DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS

just as the main interest of animal classification is not the framing of diagnoses but the tracing of relationships, so the modern study of geo- graphical distribution is less concerned with the definition of regions and provinces than with finding out the meaning of faunistic resemblances and differences, to what extent they are due to present conditions, to what to past events. i. land and freshwater animals the importance of a group of animals in relation to problems of distribution depends on the extent to which the classification has been worked out, the palaeontological history discovered and the methods of dispersal ascertained. especially valuable are animals for which the sea is generally an impassable barrier, such as the mammals and the freshwater fishes, and we propose to consider how the ideas as to former continental connections and ancicnt lines of severance that come from a study of mam- malian distribution are confirmed or modified by the distribution of freshwater fishes. the statement that the distribution of freshwater fishes must be represented by a different scheme from that proposed by wallace and sclater for the mammals is incorrect; each of the great regions, palaearctic, nearctic, neotropical, african, indian and australian, is well defined by its freshwater fish fauna. australia.—the distinctness of the australian region, with its peculiar marsupial fauna, is well known; the placental mammals are almost entirely absent, being represented in australia itself by a few small rodents, a group peculiarly lable to accidental transmission, and by a dog, which must have been introduced by man. the freshwater fishes emphasise this distinctness, for the ostariophysi, an order comprising more than 4,000 species and dominant in the fresh waters of the rest of the world, are absent from the australian region, except for two families of cat-fishes, artidae and plotosidae, the only marine families of the order; these are represented by a number of freshwater genera and species in the rivers of australia and new guinea. it is evident that the australian region was cut off from the rest of the world long ago, probably not later than the beginning of the creta- ceous, before placental mammals or ostariophysi had developed. wallace’s line —wallace’s line, between borneo and celebes and bali and lombok, was long accepted as the boundary between the indian and australian regions, but some modern authorities minimise its importance and would place celebes in the indian region. max weber, indeed, asserted that the freshwater fish-fauna of celebes is an impoverished indian one, and, in support of this, listed five widely distributed indian species that occur in the island. but the presence of the same species, if it were due to a land connection, would mean a con- nection between borneo and celebes as late as the pliocene, or later, which is quite out of the question. and we find that one of these species (lstabas scandens) not only crosses wallace’s line, but weber’s line also, reaching the moluccas, and another (synbranchus bengalensis) extends to western australia and to new guinea! the explanation is that three of the five species are valued as food-fishes because they can live out of water and can be carried about alive in jars without any water; these must have been in- troduced into celebes, and the others are not true freshwater fishes, but are characteristically estuarine and can cross the sea. the contrast between borneo, with hundreds of species of carps, loaches, cat-fishes, labyrinthic fishes, etc., and celebes, without a single indigenous true freshwater fish, is a striking one. it may 857 be that wallace’s line is the ancient line of severance between asia and australia, and that the animals that have crossed it since the separation occurred have special means of dispersal or have been able to take advantage of special circumstances. australia and south america.—some authorities believe that in early tertiary times australia was connected with south america via antarctica, but the evidence in favour of this con- clusion is very slight, and that against it weighty. a family of frogs, cystignathidae, was said to be peculiar to australia and south america, but this family is now included by noble in the bufonidae, a cosmopolitan group, and it is certain that the australian and south american genera are not at all closely related. thylacinus is a typical member of the australian family dasyuridae and has nothing in common with the sparassodonts of the miocene of patagonia, except the carnivorous dentition. the south american and australian tortoises of the extinct fam- ily miolaniidae may well be placed in different genera, and this family may be a very ancient one that had a wide range in secondary times. the long isolation of the australian region may be regarded as established. madagascar and africa.—madagascar, like australia, has no ostariophysi (except a peculiar genus of ariidac) nor indeed any true freshwater fishes. this reinforces the purely geological evidence that the separation of madagascar from africa may have taken place as long ago as that of australia from asia. the mammals of madagascar are placentals, but are very peculiar and have evidently evolved in the island from a few ancestral types, which may have reached it from africa in early tertiary times, either by means of a temporary and narrow land con- nection which did not suffice for the passage of freshwater fishes, or more probably, as matthew has suggested, across the sea, e.g., on drifting timber or by swimming, perhaps at periods of elevation which brought the north end of the island nearer to africa than it is at present. dispersal of afammalia.—the importance of the mammalia for the study of geographical distribution resides in the fact that for many of the groups their evolution and migrations dur- ing the tertiary period are well ascertained, and that for the majority of them the sca constitutes an impassable barricr. it is generally accepted that in the eocene north america was separated from south america and from eurasia, and that a wide sea extended from the mediterranean eastwards, cutting off africa from europe and india from northern asia. in other words, during the eocene the continents were isolated, and each was able to develop its own peculiar mammalian fauna. thus, taking the orders generally grouped together as ungulates, we have evidence that during this period the pro- boscidea, sirenia and hyracoidea became differentiated from each other in africa, the litopterna, toxodontia and typothena in south america, the artiodactyla and perissodactyla in the north. at the end of the eocene nearly the present relations of the continents became established, and in addition north america and eurasia were united across the bering sea, and perhaps also via greenland and cither iceland or spitsbergen; thus extended migrations became possible, the elephants spread northwards and the northern groups entered africa and south america; in the last-named, perhaps as a result of this invasion, many of the original native groups became extinct, or were reduced, e.g., edentata. dispersal of freshwater fishes —true freshwater fishes, that is, those belonging to groups that have evolved in fresh water, resemble the mammalia in their inability to cross the sea, but differ from them in that their distribution is a relatively slow process, dependent on hydrographical changes, such as the union of rivers formerly distinct, the capture by one river of the tributaries of another, etc. it seems that for mammals migration is easy, but survival difficult, whereas for freshwater fishes mi- gration may be difficult, survival relatively easy. our knowledge of the tertiary history of freshwater fishes is incomplete, but we know that species closely related to the modern pike, tench and dace inhabited europe in oligocene times, and that in the eocene of north america are representatives of some of the families 858 characteristic of that continent at the present day, namely catostomidae, amiuridae, percopsidae, percidae and centrar- chidae. clearly the main distribution of freshwater fishes was already determined in early eocene times. south american ostariophysi—the distribution of the ostariophysi, to which order the great majority of the freshwater fishes of the world belong, is full of interest. the south american ostariophysi exhibit the greatest diversity, and must have evolved in that continent for a very long time; there are five families of characins, the most generalised group of the order; four of these are restricted to south america, and one is found also in africa. the gymnotiformes (electric eels) are an endemic neotropical group, and the south american siluroids, or cat- fishes, belong to nine families, all endemic. there is no relationship whatever to north america, and the freshwater fish fauna of south america is as peculiar and dis- fic. 1.— distribution of characins. tinctive as the mammal fauna would have been if the connection with north america had never been formed; this connection has not enabled a single nearctic freshwater fish to reach south america, but the ancient lepidosteus has got as far as panama. nor have the neotropical types been more successful in spreading northwards; a few families have entered central america, but none has reached the mexican plateau, although in the lowlands of the atlantic slope one species of the characinid genus a styanax had got so far north as the rio grande. africa and south america.—although africa and south america have no genera in common, there is a certain relation- ship. the characins are restricted to these two continents, and of these the south american brycon appears to be closely allied to the african alestes. also the pimeloclidae, the most gen- eralised neotropical siluroids, are very near to the bargridae of africa and india. these facts, added to the distribution of the lepidosirenidae (protopterus in africa, lepidosiren in south america), fishes specialised for freshwater life in the tropics, strongly suggest that in cretaceous times south america and africa formed one continent and that in it the ostariophysi originated and evolved. probably these continents became separated towards the end of the cretaceous. the distribution of the cichlid perches, a more modern group than the ostario- physi, was at one time thought to support the view that this con- nection might have persisted into the eocene; but it is now known that some cichlids frequent brackish lagoons and estuaries, and two or three have even been found in the sea; moreover, the presence of fishes of this family in madagascar, where none of the other freshwater families of africa occur, is evidence that their distribution is not subject to the same restrictions as that of true freshwater fishes. the cypriniformes——the indian region, india and southeast asia, is the headquarters of the cypriniformes, a group more specialised than, and evidently derived from, the characins. in this area, the cyprinidae are represented by a great number of divergent genera, including those that most nearly approach the characins in structure. the characin ancestors of cyprinidae must have come from africa, and a direct cretaceous connection distribution of animals between africa and india may be inferred. in southern asia the cyprinidae gave rise to two families of loaches, fishes specialised for life in mountain streams, homalopteridae and cobitidae; of these the latter spread northwards. the cyprinidae themselves must have extended northwards at an early date, for before the eocene the ancestors of the catostomidae had reached ,north america. the african cyprinidae, although numerous enough, belong to a few indian genera which have evidently reached africa since the eocene; most of the palaearctic species are leuciscines, a group that appears to have entered north america from asia since the eocene. the indian region has six families of siluroids, three endemic and three in common with africa; of these the bagridae must have reached it at an early date, for the amuuridae, which are specialised bagridae, were already present in north america in the eocene. freshwater fishes and alammals compared.—the freshwater fishes tell the same story as the mammalia, due allowance being made for their greater persistence and more limited powers of dispersal. the majority of the families characteristic of the great regions at the present day must have already been present in the same areas in eocene times, and the connections established since the eocene have produced but a small effect, in striking contrast to the rapid spread of the mammalia, the constant inter- change between north america and eurasia and the invasion of africa and south america by groups of northern origin. some authorities, impressed by the fact that the greater part of the present mammalian fauna of africa and south america is derived from immigrants from the north, have accepted northern origin and southward migration as a general principle. but this generalisation, only partly true for the mammals of the tertiary period, should not be applied to other groups and to other times without strong evidence to support it. the ostariophysi entered north america from asia, the catostomidae and amturidae or their ancestors towards the enc of the cretaceous, the leuciscines since the eocene; the supposition that the ancestors of the com- pletely different south american members of the order came from north america is unsupported by any evidence and is highly improbable. the conclusion that africa and south america were connected in cretaceous times, and that the ostariophysi had a southern origin, is neither contradicted nor supported by the mammals; but it is at least as likely that the ancestors of the endemic south american orders came from africa as from north america, that the litopterna and toxodontia, for example, may have evolved from the same southern group of primitive un- gulates as the proboscidea and sirenia. generalisation and specialisation.—matthew ts responsible for another hypothesis, namely, that the most primitive living mem- bers of a group indicate the limits of its migration and the most advanced forms its original habitat. this appears to be true for certain groups of terrestrial animals, but not for others; it has no general value and cannot be applied to freshwater fishes, in which the most generalised types often persist in the region where the greatest diversity and specialisation are found. wegener’s i vpothesis—the bearing of wegencr’s hypothesis on problems of geographical distribution has been much discussed in recent years. wegener’s main thesis, that the continents are masses of lighter and more solid material floating in a heavier and more fluid substratum, and that their present position ts the result of “ drift,’ isa matter for geologists and geophysicists to pronounce on (see geolocy). if his ideas as to the distribution of land and water in the past were a necessary consequence of his hypothesis, zoologists would have to reject it. it is evident, however, that these ideas are not an integral part of the hy- pothesis, but are the result of what wegener has learnt about geographical distribution; his eocene map, for example, shows australia connected with south america by antarctica and madagascar united to india. the conclusion is that wegener’s hypothesis has at present nothing to do with geographical dis- tribution. the zoogeographer who has reason to believe that south america and africa were formerly united is indifferent whether they became separated by submergence of the inter- vening land, or by breaking and drifting apart. distribution of animals fic, 2,—mean annual surface isotherms of 6°, 12° and 20°c., approximating to boundaries of zones of marine distribution. the dotted areas show the distribution of pilchards (sardinia). il. marine distribution coastal.—during the present century the collections made by the british, french, german, belgian and swedish antarctic expeditions have made known for the first time the marine fauna of the coasts of the antarctic continent and the adjacent islands, with some results that were unexpected, for example the affinity, almost identity, of the south georgia fauna with that of graham land, and its dissimilarity from that of the magellan-falklands area. it was found that nearly all the coastal fishes of antarctica, south georgia and other islands south of the mean annual sur- face isotherm of 6°c. belonged to a single group, notothenii- formes, and that most of the genera and nearly all the species of this region were restricted to it. the antarctic zone may be con- sidered to be bounded by this isotherm and may be further sub- divided into a glacial zone (antarctica, south georgia) within the limits of pack ice, and a periglacial zone (kerguelen, macquarie is.) outside these limits. the peculiar and diverse antarctic fish fauna must have taken a long time to evolve and justifies the belief that antarctica has been surrounded by a cold sea for a long time, probably throughout the tertiary. between the isotherms of 6° and 12°c. lies the subantarctic zone jn which nototheniiform fishes are represented by bovich- thyidae and species of notothenia; there are two main areas, magellan and antipodes. the south temperate zone, between the isotherms of 12° and 20°c., has five districts, chilean, argen- tinian, south african, south australian, new zealand. south of the tropics the currents are not deflected by land masses to the extent that they are in the north, the isotherms are more nearly parallel and the zones of distribution are better defined. a re- markable example of the intluence of temperature and currents on distribution is that two small islands, tristan da cunha and st. paul, some 4,000 m. apart, have species of fish in common that are found nowhere else in the world; these islands are on the same isotherm and the antarctic drift runs direct from one to the other. the antarctic and subantarctic coastal fishes are mostly quite unlike any found in northern regions, but there are a number of genera common to the north and south temperate zones, and the cape fauna has many similarities to that of the mediterranean. tropical zone.—the tropical zone, bounded by the mean annual surface isotherms of 20°c., ts far richer than any other; there are two main regions, american and indo-pacific. ‘the similarity between the tropical fauna of the atlantic and pacific coasts is due to the eocene connection of the caribbean sea with the pacific; few species are identical on both coasts, but many antillean species are represented by closely related forms on the pacific side. west africa has a mixture of indian and antillcan types, but there is little that is distinctive in this district, perhaps because its area is relatively small and uniform, perhaps also from extinction in glacial times. certain families and genera now restricted to the indo-pacific (e.g., triacanthidae, amphisilidae, scatophagus, mfenc) have been found fossil in eocene and oligo- cene deposits in southern europe and indicate that in early tertiary times the mediterranean, which then extended east- wards to the pacific, had a tropical indo-pacific fauna, which would have ranged to west africa also. northern zones.—the greater seasonal variations make it more difficult to define the northern zones than those in the south, but the same isotherms may conveniently be used. these correspond very closely to p. schmidt’s faunal divisions of the east coast of asia, and in the north atlantic the isotherm of 12°c. runs to the mouth of the channel, the region where the pilchard replaces the herring, the hake and the cod, and that of 6° marks the southern limit, as a marine fish, of such a typically arctic species as the char and is near the northern boundary of many british species. the identity or near relationship of many subarctic species in the atlantic and pacific indicates their former continuous range along the northern coast of eurasia under milder climatic con- ditions in the arctic ocean, and also establishes that the post- eocene connection between north america and asia must have been broken more than once since its formation. in both the atlantic and pacific oceans the tropical zone is expanded on the western side and contracted on the eastern and in both oceans the north temperate and subarctic zones are narrow to the west and broad to the east. these facts may have an important bearing on distributional problems; off the atlantic coast of america, for example, in the region where the labrador current meets the gulf stream, there is an almost abrupt transi- tion from subarctic to tropical conditions. bank, coast and continental slope-—under the leading = coastal ” are included the pelagic animals that frequent the neighbourhood of the coasts as well as the benthic animals that live on the bottom, either near the shore or on the continental shelf, the edge of which corresponds to a depth of about 200 860 metres; it is within this depth that the greatest abundance and variety of life occurs. ijort has shown that on the atlantic slope of europe and africa the number of fishes decreases toward the abyssal plain and moreover that the fauna changes, the deepest part of the slope, from about 700 to 1,500 metres, having its own types, the uppermost part having also its own species, including some representatives of the fauna of the coast banks, or continental shelf. the zones and regions of distribution mentioned above apply especially to the surface-swimming fishes and to the bottom-living species within the 200 metres line; the fauna of the continental slope, particularly of its deeper parts, appears to be much more uniform over wide areas, as might be expected from what is known of tempcrature at these depths. oceanic life-——our knowledge of oceanic life has been greatly increased by the results of the german “ valdivia ” expedition and especially by the “ michael sars”’ expedition across the atlantic under hjort and the voyages of j. schmidt in the atlantic and mediterranean in the ‘ thor” and “ dana.” h{jort has put together his main results in a book the depths of the ocean (1912); he has come to the conclusion that the abyssal fauna is a poor one, and that the majority of the fishes recorded by the “ challenger ”’ from great depths were taken in the nets on their way to the surface. he found that dark- coloured fishes, deep-red prawns and other organisms were bathypelagic, characteristic of a region extending downwards from a depth of about 500 metres below the surface, although in subarctic waters some of them may be found nearer the surface. the region between 150 and 500 metres is inhabited by another association of organisms, small, silvery fishes with large eyes, and numerous small crustaceans, pteropods, etc.; with few exceptions the fishes of this region appear to be restricted to the tropical and temperate zones, and the few found in colder waters are generally specifically distinct. from the surface down to 150 metres are found large, swift, predacious fishes, tunny, sword- fish, etc., as well as smaller forms, of which the myctophidae are typical and most abundant, with hosts of foraminifera, radi- olaria, copepoda, pteropoda, medusae, siphonophora and salpae. this fauna belongs mainly to the tropical and temperate zones, especially the former where both species and individuals are most numerous; the fishes are generally silvery, with blue backs, the invertebrates mostly transparent anc colourless. fels.—schmidt has not given a summary of his researches in book form; he has been concerned mainly with the in!luence of hydrographical conditions, temperature, salinity, currents, etc., on the distribution of pelagic organisms. as a typical example of his work we give that on the distribution of the ecls caugzi/la), a research that has been carricd on continuously since 1g04 anc is still in progress. schmidt finds that there are five temperate and 16 tropical species of the genus augzil/a; these are littoral and freshwater fishes that migrate to the ocean to breed; the pelagic larvae are transparent and strongly compressed; on reach- ing the coastal waters these undergo a metamorphosis and be- come elvers, or young eels, which make their way into the bays and up the rivers. by collecting and comparing eel larvae from the north atlantic and mediterranean schmidt has demon- strated that the european eel crosses the atlantic to breed in an area to the south of bermuda, and that the larvae travel east- wards, reaching the coastal waters of europe when they are about 2} years old and 3 in. long; here they change into elvers, those that enter our rivers in the spring being about 3 years old. thus the distribution of the european eel, from iceland and northern norway to morocco, and throughout the mediterra- nean, represents the coasts reached by the larvac in their journey from. the breeding area and those further regions to which the elvers can make their way. the gulf stream is an important factor in bringing the larvae to europe, but in this connection it is interesting to note that there are a number of fishes with pelagic larvae common to the atlantic and mediterranean, but, unlike the cel, these are divided into atlantic and mediterranean races, breeding in these arcas; also there are atlantic species not represented in the mediter- ranean. schmidt has found that although the larvae of the diving atlantic species and races are abundant in the upper layers of the ocean in the neighbourhood of gibraltar, and although there is a strong surface current eastwards through the straits, none of these larvae enters the mediterranean. he has expressed the opinion that the eel-larvae go into the mediterranean because they want to, and the others do not because they do not want to. the breeding place of the american eel overlaps that of the european eel, but is somewhat southwest of it. in the western atlantic larvae of both species occur together, but schmidt has found that the larval life of the american eel is relatively short, the elvers being only one year old, and he believes that this is true of the japanese eel also; thus the long larval life of the european species is regarded as a special adaptation, related to the great distance of the breeding place from the coasts. there is reason to belteve that eels breed at a depth of about 400 metres below the surface, and schmidt has suggested that their breeding places are oceanic areas in which the temperature at this depth is high, above 13°c. this short summary of this fine piece of work will show that the anomalous distribution of the species of anguilla on coasts and in rivers may be related to their hfe- history, to the temperature of the ocean at a particular depth and to the direction of the surface currents. aficro-plankton.—the microscopic plants of the upper waters of the ocean obtain their food directly from inorganic substances dissolved in the water, building up thcir living substance from these, water and carbon dioxide. these minute plants form the food of the animal plankton, including small crustacea, larval fishes, etc., which are eaten by pelagic fishes such as pilchards and mackerel, that form the prey of larger pelagic fishes. in coastal waters the plankton organisms form the food of many bottom-living invertebrates, which in turn are eaten by fishes. thus it follows that the distribution of fishes may to a large extent depend on the microscopic plants floating in the surface waters, and the study of these, their distribution, quantity and the conditions of their existence has become of practical im- portance. one result that has been obtained is that these minute plants are gencrally abundant near the coast, but that in the open ocean they are far more plentiful in the colder waters than in the tropics; this is rather remarkable when it is considered that it is in the tropics that oceanic fishes are most abundant. it must be remembered, however, that a quantitative comparison of this sort, made at a season favourable to the colder waters, is no real index of annual production, that in the tropics growth is more rapid, and seasonal changes are less marked. detritus.—it is an open question whether the importance of the phytoplankton as the basis of fish-ife has not been overesti- mated, except for the pelagic fishes that are plankton-fecders and whether seaweeds, especially in the tropics, and organic detritus from the land are not equally valuable. petersen espe- cially has elucidated the part played by organic detritus from seaweeds and from the land as food for the bottom-living inverte- brates that are eaten by bottom-living fishes of coastal banks. bibliograpity.—p. schmidt, distribution of fishes in the north pacific, c. r. 6th internat. congress zool. (1995); c. t. regan, ““wallace’s line,” rep. brit. assn. (grt); grit. antarctic terra nova exped. zool. ,vol. 1, no. 1 (1914); distribution of ostariophyst, bijdr. dierk. a misterdan., 22 (1922); sir john murray and 1. eijort, the depths of the ocean (macmillan, 1912); c. g. j. petersen “animal associations of the sea- bottom,” rep. danish biol. otuts vol, 21 (1913); f. d. godman, biologia centrali- americana, intro- ductory vol. (1918) (includes articles on distribution by ie 8 pocock and c. t. regan); w. d. matthew, ‘ climate and evolution,” ann. n. york acad., vol, 24 (1915); j. schmi: at, “ breeding tlaces of the eel,” phil. trans. r. s0c., (b) 211 (1922); “ distribution of eels,” dansk. vidensk. selsk. se rift, 8, io coo. a. l. wegener, the origin of continents and oceans (methuen, 1924)...(c. t. r) diving (sce 8.326).—several years before the world war, gall of wiirttemberg invented a rigid copper armour, in which the diver, being exposed only to ordinary atmospheric pressure, could descend to depths hitherto unapproachable. an apparatus described.—messrs. neufeldt & kuhnke of kiel, germany, have developed a practical apparatus for com- mercial use, which consists mainly of an armour of steel and aluminium alloy which protects the diver against the pressure of divorce—djemal the water. the body, joined at the hips, and held together by bolted flanges, affords the necessary resistance against mechan- ical or chemical destructive action. the upper part of the body, with observation windows at the front and at the sides, contains the signalling devices, the regu- lating valves, as well as the necessary instruments like depth gauge, pressure gauge, compass, etc. the lower part of the body affords space for the necessary balancing weights, and is provided with a seat like a bicycle sadcldle. the arm and leg coverings are so designed that the move- ments of the man’s limbs may beasfreeas possible. different sorts of artificial hands or tong- like devices are inserted in the arm stumps and operated by the diver from inside for all ordinary work like fixing or removing a shackle, placing a bolt in position, tying different knots, etc. the movable legs enable him to walk about, to lie down and get up, and per- form every necessary move- ment. he can withdraw his arms from the armoured cover- ings and operate the different valves, the light, etc. breathing mechanism.—the breathing mechanism resembles that of asubmarine. the diver does not depend on air pumped from above, as he has with him a sufhcient quantity of oxygen stored in bottles, to last for about four hours. the carbonic acid exhaled is absorbed by special cartridges. asin a submarine, tanks are provided to enable the diver to rise or go down as he pleases. he is connected with the vessel, from which he descends by means of a steel cable sufficiently strong to lower him from the ship or raise him to it. the cable contains three independent telephone wires. if the connecting cable becomes entangled in some obstacle, and the diver is unable to clear it, he can detach the cable from inside the apparatus and rise to the surface in- dependently by blowing out his tanks. behaviour under tests —the whole apparatus, including the flexible joints, has been tested to stand a pressure of 25 at- mospheres, corresponding to a depth of about 750 feet. at tests carried out in lake walchensec (bavaria), the divers went down to a depth of 525 ft., and the ordinary diver’s work was performed at the depth of 450 feet. no difficulty in breathing or manoeu- vring was experienced in any of the tests. advantages.—for the diver working with this apparatus, depth is of no importance. as the increasing pressure of the water is borne by the apparatus, he feels no inconvenience whether he is working at a depth of 50 or soo feet. the diver in the ordinary rubber suit requires about one hour to be raised or lowered in order to enable his body to adapt itself to the diminishing or increasing pressure. any hurried movement in either direction would seriously affect, or even kill, him. with the new apparatus he can go down to a depth three times greater within a few minutes and come up at the same speed. as diving with this apparatus docs not require any physical training such as divers have hitherto had to undergo, a supervising engineer or officer may go down at any time himself to inspect whatever may be the subject of inquiry. future use-—the deep sea diving apparatus opens up new prospects for the exploration of the bottom of the sea. scientific research formerly depended entirely on the results given by diy d) fig. 1.—deep sea diving appa- ratus, of steel armour and alumin- ium alloy. s6i ground-nets, water and ground tests. oceanographic and bio- logical institutes will benefit by this addition to their equipment. great economic importance attaches to this apparatus, for salvage, as well as pearl and sponge fishing. work beyond a depth of roo-130 ft. was impossible with the ordinary rubber diving suits, but is now feasible. with the help of a new under- water oxygen cutting device, bullion from sunken ships lying at great depths can now be recovered, and pearl fishing is no longer limited to the almost exhausted grounds in shallow water. salvage of af{r.—the first practical use of the apparatus for salvage work in the open sea was made by request of the british admiralty in connection with the sinking of the ill-fatetl sub- marine mr on nov. 12 1925. as soon as jt was certain that the submarine must have met with some accident, and most probably was lying at a depth of about 240 ft., the british admiralty dis- patched a destroyer to fetch from messrs. neufeldt & kuhnke’s works at kiel two sets of diving apparatus, which, with the necessary crews, were immediately put at their disposal. the men and apparatus were hurricd over to portland and im- mediately transferred to the salvage ships ‘‘ moordale ” and “ southdown,” but on arrival at the scene of the disaster they encountered such rough weather and high seas that diving was out of the question. in the meantime, british destroyers and mine-sweepers were busy searching the water with dredging gear for any obstructions, and locating them. in spite of heavy seas which would have absolutely prevented the use of ordinary divers irrespective of the depth, diving was begun on nov. 20 and was continued until dec. 2. during this time a considerable number of daring dives were made by differ- ent german divers, who stayed at the bottom as long as an hour and a half, and sometimes were able to search a considerable area by walking. as however the obstructions located by sweeping and on which diving took place were not the missing submarine, and as the salvage ship, “‘ moordale,” encountered many difficulties owing to the bad weather in the channel, the divers were not able to reach the sunken submarine. when it was established beyond doubt that the m1 had been rammed by the swedish ship ‘‘ vida,” and as the reason of the disaster was thus made clear and not the faintest hope of saving life could be entertained, the admiralty decided to abandon the search for the time and to postpone it to a better season. it had been proved that the apparatus employed fulfilled all reasonable expectations, but failed to get definite results by reason of circumstances out- side the control of the german expedition. (i. w. eia.*) divorce: see marriage laws. | djemal pasha, ahmed (1861-1922), turkish politician, was born at constantinople may 1 1861. he entered the army, and later became an influential member of the committee of union and progress. in ‘1908 he was promoted lieutenant- colonel, and was appointed military governor of adana. he was appointed governor-general of baghdad in 1911, and commanded a division during the balkan wars the following year. in 1913 he commanded the i. army corps, and was made minister of public works. in 1914 he became minister of marine; in the same ycar he took over the ii. army, and was afterwards sent to syria in command of the iv. army. owing to dissensions with enver pasha and von falkenhayn he returned to constantinople in 1917, where he retained the portfolio of the marine until the armistice. on the downfall of the ministry in oct. 1918 djemal was forced, with other members of the committee of union and progress, to seek refuge in germany and switzcrland. later he visited russia, and thence proceeded to afghanistan, where he exercised a powerful influence. he was assassinated by russians at tiflis july 22 1922. djemal did much to awaken the spirit of nationalism in the mahommedan countries of cen- tral asia. an able leader and an efficient organiser, many of his reforms were definitely constructive; but he was frequently cruel and tyrannical. his writings include a volume in french, le carnet de route du coloncl djemal bey, and works in turkish on plevna and the crimean campaign. another work, afemories of a turkish statesman, 1913-9 (1922) appeared in english and in german. 862 dobruja (sce 8.351), a province of rumania which is bounded east by the black sea, north and west by the danule and south by bulgaria. its area, 8,993 sq. m., comprises the four districts of tulcea, constantsa, bazargic and durostor. popula- tion 635,000. the dobruja was assigned to rumania by the treaty of berlin (1878), and soon radically changed its economic and ethnographical character. part of the turkish population voluntarily emigrated to asia minor, their place being taken by rumanians who so developed these barren but fertile lands that to-day they form one of the most important wheat-growing regions of rumania. in‘1orr the population numbered 338,267 inhabitants, of which 186,334 were.rumanians, the rest being composed of 48,963 bulgarians, 10,836 turks, 25,086 tartars and 67,048 various other nationalities (russians, armenians, greeks, jews, etc.). the port of constantsa (60,000 inhabitants) developed rapidly after the building of the bridge over the danube and the opening of the railway line which links dobruja with the rest of the country. constantsa is to-day the principal port of export for the main products of rumania (cereals, timber and oil), especially in winter when the danubian ports are ice-bound. the oil is conveyed to the port through a pipe-line which connects constantsa with the oil-fields in the prahova district. by the treaty of bucharest (aug. 10 1913) bulgaria ceded to rumania two districts (bazargic and durostor) with an area of 2,877 sq. m. and a population of 289,131 inhabitants, of which, according to bulgarian statistics, 134,731 were bulgarians, the rest being composed of turks, rumanians, greeks, tartars, etc. the second treaty of bucharest (may 7 1918) deprived ru- mania of the entire dobruja. the southern part was to be ceded immediately to bulgaria; the northern portion was, as a provi- sional measure, to be placed under the joint administration of germany, austria-hungary, bulgaria and turkey. rumania was to retain a commercial outlet to constantsa. the treaty of neuilly (signed nov. 27 1919) annulled these terms and by it the bulgarian-rumanian frontier was restored to the line of 1913 (sce rumania). | (g. bo.) dobson, frank (1887- ), british sculptor, was born in london on nov. 18 1887. ife received his carly training with the sculptor w. reynolds-stephens, and later obtained a scholarship at ifospitalfield, arbroath, new brunswick. after further study in the city and guilds schools at kennington, london, he lived in cornwall and worked with the granite cutters. he was thus technically well equipped for a sculptor’s carcer. jlis early works, both in painting and sculpture—few of which now exist—show definitely the aitraction of the first post-impressionist fxhibi- tion held in london in r90g. after war service he exhibited his first important work in stone “ the concertina man ” (1910), which was followed in 1921 by “ two heads ” in red mansfield stone and the mare complex portland stone group “‘ the man child.” in 1923 he competed unsuccessfully for the welsh na- tional memorial at carditf with his recumbent figure, ‘‘ cambria.” to the next two years belong the white marble figure of a woman (1924), the seated nude “ susanna” and ‘f morning ” (1923). his portraits include the bronze bust of the earl of oxford and asquith (1921), the polished brass head of osbert sitwell (1923) and the plaster head of a young girl (1925)—the two last named in the national gallery of british art—the bronze hali-length of madame lydia lopokova (1924) and heads of l. h. myers (1925), robert mcalmond and robin sinclair. he was a founder of the ax group, and in 1923 became president of the london group. see roger fry in the burlington magazine, vol. 46, p. 171 (1925); clive bell in the architectural review, vol. 59, p. 41 (1926). dobson, henry austin (1840-1921), british poet and man of letters (see 8.352), died at ealing, london, sept. 2 1921. his later work consisted of prose essays, notably at prior park (1912), rosalba’s journal (1915) and later essays (1921), all studies of the 18th century; and a bookman’s budget (1917). docks: see port engineering. | dodds, alfred amedee (1842-1922), french general (see 8.369), died in paris july 18 1922. dobruja—dodecanese dodecanese (twelve islands), a term which first appears in the oth century, was used in the middle ages for the cyclades. since the italian occupation it has been applied to “ the 13 southern sporades,” consisting of the 13 (not 12) islands of rhodes, kos, kalymnos, leros, nisyros, telos, syme, khalke, astypalaia, karpathos, kasos, patmos and lipsos. the two first and the last were not included in the medieval ‘‘ dodecanese,” which, however, comprised nikaria and castellorizo (meyis). turkish firmans from 1652 to 1835 conferred or confirmed their fiscal privileges, and local greek authorities collected a lump annual sum as tribute to the porte. these privileges, despite occasional infringements in 1869, 1886 and 1893, continued down to the turkish revolution. the young turks, in 1909, abolished them, but in 1912, when the islands ceased to belong to turkey, this decision had not yet been carried out. in that year the italians, then at war with turkey and meet- ing with difficulties in libya, occupied the 13 islands after a single battle at psinthos in rhodes, in which they were aided by the islanders, believing in the promises of general ameglio and admiral presbitero, that “ autonomy ”’ would follow the abolition of turkish rule. indeed, an insular assembly met at patmos, and proclaimed the “ autonomous state of the aegean ” with its own flag. the first treaty of lausanne, in oct. tora, pledged italy to evacuate the islands as soon as the turks had evacuated libya. the italian occupation was, therefore, to be provisional, but the french proverb tells us that ce n’est que le provisoire gut reste. signor giolitti, when premier, sincerely repudiated the idea of “ annexing territories of greck nationality ” and sir edward grey, in 1913, declared that their fate “ interested all the great powers.”’ nevertheless, the 8th article of the secret treaty of london of 1915, which secured italy’s entrance into the european war, gave her full sovereignty over the islands, which, had they been turkish, during the first balkan war, could all have been captured by the greek fleet. indeed it was only the austrian veto which had prevented italy from occupying chios and lesbos as well. a convention was, however, made between m. veniselos and senator tittoni (then forcign minister) on july 29 1919, which was to have simultaneous effect with the subsequent treaty of sevres, and which ceded 12 of the islands to greece, and provided that rhodes, the thirteenth, should have “a wide local auton- omy.” <a further treaty was signed on aug. 10 1920 by m. veniselos and count bonin at sevres. it confirmed the above, and added that rhodes should, 15 years later, become greek also if great britain should have ceded cyprus to greece, and a rhodian plebiscite, held under the supervision of the league of nations, should have decided for union. meanwhile italy pledged herself to give to the islands within two months a “ wide local autonomy.” in 1922, however, senator tittoni’s successor, count sforza, denounced these agreements on the ground that circumstances had changed, and the fall of m. veniselos strengthened the determination of the italians to remain, despite lord curzon’s stiff note of oct. 15 1922, intimating that the cession of jubaland by great britain to italy was conditional upon the italian settlement of the question of the dodecanese with greece. this position was, however, abandoned by mr. ramsay macdonald, lord curzon’s successor. meanwhile the treaty of sevres had formally assigned the dodecanese to italy, which by article 15 of the second treaty of lausanne not only obtained the recog- nition by turkcy of her full sovereignty over “ the 13 islands ”’ but also the ratification of her occupation (during the world war) of castellorizo,. the metropolitan of rhodes was expclled in 1921, and, after an exile of three years, was allowed to return and remain only on condition that he severed his connection with the oecumenical patriarch. the italian plan was to create an autocephalous church for the dodecanese on the mistaken precedent of cyprus, which was ecclesiastically autocephalous many centuries before the british occupation. the death of the patriarch, however, prevented the execution of this arrangement, which would have dogger bank, battle of the been uncanonical without his consent and contrary to the example of protestant england in the ionian islands and of catholic austria in bosnia and hercegovina. another regulation in 1925 compelled all inhabitants of the dodecanese to take italian nationality, although, with the exceptions of the moslems and jews in rhodes, they are all practically of greek race. latterly negotiations have gone on between the italian legation in athens and a leading dodec- anesian, but with no result, whereas the fortification of leros as a naval base and the establishment of a university at rhodes point to the permanence of the italian occupation, which is the chief obstacle to greco-italian friendship. the islands, with the exception of the sponge-fishing industry of kalymnos and syme, have small economic value, and the prohibition ef sponge-fishing off the north coast of africa by the italians in 1916, since with- drawn, not only injured the islands economically but also diminished their population, now only about 80,000, by emi- gration. besides, however, the strategic importance of leros in view of possible italian expansion in asia minor, astypalaia has two harbours. bibltography.— jeanne z. stephanopoli, les pes de l’ egee, leurs privileges, etc. (athens, 1912); peace fandbooks, vol. 11, no. 64: the turkish islands (.ondon, 1920); sk. g. zervos, rhodes, capitate du dodecanese (paris, 1920); m.d. volonakis, 7he sland of roses and her eleven sisters (london, 1922); british and foreign stute papers, 1920, vol. 113, pp. 1078-1080 (london, 1923). (ww. mr.) dogger bank, battle of the.—this naval action of the world war was fought near the dogger bank in the north sea on jan. 24 1915, between british and german battle-cruisers. reports from america at this time had led the germans to think that a plan for blocking their harbours was afoot and rear- adml. hipper was despatched at nightfall on jan. 23 to recon- noitre off the dogger bank. his force consisted of four battle- cruisers of the rst scouting group, “ seydlitz”’ (flag), ‘£ derff- linger,” “ molike ” and “ bliicher,” with four light cruisers ancl battle of dogger bank position il. a.m. be wind ond 2" l.c.8.//30 fic. 1. 19 destroyers. before the ships left the jade, their strength and intentions had been revealed by their own wireless and vice- adml. beatty left the forth to intercept them at 6 p.w. on the 23rd. with him were the five battle-cruisers of the rst and 2nd battle cruiser squadrons, the “ lion” (lag), “ tiger,” “ prin- cess royal,’’ “ new zealand” and “ indomitable,’ and the four light cruisers of the rst light cruiser squadron under comm. w. i. goodenough in the “‘ southampton.” he was to proceed to a rendezvous in lat. 55 deg. 13 min. north, long. 3 deg. 12 min. east, 180 m. from ileligoland, where he was to meet comm. tyrwhitt with three light cruisers and 30 destroyers of the harwich force. the 3rd battle squadron, of seven ‘‘ king edwards,” left rosyth and admiral jellicoe put to sea from scapa with the battle-flect at 9 p.at. in heavy guns beatty’s force was decidedly superior, mounting 24 13-5 in. and 16 12 in. against hipper’s § 12 in., 20 11 in., and 16 8-2 in. the fight begins —beatty reached the rendezvous at 7 a.m. it was a crisp winter morning with a calm sea and good visibility. the battle cruisers were in single line ahead with goodenough’s light cruisers two miles on the port bow. course 863 was then altcred to south by west at 18 knots. ten minutes later ‘ arethusa,” tyrwhitt’s flagship, was sighted southcast about seven miles on the port bow. she had hardly been iden- lined when the flash of guns was seen to the south-south-east. “ aurora,” some 15 m. behind tyrwhitt, had met and engaged the german light cruiser “‘ kolberg,” on the port bow of hip- per’s squadron coming from the southeast. each received a couple of hits and “ kolberg ” retired at 7.25 a.m. at the sound of the guns, beatty ordered the light cruisers to chase to south. “ southampton” had barely gone two miles when she sighted ‘ aurora’ on her starboard bow and, a few minutes later, german battle-cfuisers on the port bow to the southeast. dense clouds of smoke were pouring from their fun- nels and they were evidently raising steam for full speed. it was then 7.50a.m. beatty’s appearance had come on ilipperasa urprise and, turning to the southeast, the latter ran for home. pursuit of the germans.—at 8.30 a.m. beatty’s position was int. 54 deg. 50 min. north, long. 3 deg. 40 min. east, and the two had settled down to the long rush for heligoland, 140 m. away. the british battle-cruisers were in single line ahead on a south- cast by south course, working up to full speed. hipper was rr m. sharp on “ lion's” port bow, in full flight on a south-south- east course. in speed beatty’s squadron had a decided superior- itv. it was able to maintain a seagoing speed of 26 knots, while hipper was limited at first to 23 or 24. at 8.52, when the range of “ bliicher”’ hac come down to 22,000 yi, ‘‘ lion ” opened fireand at 9.05 hoisted the signal to engage. the german battle- cruisers were then forming a line of bearing to port. at 9.09 ilipper opened fire as “ lion ” scored her first hit on “ bliicher.”’ the action ran on to the southeast with the range gracually decreasing, but it was not till 9.28 that the germans scored their first hit on “ lion,” sending an 11-in. shell through her water- line aft. at 9.43 a 13-3-in. shell crashed through the quarter deck of “ seydlitz,” penetrated the after turret and exploding inside sect fire to the charges in the working chamber. the flames went roaring through the turret, passed through a small door into the adjoining one, set fire to the charges there and, wrapping both turrets in a sea of flame, slew at a stroke cvery man inside. “ blucher ” was having trouble with her engines at this time and about 10 a... drew out of the line, going heavily. at 10.22 beatty, to bring the rear of his line into action, ordered the battle-crulsers to form on a line of bearing north- north-west and to proceed at utmost speed. “ lion ” had eased to 24 knots to let the ships in the rear come up, and, as the enemy had turned slightly away, the range was increasing. at 10.30 a salvo fell on “ bliicher ’’; a shell penetrated the central am- niunition passage, set fire to the cartridges and sent a shect of flame through the fore turrets. the main steam pipe was damaged, her speed came down to 17 knots and she gradually dropped behind, enveloped in smoke. | “ lion” out of action.—but “ lion,” too, had been badly hit at 10.35 at a range of 16,400 yd. and at 10.45 she was beginning to lose speed. beatty then made a signal to close the enemy as © rapidly as possible, keeping all guns bearing, but in the smoke of battle it failed to get through. about ro.50 she received a hit on the port side aft, which holed the feed tank and brought the port engines to a stop. the wash of what was thought to be a periscope was seen on the starboard bow, possibly a torpedo fired by v5 at 10.44, and beatty made a signal to alter course eizht points to port. this was hauled down at 11.02 and the squadron turned to north-north-east. but ‘ lion ” could no longer lead it. her wireless was out of action, electric power had failed for a time and she had fallen out of the line. the squadron drew away to the northward, with rear-adml. moore, the second in command, in “‘ new zealand ” some distance in rear. to resume the chase beatty ordered three signals to be made; the compass signal “ course northeast ”’; “attack the rear of the enemy,” and a third “‘ keep nearer the enemy,” but only the first two were received by moore, and he unfortunately read them as an order to attack “ bliicher,”’ which was then bearing roughly northeast. hipper at 11 a.m. turned to the southward with his broadside bearing for 12 min. 864 at a range of 16,500 yd. and obtained seven hits on “ tiger.” iie signalled to his destroyers to attack, but the british turn to the north had robbed them of any chance of success. at 11:12 hipper turned to east-south-east and drew rapidly out of range. the british battle-cruisers were then sending shot after shot into “ bliticher ”’ whose fate was sealed. at 11:38 “ arethusa ’’ came up and fired two torpedoes into her. she ceased firing, listing heavily with fires raging fore and aft, and sank at 12:13. hipper was already some 15 m. off and at 11:52 moore made a signal to form single line ahead and stecr west. beatty by this time had transferred his flag to “‘ attack ’’ and was racing after his squadron: he reached “ princess royal ”’ at 12:30 and hoisted his flag, but pursuit was then hopeless. a warning was received of the approach of the high sea fleet, and at 12:45 p.m. the squadron turned back. hipper made for home and got in touch with the high sea fleet about 2:30 p.m. “ blicher ” had been lost, “‘ seydlitz ” seriously damaged and derfflinger ” hit. on the british side “ lion’ had been put out of action and “ tiger ’’ damaged. adml. jellicoe with the battle-flect met beatty at 4:30 p.m. ** lion ” was taken in tow by ‘‘ indomitable ” and, screened by light cruisers and destroyers, reached rosyth safely the next morning. on the british side the result was regarded as dis- appointing, but it must be remembered that, with the exception of ‘‘ bliicher,” the enemy’s speed was not seriously diminished when the action was broken off. the forces engaged were as follows: british ist battle cruiser squadron. “lion” (flag), vice-adml. sir david beatty, capt. alfred chatfield, 28 knots. “princess royal,’’ capt. osmond de b. brock, 28 knots. “ tiger,” capt. henry b. pelly, 30 knots. armament 8 13-5-in., 16 4-in. (‘‘ tiger ”’ 16 g-inch). 2nd battle cruiser squadron, new zealand ” (flag), rear-adml. sir archibald moore, capt. lionel halsey, 25 knois. “ indomitable,”” capt. francis w. kennedy, 25 knots. armament 8 12-in., 16 4-inch. ist light cruiser squadron. ‘southampton,’ comm. w. e. goodenough, comm. fe. a. rushton. “ birmingham,” capt. arthur a. duff. ‘ nottingham,’’ capt. charles b. miller. “ lowestolt,’’ capt. theobald w. kennedy. armament 9 6-in., ‘‘ southampton ”’ 8 6-in., 25-5 knots. harwich flotillas, arethusa,”” comm. reginald tyrwhitt. roth flotilla: “ meteor '’ (comm. hon. herbert mead), ‘“‘ mir- anda,”’ ‘' milne,” ‘‘ mentor,” ‘* mastiff,” ‘' minos,’’ ‘‘ mor- ris,” speed 34 knots. ard flotilla: ‘‘ undaunted” (capt. francis st. john), ‘‘ look- out,” ' lysander,” ‘‘ landrail,” ‘ laurel,” ‘“ liberty,” “laertes,”’ “‘ lucifer,” ‘‘ lawford,’’ ‘‘ lydia,” ‘ louis,’ “ legion,” ‘ lark,’’ speed 29 knots. . ist flotilla: ‘ aurora’’ (capt. wilmot s. nicholson), ‘ acheron,” “ attack,” “hydra,” “ ariel,” ‘ forester,” ‘ defender,” “druid,” ‘ hornet,” ‘ tigress,” ‘ sandfly,” “ jackal,” ‘' goshawk,”’ ‘‘ phoenix,” ‘‘ lapwing,’’ speed 27 knots. german 1st scouting group. seydlitz,’’ rear-adml. hipper, 10 11-in., 12 5-9 in., 26-5 knots. “ derfilinger,”’ 8 12-in., 12 5-9-in., 26-5 knots. “ moltke,” 10 ii-in., 12 §-9-in., 25 knots. “ bliicher,”’ 12 8-2-in., 8 5-9-in., 24 knots. 2nd scouting group. “ graudenz,” “ stralsund,” ‘ kolberg,’ ‘‘ rostock.”’ casualties.—‘‘ bliicher,”’ which sank, received about 40 hits and 2 torpedoes, had 792 of her crew killed, 45 wounded and 189 taken prisoner. ‘‘seydlitz” sustained 3 hits, had 159 killed and 33 wounded. “ derfflinger’’ was only hit once, and “ kol- berg’ twice, the latter having 3 killed and 2 wounded. on the british side ‘‘ lion ” was put out of action with 12 hits; 1 killed and 20 wounded. “ tiger ” received 7 hits, having 10 killed and rr wounded; ‘‘ aurora” received 2 hits and “meteor ”’ sustained 1 hit, with 4 killed and 1 wounded. the british fired 1,154 rounds of heavy gun ammunition, of which 708 were armour-piercing shell, 77 common, 365 high explosive doherty—dollar stabilisation and 4 shrapnel. heavy guns. brbliography.—sir j. s. corbett, zztstory of the great war: naval operations, vol. 2 (1921); a. b. filson young, with the battle cruisers (1921); see also the german official publication, krieg sur see: nordsee, vol. 3. (acc. dd.) doherty, charles joseph (1855- ), canadian pol- iticlan, was born at montreal may 11 1855 and educated at mcgill university. called to the quebec bar in 1877, he became a q.c. in 1887 and a puisne judge of the superior court of quebec in 1891. he was first elected to the house of commons as a conservative member for the st. anne’s division of montreal in 1908 and became minister of justice in sir robert borden’s govt. in 1911. he joined the unionist govt. in dec. 1917 and, as acting prime minister and minister of justice, he had the difficult task of administering the military service act. in 1918 he accompanied the prime minister to the peace conference at paris, and in 1920 was one of the canadian representatives at the league of nations. he was appointed to the privy council, london, in the same year. dohnanyi, ernst von (1877— _), ijungarian composer, pianist and conductor, was born at bratislava (pressburg) on july 27 1877. he studied at the budapest musical academy, and was for some time a pupil of eugen d’albert. he attracted notice by his first piano quintette as early as 1895. he was ap- pointed professor of piano at the state academies for music of berlin and budapest and was for a time director of the latter. he became conductor of the philharmonic orchestra of buda- pest, and conducted with notable success in the united states. the style of his compositions is conservative and carries on the romantic traditions of the roth century. among his principal works may be mentioned the veil of pierrette (pantomime); aunt simona (comic opera, 1912); the castle of wotjwoden and the tenor (speras); also orchestra and chamber music and songs. dollar stabilisation.— under the existing currency sys- tem, the so-called ‘ level of prices ” is largely at the mercy of monetary and credit conditions. the purchasing power of money has always been unstable, because a unit of money, as at present determined, is not a unit of purchasing power but only a unit con- taining a certain weight of gold or silver. other units—the yard, pound, bushel, etc.-—were once as unstable as monetary units, but, one after another, they have all been stabilised or standard- ised. short weights and measures cheat the buyer; long weights, the seller. so a unit of money which changes in value or pur- chasing power is always playing havoc between contracting parties. the following table shows how the level of prices and the purchasing power of the dollar have fluctuated in the past half century, according to prof. irving fisher’s index number of wholesale prices. the germans fired 976 rounds from their index num-| purchasing ber of prices |} power of the in % of pre- |dollar in pre- war, t.c., 1913] warcents,i.c., = 100 “4 1913 =100°%,% 1860 : : : : . : 96 1865 (high) oe ; 205 1896 (low) . , ; 66 1913. : ; 100 1920, may (high) 247 1922, jan. (low) 138 1923, april (high) 167°0 f ec. len 150°6 1924, june (low 143°1 dee. (high) 155°9 1925, feb. (high) 162-6 april (ow) 156°4 1926, first quarter avg. . 156°3 april avg. 150-9 may, ist weck _ 153-2 2nd week a 152-3 an unsatisfactory system.—when prices are rising, t.e., when the purchasing power of the dollar is falling, creditors and recip- ients of fixed incomes suffer injustice. the sufferers include sav- ings-bank depositors, bondholders and salaried classes. on the domestic appliances—doughty other hand, when prices fall, it is other classes, such as debtors, stockholders, farmers and independent business men generally, which suffer. the indirect effects of falling or rising prices, i.e., of a rising or falling dollar, are equally bad. these indirect effects include industrial discontent, due either to the high cost of living or to unemployment and economic crises. hitherto there was ample excuse for the unstable monetary units of various countries, in that no instrument for measuring their aberrations had been devised. likewise, until weighing scales were invented weights could not be standardised, and until instruments for measuring electrical magnitudes were invented, electrical units could not be standardised. but for some 10 years the index number of prices has provided a fairly accurate instru- ment for measuring the value of the dollar in terms ef its power to purchase goods. an index number of prices is a figure which shows, for a specific period of time or on a specific date, the aver- age percentage increase or decrease of prices. one of the most suggestive signs of the times is that this instrument for measuring changes in the purchasing power of money has been utilised in adjusting wages and salaries to the cost of living, and a number of industrial and financial concerns, and some private and official agencies, have amended wages on the basis of an index number of the prices of commodities. the principle was also employed in adjusting the terms of the dawes settlement for germany, and in connection with at least one bond issue, that of the rand kardex co., and one lease contract. it has been contended by some economists that this principle may be utilised more generally in the future to safeguard the parties to agreements made at one date to pay money at another date. such corrections would gradually break down the popular superstition that “ a dollar is a dollar,” for every time the dollar is corrected it is convicted of needing corrections; ultimately the correction might be applied, not, as at present, as a patch on the dollar from the outside, but by incorporating it in the dollar itself. various methods for this have been proposed. a suggested remedy.—the one perhaps best known is prof. irving fisher’s proposal to vary the weight of the gold dollar so as to keep its purchasing power invariable. instead of a gold dollar of constant weight and fineness and varying purchasing power, what is needed, he contends, is a dollar of constant pur- chasing power, and, therefore, of varying weight. it is not pro- posed, of course, to remint gold coins, but simply to count an ounce of fine gold as being the equivalent, not always of $20-67 (as at present), but of as much more or less than that sum as is required from time to time to keep the purchasing power of the dollar constant. in other words, the proposal is to vary the price of gold according to its worth relative to other commod- ities, instead of, as at present, keeping it artificially constant at $20-67 an oz. pure, or {3 17s. todd. an oz. "/ye fine. thus, if mexico should adopt the monetary unit of the united states, instead of its present unit containing half the weight of gold in the united states dollar, the price level in mexico, other things being equal, would be halved. again, if the united states should adopt the mexican dollar as its monetary unit, the price level in the united states would be doubled—that is, the buying power of the dollar varies with the amount of gold in it. if this principle be admitted, prof. fisher contends that it follows that the dollar’s buying power—that is, the level of prices—can be controlled. it can be kept from changing greatly just as easily a8 it could be made to change by periodical adjustments of the price of gold, each adjustment being made in accordance with the index numbers of prices. by this method, in conjunction with a sound banking system, prof. fisher contends that varia- tions of more than one or two per cent could easily be prevented, except under the most extraordinary conditions. it is also highly desirable that co-operation in the shape of credit control should exist in banking systems. this of itself can be an effective method of stabilising the dollar without any gold adjustments so long as there is a superabundant reserve of gold kept out of use. this method of control is already being practised by the federal reserve system and by the bank of england, in accordance with the recommendations of the 865 genoa economic conference of 1922. this should prepare the way for a more complete stabilisation later. when a super- abundance of gold no longer exists, deflation may become im- minent unless the number of gold dollars can be increased by a reduction in the gold weight of the individual dollar. (see currrency; index numbers.) (i. f.) bibliography.—irving fisher, the purchasing power of money, new york (1911); irving fisher, stabilizing the dollar, new york (1920); gustav cassel, money and foreign exchange after 1014, new york (1922); william t. foster and waddill catchings, money, boston (1923); j. m. keynes, a tract on monetary reform, london (1923); m. k. graham, gold (1925); j. r. bellerby, monetary stability, london (1925). see also the publication of the stable money association, new york. domestic appliances: see household appliances. dominican republic: sce santo domingo. donaldson, sir james (1831-1915), british scholar (see 8.406), died at st. andrews, scotland, march 9 rors. dougherty, dennis j. (1865- ~—+), american roman catholic divine, was born at girardville, pa., aug. 16 1865. he studied at st. mary’s college, montreal, and the american college, rome, and was ordained priest in 1890. after being con- nected with st. charles’ seminary, overbrook, pa., for 12 years, he became bishop of nueva segovia in the philippine is. in 1903, and later bishop of jaro. he was appointed bishop of buffalo, n.y.,in 1915 and in 1918 was made archbishop of philadelphia and metropolitan of pennsylvania. he was created cardinal priest by pope benedict xv. in 1921, taking over the titular church of st. nereus and achilleus at rome. dougherty, paul (1877- ), american painter, was born at brooklyn, n. y., sept. 6 1877. he was educated at the brooklyn polytechnic institute and the new york law school, where he took the degree of ll.b. in 1898. he then spent five years in europe, devoting himself to the study of art, and his first picture was exhibited at the paris salon in r90x. he was chiefly concerned with marine subjects, in which he achieved great success, being awarded the osborne prize (1905), the innes gold medal and the carnegie prize, national academy of design (1913), the gold medal at the san francisco exposition (1915), and the altman prize (1918). among his more impor- tant pictures are “‘ october seas,” “‘ the road to cayey,” and ‘lake louise,” in the metropolitan museum, new york city; “the land and the sea,” in the corcoran gallery, washington; “flood tide,” in the carnegie institute, pittsburgh; ‘ moon- light cove,’’ in the toledo museum; “sun and storm,” in the national gallery, washington; and ‘‘a freshening gale,’’ in the albright art gallery, buffalo. doughty, charles montagu (1843-1926), british travel- jer and writer (see 2.257) younger son of rev. c. m. doughty of theberton hall, suffolk, was born on aug. 19 1843. prevented by an impediment in speech from entering the navy, his educa- tion was continued at king’s college, london, and at caius and downing colleges, cambridge, where he graduated in natural science in 1865. he turned then to independent travel and study, freely adventuring in his chosen fields of geology, archaeology and philology. and he did so in no half-hearted way: in norway, oxford, leyden, louvain, italy, spain, north africa and greece he served a long novitiate in wandering and scholarship which led him at last to syria, palestine and his adventures in arabia. in nov. 1876 doughty set out from damascus with a pilgrim caravan. at madain salih he left the haj, and surveyed the al hajar monuments and inscriptions. he then decided to reach independently the oasis of khaibar, and to this end at- tached himself to wandering bedouins. dependent on their movements, his dangers were now multiplied and his life was repeatedly endangered by the inevitable suspicion, fanaticism and treachery which on occasion broke through the respect and hospitality which doughty’s courageous personality compelled. he reached khaibar from taima in the summer of 1877, was sent back to hail, thence to al qasim, buraida and ‘anaiza. from there, after some months, he travelled southwards towards mecca and reached safety at jidda in aug. 1878 the story of this 866 great journey, which threw many fresh lights on the geology, hydrography and ethnology of arabia, doughty told in travels in arabia deserta, published in 1888. the book was the fruit of a literary labour hardly less arduous than the journey whereof it treated. doughty was less concerned to produce a chronicle or work of information than to create, out of his unique experience, an unique monument of what he considered pure english prose. to him, this meant the achievement of an elizabethan directness of utterance and the renunciation of all post-elizabethan growths in syntax and vocabulary. he succeeded. his profound literary sense had told him aright when it inspired him to treat his re- mote and lonely adventuring in this bare, majestic style. the later years of doughty’s life, mostly spent in england, were given over to poetry. essentially, indeed, he was always a poet, in his deep comprehension of the values of words no less than in his power of penetrating into the living past, whether of a country’s physical structure or of its people and their life. fourteen years’ labour produced his epic, the dawn in britain (1907), his other long poems and poetic dramas including the cliffs (1909), the clouds (1912), the titans (1916) and afan-soul (1920). like arabia deserta, the poems he wrote reflect his eliza- bethan predilections. hedied at sissinghurst, kent, jan. 20 1926. | | (h. m1.) doumer, paul (1857- ), french politician, (see 8.450), returned to active politics in 1912 as senator for corsica. in 1917 he wasa secretary of state in the painleve cabinet. in the briand cabinets of jan. 1921—jan. 1922 and dec. 1925—march 1926, he was minister of finance. doumergue, gaston (1863- ), french politician, was born at aigues-vives on aug. 1 1863, and was educated at the lycee at nimes. he studied law, became a barrister, and, after holding magisterial appointments in cochin china and algiers, was elected deputy for nimes in 1893. in the chamber he spoke with authority on colonial questions and from 1902 to 1905 was minister for the colonies in the combes government. when this administration fell, he was elected vice-president of the chamber. in 1906 he was minister of commerce in the sarrien cabinet, re- taining his portfolio in the succeeding clemenceau government. when m. clemenceau reconstituted his cabinet, m. doumergue became minister of education and held the same post in the fol- lowing briand ministry which lasted from july 1909 to nov. 1910. in the latter year he became senator for the gard depart- ment and attracted notice by his strong advocacy of the three years’ military service bill. on the fall of m. barthou’s administration in dec. 1913, m. doumergue formed a cabinet in which he himself took charge of foreign affairs. he was forced to resign, however, after the gen- eral elections of may 1914, which resulted in a majority in the chamber opposed to the three years’ military service law. on the outbreak of the world war he again became minister for the colonies in the viviani govt. of national defence. in r917 he left the government, and was sent on a mission of inquiry into conditions in russia. on his return he re-entered the senate. after the resignation of m. leon bourgeois on feb. 22 1923, m. doumergue was elected to succeed him as president of the sen- ate, and after his inauguration he made it clear that he sup- ported the policy of m. poincare with regard to germany and the ruhr. on june 13 1924 he was elected president of the republic by the french national congress on the first ballot, securing 515 votes to m. painleve’s 300. dover, england (see 8.453), had a population in 1921 of 39,985, estimated in 1923 at 40,740. the municipal boundaries were extended in 1921, bringing the area of the borough up to 20,620 acres. two new churches have been built, charlton church and st. barnabas, and the remains of the tiny church of the knights templars on the western heights restored. remains of a r2th-century church were found during alterations to the shakespeare hotel in 1924. in that year part of the ancient archcliffe fort was sold to the southern railway by the war office. the connaught barracks near the castle were finished in r9or5. the war memorial adjoins the old maison dieu, part of the municipal buildings, and an obelisk in memory of the doumer—drama dover patrol has been erected on the cliffs above st. margaret’s bay. a bell taken from antwerp by the germans and used as an air-raid warning at zeebrugge was presented to dover by the king of the belgians after the war and hung in a turret outside the town hall. parliamentary sanction has been obtained for building a road up the east cliff and along the cliffs to st. margaret’s bay, with a light railway. the dover harbour scheme, including the reclamation of about 11 ac. to the east of the admiralty pier to provide a new marine station and a number of additional berths, was carried out in time to be of service during the world war. silting has taken place in the harbour, primarily due to the sinking of a vessel during the war. this has prevented the calling of large liners sailing between hamburg and america; but work in con- templation will enable these services to be resumed. in 1919 the naval base at dover was given up, and in 1923 the admiralty harbour was transferred to the harbour board for commercial use. in 1925 plans were being considered for another jarge dock at the east end, and a landing stage the whole length of the admiralty pier. the channel-tunnel scheme was vetoed by the committee of imperial defence in 1924. during the earlier part of the war numbers of barges were towed across the channel from dover, and taken by the french canals to depets near the firing line. some 180 bombs were dropped on dover during the war, and in 1918 it was bombarded by a german submarine; 14 people were killed and about £30,000 of damage was done. cog [i aka) dowden, edward (1843-1913), british writer (sce 8.456), died in dublin april 4 1913. his letters, edited by e. d. and h. m. dowden, appeared in 1914.