 1925 a total of over $58,000,000 for such pur- poses. of this sum the university of rochester received over $25,000,000 including upward of $5,500,c0c0 for the medical school and $6,500,000 for the foundation and endowment of the eastman school of music. he gave also $15,500,000 to the massa- chusetts institute of technology and about $2,000,000 to the hampton and tuskegee institutes (sce pmotocrarhy). ebert, friedrich (1870-1925), german politician, was born in heidelberg nov. 4 1870, the son of an impecunious tailor. ife was an early recruit to the socialist movement, becoming a fluent speaker and a first-class trade union organiser, suffering persecution and boycott for the cause. he moved to hanover, and later on to bremen where he joined the staff of the local paper of the party, and, having dropped his trade as a saddler, became labour secretary for bremen. from 1905 ebert played an important part in the direction of the socialist party. he entered the reichstag in 1912. a year later he became chairman of the party, which at that time was torn between the orthodox and revisionists; his common sense was considered a guarantee for keeping the party together. ebner-eschen bach—ecology at the outbreak of the world war, ebert, deeply impressed by the danger of a russian victory, voted, with his party, for the war credits. his common sense revolted against the opti- mistic pacificism of haase and his followers, who later became the independent socialist party. he continued to strive, how- ever, at home and abroad, especially at the stockholm con- ference in june 1917, for a just peace. he became leader of the majority socialists in 1916 and chairman of the budget com- mission of the reichstag in 1918. ‘though disapproving of the peace of brest-litovsk, he opposed strikes to bring about peace. in feb. 1918 he tried hard and fairly suc- cessfully to put an end to the berlin strike, which threatened to become a national calamity. for the part he played at that time he was attacked later on by the independents as well as by the representatives of the old order. after ludendorfi’s collapse in sept. 1918 prince max of baden formed the first parliamentary cabinet. ebert induced his party to join at a time when ludendorff's insistence on an immediate demand for an armistice was already known. the negotiations about the armistice continued over a month. the suffering working classes began to be restless. when the plans to force a great naval battle became known, a mutiny took place at kiel. acting on ebert’s advice, prince max sent noske to kiel who succeeded in re-establishing order. ebert, knowing the historical attachment of the german people to monarchy, wanted a parliamentary democratic govern- ment, on english lines, but no republic. when the organised working men began to follow the independents inspired by the russian example, scheidemann intimated to prince max (nov. 7) that the socialists must withdraw from the cabinet, and that if the emperor did not abdicate by the oth one of his sons, not the crown prince, should take his place. the emperor vacil- lated. by the oth the masses had got out of hand. ‘the mon- archy collapsed, but the knowledge of the abdication had not the desired effect. scheidemann proclaimed the german repub- lic, and prince max offered the chancellorship to ebert, which he accepted. he formed a provisional government consisting of three independents and two majority socialists besides himself. from nov. 1918 to feb. ro1g it was touch and go whether germany would be a democratic country or a soviet republic. the small group of german bolshevists, the spartacus union, led by karl liebknecht and rosa luxemburg, insisted on follow- ing russia’s example, whilst the independents did lip service to democracy, but wanted to postpone the elections. ebert in- sisted on an early election for a constituent assembly, to give germany a democratic constitution. for nearly two months the government had no power. the spartacists had armed their adherents and repeatedly tried to imprison ebert and his col- leagues. ebert called noske to berlin, who succeeded in quclling the dec. and the jan. risings by means of quickly organised volunteers. when the struggle was over, the elections to the national assembly took place quite quietly. democracy had won the day, thanks to ebert and the moderate socialists. it was but fitting that the assembly elected him the first pro- visional president of the german republic. ebert stuck to his post when the treaty of versailles had to be signed and later when, as early as 1920, a military rising, the kapp putsch, took place. he left berlin with his government to return when the general strike, had forced the leaders to surrender. as president.—ebert’s term as president was provisional. he wanted to withdraw from office at the appointed time (1922) and to subject himself to a proper election. ile bowed, prob- ably unwisely from his point of view, to the wishes of the ma- jority of the reichstag, including the people’s party, who asked him to accept office for a second term from their hands until 1925. when that term drew near its end, reactionary and radical forces had gained strength in germany. this was shown by the result of the general election of may 1924. but by 1925, after stabilisation had done its work, the situation had improved con- siderably; there appeared to be quite a fair chance that ebert, if he chose to stand, might be re-elected. by that time ebert had become a statesman; he had dropped 913 the party leadership. iie remained on friendly terms with his party, but he considered himself the representative of the german people as a whole. he wielded the great but rather veiled power of the german president with consummate tact. his attitude when forming cabinets, and when reaching decisions was correct, constitutional and wise. ie had gained the con- fidence of all persons with whom he came in contact. he had made the office of the president influential, though not con- spicuous. this artisan who had not had the academic training so greatly valued in germany succeeded in getting a firm grasp on foreign affairs. he saw a point quickly and he knew how to deal with men. singularly modest and unassuming, his was the dominant influence, nevertheless, in the many crises the german republic had to pass through in the year that followed the peace. but the fact that a plain man of the people was the head of the state did not commend itself to the reactionary clements of german society. a campaign of calumny was organised against him, accusing him of having fermented sedition and broken the back of the german army. he was forced to bring an action for bel against ilerr rothard, who had published in the afifteldentsche zeitung a letter and footnote accusing ebert of treasonable conduct in connection with the munition workers’ strike in jan. r918. rothard was found technically guilty, but the judge’s finding was unfavourable to ebert. as the judge’s political bias was scarcely denied, the public, including the cabinet sided with ebert. the central government and many state governments passed votes of confidence; the public assured him of their sympathy, but the strain practically killed ebert, who had been suffering from repeated attacks of appendicitis. he did not wish to be operated upon before the case was over, and then it was too late. he died feb. 28 1925 at charlottenburg. ebert was a very fortunate combination of the light-hearted spirituality and sober shrewdness of the south german. he had faith in ideas and ideals, but he believed in action and in organi- sation as well. there was passion in him, but there was com- mon sense; there was strength in him, and there was suavity. he was by no means a genius towering head and shoulders above his fellow men. he was rather one of them, sharing their feel- ings and their qualities, so that they could trust him completely, being just far enough ahead of them to make them follow him, the true leader for an incipient democracy. birbliography.——richard berger, fraktionsspaltung u, partetkrists an der deutschen sosialdemokratie (miinchen-gladbach, 1916); philipps, die ursachen des deutschen zusammenbruchs (1918); die deutsche nationalversammlung 1. j. 1920 in threr arbeit fiir den auf- bau des neuen deutschen volksstaates, hcrausg. v. fe. heilfron (1920); gustav noske, vou kiel bis kapp (1920); philipp scheidemann, der zusammenbruch (1921); friedrich ebert, entweeklungsgeschichte der grossen politischen parteien in deutschland (bonn 1922); adolf koester, fort mit der dolchstoss-legende. warum wir ro78 nicht weiterkampfen konnien (1922); paul kampfmeyer, frits ebert (1923); eduard bernstein, die berliner arbetterbewegung 18qo-1905 (1924); friedrich lenz, die deutsche soztaldemokratie (stuttgart, 1924); josef wirth, unsere politische lage im deutschen volksstaat (1924); der dolchstossprosess (munich, 1925); friedrich ebert, gesammed/te reden u. schriften, herausg. v. fritz ebert jun. (dresden, 1925); philipps, die geschichte einer parlamentarischen untersuchung 1gtg-25 (1925). (m. bo.*) ebner-eschenbach, marie, frerifrravu von (1830- 1916), austrian novelist (see 8.843), died march 12 1916. echegaray, jose (1833-1916), spanish author and play- wright (see 8.870), died at madrid sept. 16 1916. ecology.—the pcriod 1910-26 has witnessed extensive research along many lines. descriptive ecology, which considers the vegetation of the earth as composed of static units and deals chicily with the spatial relations of plant communities, their composition and construction, is a necessary preliminary to the more intensive studies by which alone the existing flora and fauna can be correlated with the conditions of the habitat. attempts to give greater precision to descriptive ecology led raunkiaer(') to elaborate a classification of growth forms mainly based on their adaptation to periods of adverse conditions. by comparison of the percentages of the different types of growth 1the figures throughout the text refer to notes at the end of the article. 14 form (e.g., trees, herbs, etc.) in any given region, numerical ex- pression can be given to the biological differences of different areas, which are often very pronounece: thus, whereas the flora of spitzbergen contains only 2° of annual species that of the libyan desert contains 42% a eieailatelse the proportion of annuals decreases with increasing altitude. equally valuable is the distinction emphasised by braun(?), between those species which are almost invariable constituents of a particular type of plant community (constants) and those which, even if rare, are more or less restricted to it (characteristic). the upsala school has attempted to define the plant commu- nity in statistical terms based upon the constancy of species in minimal areas chosen empirically(*). these methods, if still some- what subjective have led to greater accuracy in description and the recognition of the distinction between the abundance of a species and the frequency of its occurrence. study of climate.—it has been long recognised that tempcra- ture conditions chiefly determine the character of vegetation zones more or less parallel to the equator, whilst within each of these the interplay of temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind and sunshine, as they affect the water supply of the plant, determine the incidence of forest, natural grassland and desert. but though climatic conditions are largely responsible for the changes in the character of the vegetation as we proceed from the equator to the poles or, in the vertical direction, up a moun- tain slope, yet these climatic factors are profoundly modified by differences in soil and topography as when the altitudinal tree- limit rises on a dry calcareous soil or is depressed on smaller, as compared with larger mountain masses. the correlation of the broader vegetational and climatic features is well exemplified by the recent account of the plant communities of the united states by livingstone and shreve(*) who show that the plant communities of that region follow closely the changes in the ratio of precipitation to evaporation. as an example of modern descriptive ecology applied to aquatic communities the account of esthwaite water may be cited. if, as the ecologist conceives, the plant community is but the ** resultant ” of the combined action of all the habitat conditions, it is apparent that tts conception as a purely static assemblage disregards the importance of the historic factor and the sequence of changes through which the community passes. this change with time led clements(*) to the assumption of a climatic climax community to which all the other plant communities of the same climatic area were related as stages in a succession, arrested, it may be, by natural or artificial causes. in temperate climates the succession in certain communities has been shown to follow a sequence of soil changes, due directly or indirectly to leaching and the accumulation of plant residues, and these soil changes may be the fundamental initiating factors of the plant succession, disturbing an equilibrium which might otherwise have remained relatively stable(®). | habitat factors —tin no direction has progress been more pro- nounced than in the study of the habitat factors. of these, soil acidity plays an important rele, due both to the direct effect of the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions and to the influence of the con- centration of these on the solubility of toxic salts such as those of aluminium and iron. not only do various species exhibit a defi- nite range with respect to this factor but for each species there is an optimal reaction or reactions at which the maximum fre- quency and vigour is attained(”°). this applies not merely to the phanerogamic vegetation but also to such important micro- organisms as the nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the soil(9). soil problems.—research on soil problems has been chiefly carried out on agricultural soils(?@°) which differ in their disturbed character from the natural soils with which the ecologist is more concerned. vhese latter possess a definite structure with marked changes in the vertical direction(*), and with this structure can, to some extent, be correlated the depth and form of root systems. the underground organs of the plant have been investigated for prairie species by weaver(!'} who has moreover developed a nomenclature of root form. water supply.—the early concept of available and non-avail- ecology ible water has been given greater significance by the work of briggs and shantz on the percentage of water present in natural svils when permanent willing sets in. this equilibrium repre- sents the point at which the supplying power of the soil balances the demands of the plant and hence varies with the water con-. tent of the soil and the atmospheric conditions. this non-avail- able water probably consists of combined water and some of the capillary-absorbed water and, though not constant in amount, varies only within narrow limits for a given species and soil ivpe(?). methods have been devised for obtaining samples of the actual soil solution which show that its osmotic pressure varies both with the nature of the soil and its water-content, moreover the latter appears to influence the proportions in which the various soluble substances are present. the osmotic pressure of the plant is intimately related to that of the habitat both in space and time, and freezing-point-depression methods show that plants of similar habitat and growth-form tend to possess similar osmotic pressures and hence similar capacities for withdrawal of water from their immediate environment. light factor.—with respect to the investigation of the light factor, one of the most important advances is the recognition of the relation between optimal illumination and habitat. thus whilst the woodsorrel (oxalis acetoseila) attains its maximum rate of assimilation at about one-tenth the full intensity of sun- light, a sun-plant such as amuranthus can utilise an intensity of over one-third('), the chief problem of ecology is to explain why plants grow where they do. does a particular species inhabit a woodland or a mangrove swamp because the conditions here are most favourable to its physiological processes or because elsewhere it is suppressed by more vigorous competitors? the one view demands a general fitness for the special environment, the other a greater tolerance. much of the recent work on individual species has emphasised their adaptation and there seems reason to believe that the habitat has effected a selection of the most favourable mutants('*), historical ecology.—historical ecology and palaco-ecology have received comparatively little attention but the admirable summaries of laurent and seward(-!6) of what is known re- specting the floras of the past, the work of mrs. clement reid on the pre-glacial floras of britain(!’) and of erdtman on the vertical distribution of pollen in peat(3), have done much to shed light on the plant migrations of the past, of which a knowledge is essen- lial to a correct appreciation of the distribution of the present. detailed ecology.—of the detailed ecology of individual species (autecology) little is known, except for a few habitats (1%), although the experimental study of the characteristic species of the major plant communities is almost a pre-requisite for com- prehending the causes of their occurrence. similarly the relation of plants to one another and to the animals of the same environ- ment js as yet an almost untouched field of research. economic applications economic applications of ecology have been mainly directed toward the control and utilisation of natural successions, as in the work of cockayne on the grass- lands of new zealand and of smith on mountain pasture(?® *4). the use of ecological methods in the control of erosion and accre- tion of maritime habitats developed by oliver is especially noteworthy(*). references.—(1) c. raunkiaer, bot. tidsskr, pp. 42-83 (copen- hagen, 1908); (2) j. braun, les cevennes meridionales (geneve, 1915); (3) e. du reitz, akad. afh. (upsala, 1921); (4) b. e. living- stone and forrest shreve, distribution of vegetation 1 a nited states,etc., carnegie nese 284 (1921): (5) f. e. clements, plant succession, car- negie inst., 242 (1916); (6) ry j. salisbury, tour. fcology, pp. 220~40 (1921) and aaa. bot., p. 391 (1922); (7) c. olsen, comptes rendus des travaux du laboratoire de carlsberg, mw openhagen, 1923); (8) e. j. salisbury, jour. ecology, pp. 149- ~ 725): (9) t. gaarder and o hagen, bergens. amfus. aarbok, 6 (1920); (10) sir e. j. russell, sozl condrtions and plant growth (london, 1921): (11). jece: weaver, ecological relations of roots, c arnegie institute, 286 (1919); (12) l. 1. briggs and h. l. shantz, u.s. bur. plant industry, bul. 230 (1912); (13) h. lundegardh, svensk. bot. tid. , 15 (stockholm, 1921), and biol. centrilbl., 42 (leipzig, 1922); (14) c. turessen, iteredi- tas, 6a (lund, 1925); (15) l. laurent, progressus rel botanicae, 319 economics (jena, 1907); (16) a. c. seward, ‘‘ floras of the past,” rep. brit. ass. (1903); (17) fe. m. reid, q. j. geol. soc., vol. 76, pp. 145-161 (1920); (18) g. erdtman, geol. forentngens forhoudlingar, vol. 45 (1924); (19) c. schroeter, das pflanzenleben der alpen (ztirich, 1924); (20) l. cockayne, n.z. jour. agric. (wellington, 1919); (21) w. g. smith, “improvement of hill pasture,’’ scoftzsh joir, agric. (edinburgh, 1918); (22) a. e. carey and f. w. oliver, ?idal lands (1918); see also the series of papers on soil reaction in relation to vege- tation in jour, kcology, prec. linn. soc., and papers on woodland and maritime ecology in jour. ecelogy, ann. bot., etc. (fe. j. s.)