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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:denmark:27a6192b296c",
    "title": "DENMARK",
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    "verified_text": "a kingdom of northern europe and a member of the league of nations. since the incorporation of north slesvig (1,538 sq.m.), returned to denmark in 1920 ac- cording to the treaty of versailles, the area of denmark proper is 16,9s8square miles. the population (1921) was 3,267,831. about 73° of the area is occupied by cultivated land, about 10% by woods and plantations, while the rest, 15°, is either uncultivated or is used as gardens, building lots, roads, etc. in addition, the faeroes (540 sq.m.) and greenland (a little more than 770,000 sq. m.) belong to denmark. i. political history after the cabinet of j. c. christensen had been forced by the alberti catastrophe to retire, it was followed by three short-lived cabinets: niels neergaard, count holstein-ledreborg, c. th. zahle, whereupon klaus berntsen (july 5 roro) formed a cabinet of the left, which lasted until 1913. after violent con- tests on the defence problem, the holstein cabinet carried an arrangement whereby the army and navy were enlarged, copen- hagen’s naval defences strengthened and the land defences were to be dismantled not later than march 31 1922. the zahle ministry prosecuted christensen and berg before the rigsret for neglect of their ministerial duties in regard to alberti (the former being acquitted, the latter sentenced to a fine). in 1910 the left opened an agitation for a democratic amendment of the constitution. the right, which was strong in the landsthing (upper house) opposed, and no solution had been reached when the elections were held in may 1913. the radicals and socialists now held 63 seats out of the 114 in the folkething, and united to force the reform under a new zahle cabinet with brandes as minister for finance, rode minister for the interior, erik scavenias minister for foreign affairs and munch minister for defence. the right answered by obstruction in the landsthing, which the government then dissolved. the new landsihing contained 38 supporters, 28 opponents of the constitutional amendment. no solution had, however, been reached when the war broke out. king frederick viii. died on may 14 1912, and was succeeded on the throne by his son christian x. the war z914-8.—the european situation in 1914 caused denmark great anxiety. on aug. 1 the rigsdag passed a number of emergency laws. the mobilisation of the emergency army, numbering in all about 70,000 men began on the same day. all political parties agreed in maintaining the neutrality of den- mark. an attack by germany was especially feared. a dificult 842 situation arose on aug. 5 in consequence of an inquiry from ger- many as to whether the danish govt. intended to block danish waters with mines, an inquiry which could only mean that if denmark refused germany would lay the mines. ‘the govern- ment had to consider denmark’s responsibility as a neutral power, and after some hesitation decided to lay the mines. with this germany was satisfied, and britain sanctioned the action in view of denmark’s precarious position. it became apparent that the war situation might have serious effects upon danish economic life, and the government was therefore granted emergency powers. as in military affairs, the government ad- hered to the policy of keeping the belligerent nations constantly informed of the measures adopted, these establishing with both sides confidence in denmark’s desire for real neutrality, and an understanding of the importance of maintaining effective in- dustries. this in time resulted in fixed agreements with germany and england as to exports. when the first anxiety was allayed the constitutional problem was again taken up. as the opposition of the right was weaken- ing, a result was reached without great difficulty and june 5 1915 the king signed the new constitution. this introduced equal suffrage in the elections for both houses, men and women being entitled to vote under identical conditions; the voting age was fixed at 35 years for the landsihing and was lowered successively from 30 to 25 years for the folkething. of the 140 members of the folkething, 93 are elected in individual districts, 27 in greater copenhagen according to proportional representation, and 23 supplementary seats are divided among the parties that have received too few representatives at the other polls in proportion to their number of votes. the landsthing has 72 members, of which 54 are indirectly and proportionally elected in the large districts, while 18 are clected by the retiring landsthing accord- ing to the same principles. in the case of- a constitutional amendment a referendum must take place, and 45° of the eligi- ble voters must vote for it to give it validity. the constitution came into force on april 21 1918. other important legislative acts of the first years of the war, which the zahle govt. succeeded in getting passed unani- mously, were the reform of the administration of justice (april tr 1916), which separated the administrative and judicial systems, and introduced oral proceedings and publicity—with trial by jury in criminal and political cases—and the accident insurance law (july 6 1916), which made it the duty of all em- ployers to insure their employees. the privileged suffrage in elections to the amzsraad (county councils) was abolished with the consent of all parties. in the late summer of 1916 the political bill was suceceded by a bitter struggle on the government’s announcement that it had concluded a treaty with the united states ceding the danish west iucies to that country for $25,000,000. finally the cabinet was supplemented by representatives of each political party and a plebiscite taken on the sale. at the polls (dec. 14 1916) 283,670 votes were cast in favour and 158,157 against, and shortly afterwards the rigsdag ratified the cession. a similar, but less far-reaching bitter contest, arose over the rearrangement of the relation of iceland to denmark. with increasing force, iceland demanded political independence and integrity. despite the opposition of the conservatives, the support of the other three parties sufficed to pass an act of union (nov. 1918), in which denmark acknowledged the independence of iceland. the king is joint ruler of both countries, and denmark takes charge of iceland’s foreign relations. the act of union is valid till 1940. from tgr7 onwards unrestricted submarine warfare, combined with the stricter measures of the entente, caused increasing difficulties in the economic life of denmark. the government made further efforts, by means of maximum prices, export pro- hibitions and by the rationing of certain articles, to create tolerable conditions for the people. it sought to mitigate the effects of the increase in prices by an extensive policy of relief. through an increase of the succession, income and personal prop- erty taxes, and the introduction amongst others of a tax on exchange business, the government tried to cover these and the denmark greatly increased military expenses. after the spring of 1918 the elections could no longer be postponed. at the elections for the folkething, when women voted for the first time (68° voted to the men’s 84%), 72 supporters of the government were elected, 39 socialists and 33 radicals, and 68 opponents. the lands- thing was constituted as follows: 17 conservatives, 26 left, 13 radicals and 15 socialists. ror8—25.—at the time of the armistice the old problems were viewed dilferently and new questions arose. the troops were quickly demobilised, the special defence works were razed and on march 17 1920, a law was passed abolishing the land de- fence and artillery of copenhagen. in rorg the special military administration of justice had ceased. the government’s economic policy, which had caused some dissatisfaction, but as a whole had been supported by all parties, became the object of very strong criticism, as the opposition thought it time to abrogate the war-time legislation in this respect. instead of improving, economic conditions became worse: small exports, the falling value of the danish krone both at hore and abroad and numerous strikes, partly caused by the syndicalistic agita- tion, characterised the industrial and economic situation until late in 1920. the alhed victory affected denmark chiefly through the prospects of a reunion with the danish part of slesvig, where plebiscites were held in the spring of 1920 (see sculeswig). while the plebiscite results in zone 1 satisfied danish expecta- tions, this was not the case with the results in zone 2, which caused great disappointment. the zahle ministry had for months been vehemently attacked for its cool attitude towards the national propaganda in central slesvig, and its assailants made it responsible for the poor result of the plebiscite. certain circles fostered a forlorn hope of preventing the final union of central slesvig with germany by a so-called “ internationalisation ” of zone 2, which, however, was not thought of in the versailles treaty. the political opposition combined with this nationalistic agitation, and when the government refused to order new elections, in view of the necessity for a new electoral law, the king dismissed it. a cabinet of non-politicians, formed by liebe, march 30 1920, took the responsibility for the king’s action, which was regarded by the supporters of the dismissed cabinet as unconstilutional, and had caused the threat of a general strike from the socialists. during this “ easter crisis ”’ denmark looked as if it were on the verge of a revolution. the mediation of the city council of copenhagen ard others con- ciliated the crown and the socialists, ard on april 5 a new ministry, consisting chiefly of state officials, was appointed to formulate an electoral law and to order new elections. the new law was based on proportional representation in the county dis- tricts (a mtskredse), and the supplementary seats system was re- tained in a slightly altered form. at the folkething elections (april 26 1920) the left received 351,000 votcs (49 seats), the conservatives 201,000 (28), “ erhvervsparti ”’ (trades party) 29,000 (4), against the socialists 300,000 (42) and the radicals 122,000 (17). niels neergaard formed the new left cabinet on may 5. the new solkeihing elections were held on sept. 21 1920. in these the people of north slesvig took part, and the voting age was 25 vears for the first time. the results were 412,000 votes cast for the left (52 seats), 390,000 socialists (48), 217,000 conservatives (27), 147,000 radicals (18), 27,000 ‘f frhvervsparti ’’ (3) and 7,000 for the german candidates (1). the neergaard ministry continued to dlirect the policy of the country, supported by the majority which its own party, the left, composed of danish farmers, formed in conjunction with the conservatives, the citizen class of the market towns, against an opposition consisting of social-demo- crats, labour and the radicals, the small-holders of the agricul- tural districts and some portion of the liberals in the towns. the first task before the ministry was the complete incorpora- tion into denmark of the restored north slesvig territory; the old fronticr should, if possible, be obliterated entirely, ancl the new one firmly established in its stead. many legislative measures and administrative acts were required to attain this end; and denmark considerable financial sacrifices on the part of the former kingdom were needed to alleviate the manifold distress to which this portion of the former german empire had been reduced by the war (see sciileswig). denmark joined the league of nations at an early date (march 8 1920); since then, a danish delegation, representing all political parties, has taken part in the proceedings of the league. in 1920 also, negotiations were entered into with sovict russia, and, after a temporary interruption, led 10 a commercial agree- ment (april 23 1923), which was approved by the rigsdag on june 8. the extension of the danish monopoly in greenland in 1921 to embrace the whole of that country led to some objections on the part of norway, based on existing norwegian interest in the east greenland waters. after diplomatic discussions, negotiations began in oct. 1923 and jan. 1924, leading to an agreement of july 9 1924, whereby norwegian subjects and norwegian companies were guaranteed certain rights in east greenland for a period of 20 years. in denmark, as elsewhere, it was the gencral economical de- velopment after the war, and its effect on home affairs, which presented the greatest difficulties. unemployment, after a fall in 1920, had by feb. 1922 reached 80,000. the government could not therefore for a moment consider the essential reduction of government grants to the unemployed which it had maintained as a necessity in face of the former ministry. dr. o. kragh, however, who had entered the cabinet in july rg21, as minister of the interior, succeeded in finding a method for reasonable restriction of the grant, while maintaining the principle that support of the unemployed in cases of extraordinary unemploy- ment beyond the workers’ control was a task for the state. nor was it actually the purpose of the government to renounce the social obligations assumed by the state and substitute retro- gressive for progressive principles; it only sought to cut down expenses where they seemed to have risen too far, and to find a better basis. this was apparent, when, on aug. 7 1922, dr. kragh succeeded in carrying an old age pensions bill, ensuring every man and woman on attaining the age of 65, a workers’ pension from the state, amounting, for married couples without private means, to £56, and falling in proportion to such means until the right to pension becomes nil on the possession of a fortune amounting to 25,000 kr. (about. £1,500). in 1922, however, the economical crisis reappeared in a more violent form. the rapid depreciation of the currency became the leading political question. it was generally feared that a continuation of the decline must reduce the nation to the same state of misery as germany. the government, however, took no measures to stop depreciation, considering that it must be a matter for the danish national bank to raise the value of the krone by suitable deflation with reasonable restriction of the note issue and of credit. it was urged, however, and rightly, that the government was to blame for not taking measures to compel the national bank to carry out this policy of deilation. a new election to the folkething took place on april 11 1924. the social democrats obtained 455,000 votes (55 elected), the left 339,000 votes (45), conservatives 213,000 (28), radicals 166,000 (20) and the germans 7,500 (1). the social-democratic party took over the government on april 23 1924, forming the stauning ministry. this, though with a leading trade unionist at its head, consisted, for the rest, of the party’s mainly academi- cal members of parliament, as borgbjerg, social minister; stcincke, minister of justice; bramsnaes, minister of l'inance and fru nina bang, the first woman to hold office in a danish cabinet, as minister of education. the danish minister in berlin, count moltke, also entcred the cabinet as minister for foreign affairs. the new government was at once faced with the task of carrying out the agreement with norway; this was passed in june 1924 with the votes of the left and social- democrats against the conservatives and radicals. the passing of this measure scttled the question; and since then, england and france have sought and obtained from denmark the same rights in east greenland as norway. the most important task, however, was the restoration of the krone. the social-demo- cratic government for the rest attracted most attention by pass- ing through the lower house a measure for the virtual disarm- ament of denmark. see erik arup, rids af danmarks historie (1921); fr. norgaard, danmark fra 1864 til genforeningen med senderjyliand (1920); alex. thorse, grundrids of den danske rigsdags [istorie 1866-1915 (1920). (eras h.-l.) ii. financial and economic history denmark shared with the rest of the world in the general rise in values which culminated towards the close of 1913. unem- ployment, which was 9°4°% in tort, fellin r912 to 7-5 and in 1913 to 7-3°6, and the production and export of agricultural products, especially butter, bacon and eggs, a factor of great importance in the economical life of the country, was on the increase. the total exports of home produce, to which agriculture normally contributes nearly 90%, amounted in 1911 to §37,000,000 in 1912 to 597,000,000, and in 1913 to 637,000,000 kroner. the war period. —although a neutral country from first to last, denmark experienced increasing economic difficulties throughout the world war. this was due primarily to the fact that it is necessary not only to import coal and the bulk of raw materials for industry, but also enormous quantities of oilcake and maize for agricultural purposes in the production of butter and bacon, as well as large quantities of fertilisers. it was there- fore of the utmost importance to ensure a continuance of the most essential imports from overseas, not only for the mainte- nance of industrial employment, but also for the sike of agricul- ture, which had, on the one hand, to provide food for the popula- tion, and more especially, to maintain its exports in orcler to pay for imports required. as each of the two belligerent groups feared that these imports might find their way, directly or in a manufactured state, to the enemy, various commercial agree- ments were concluded, in which the two great central industrial organisations, the industrial council (industriraadet) and the committee of the merchants’ society (grosserer-socictetets komite), guaranteed on behalf of their members that goods im- ported under the clause prohibiting export should not be dealt with contrary to the agreements. these agreements did not at first include any provision as to limitation of the quantities imported; in course of time, however, rationing regulations were introduced for a whole series of com- moidities, and on the declaration of the unrestricted submarine campaign on feb. 1 1917 imports were further reduced, while the american export restrictions and the blockade hindered the import of corn and fodder. in order to maintain the supply of necessary foodstuffs for the population, but more especially to maintain as long as possible a surplus of agricultural produce for export—still distributed in the same proportion west and south as before the war—ralioning of bread and sugar was introduced at the beginning of 1917, and later also butter, bacon and lard were rationed. various groceries were subsequently added to the rationing list as long as any supply of these remained in the country, which ceased to be the case early in 1918. foreien trade —the value, amount and prices of exports and imports for 1911-25 will be seen from the following table: —. | 4 4 2 - 1 o 5 a am, a ; “em ey 5 = es = ouantita=: | o7 |e ee ; as ‘= me , | tive index, | £= so ov year - , #4 | 1913=100 | & a =f a) ~ - oe i ees ms i a tee ges ||h ies eee sei/2 | € a pane 5 | r = c) | hz imp. | lexp.} <5 — fed lot > 8355 pees | 134 | too | too | 119 89 aa as) 795 s67 72'| s88 | 114 | 102 | 100 | 100 iqi7 . . | 1,089 ; 1,066 23 46 72 | 465 | 249 | 155 1qi8 . 946 758 188 33 33 | 563 | 302 | 182 1920 , > magee | eog2 (p28 88 83 | 553 | 383 | 262 ig2t . . | £,697 | 1,564 133 89 88 | 205 | 253 | 237 1923. 2,031 | 1,634 347 | 125 | 128 | 240 | 207 | 204 1924. . | 2,366 | 2,154! 212 | 126 |] 130 | 270 | 233 | 214 1925. . | 2,095 | 1,966; 12917 .. oe - 212 | 219 1export surplus, 844 the index figures for quantity show that the imports fell to a very low level in 1917-8, while exports even in 1919 were still not half the normal quantity. this was especially due to the after-effects of shortage in import of raw materials for agriculture, which led, tfer alia, to the slaughtering of the entire stock of pigs. as regards in- dustry, the stoppage of imports of raw materials sent up the unem- ployment percentage, which had been normal in 1915 and well below the normal in 1916, to 10% above normal in 1917, while in 1918 it was 106% and in 1919 still 24% above the average for 1909-13. the table further shows that imports were only slightly in excess of exports during the actual years of war, and this excess was more than balanced by the income derived from shipping. in 1919-20, on the other hand, the excess was very high, partly because quantities of goods purchased during the war could now be brought home, and partly because of the anticipation of a great demand from central europe and the baltic which, however, failel to materialise. rate of exchange and price level —these features in foreign trade were of great importance to the rate of exchange. the danish krone rose above par in regard to the pound sterling and the dollar to such an extent that on oct. 2 1917, the pound had fallen to kr. 13-00 (kr. 18-16 at par). subsequently exports decreased greatly, and there was an expansion of creilit, stimulated to no slight degree by the considerable loans advanced by the note bank and the lead- ing private banks to german, english and french banks curing the war, which resulted in an increase in the volume of purchasing power and helped to raise the level of prices and to move the exchanges against denmark. at the end of the war, therefore, the value of the danish krone fell below parity. during 1920, the value of imports rose to over 3,000,000,000 kroner, and the rate of exchange to the pound sterling mounted on noy. 17 1920 to 25-86. this again led to a rise in wholesale and retail prices, partly be- cause the war-time price regulation arrangements were gradually being withdrawn, and also because the effects of the wage bonus granted in 1918 and 1919 to workers and civil servants were now being felt; and further, to some extent, owing to the fact that the state had to borrow extensively from the note bank. the deficit in the budget was due partly to the fact that a low price for bread had been maintained also for the harvest year 1920-1, the state paying the farmers a fixed price based on that of the world market, and scll- ing the corn itself to the miilers at a reduced rate. owing to the fall in prices which set in towards the close of 1920, however, the state did not, as had been anticipated, recover part of this expenditure by export, and the whole of the bread subsidy had therefore to be borne by the state. financial policy —the universal fall in prices, however, also had a very marked effect in denmark; in 1921, unemployment was four or five times the normal, and the import surplus de- clined, as the table shows, to only 133,000,000 kroner. before the middle of 1921, the pound sterling was almost at par. but this rate could not be maintained, and the exchange therefore rose again to 20-22 kroner. itere it remained during 1921 and for part of 1922, but the effects of the fall in prices now appeared, and several banks were in difficulties. the landmandsbank, the largest in the country, was reconstructed with the aid of the national bank. during 1923-4 the value of the pound ster- ling remained, with various fluctuations, about the level of 26 kroner. but there was still an active demand for a return to the old gold parity, and in march 1924, the national bank com- menced a systematic restriction of credit, which brought the gold value of the krone, measured in dollars, up to about 65 ore at the close of the year. this financial policy was now supported by a law of dec. 1924, authorising the minister of finance to levy extraordinary taxes for the covering of a loan with the national bank in con- nection with the reconstruction of the landmandsbank, and fur- ther, to give the state’s guarantee for a cash credit of $40,000,000 taken up by the national bank. this helped to support the financial policy introduced in march 1924, and in 1925 the value of the krone has risen very considerably, and has been for several months about 92 ore. the deflation which in 1925 sent the whole- sale price level down from 243 to 176 naturally occasioned difficulties both for industry and for the banks, but the economic life of denmark did not suffer any irreparable damage, owing primarily to the fact that the country’s main source of revenue is agriculture, which, with its relatively low rate of wages, is far better able to maintain competition in foreign markets than is the case where the export of industrial products has to provide the bulk of the nation’s income. bibliography.—h. westergaard, economic development in den- mark before and during the war (oxford, 1922); also a series of articles by einar cohn in nationalekonomisk tidskrift (copen- hagen) during the period. (eo) denmark ill. agriculture under the treaty of versailles denmark increased her area by the addition of a part of the old danish districts in slesvig comprising about 3,280 sq. km. of farm jand and 14,364 farms. the number of holdings has been increased, partly by private parcelling out and partly by the establishment of many small holdings with state aid, so that the total number of agricultural holdings in 1920 was 205,929 as against about 172,000 in 190%. as a result of the land laws of 1899 and 1919 about 9,000 new small holdings were created during the 15 years 1910-24. the average number of holdings established each year from 1920 to 1924 was about 1,000. the total number of holdings in 1925 was about 212,000 of an average size of about 18 hectares each. with the increase in the number of holdings there was a change in the mode of tenure, from tenancy to freehold. the law of june 30 1919 abolished leasehold as far as large and middle sized holdings were concerned. leasehold is still allowed for smail holdings, and in 1919 about 5,700 small holdings were held on lease or rented, the slesvig part excluded. table i. sise, number and mode of tenure of farms tn 1919-20 s bh roms, mode of tenure in ~ mw ra mere group as aa percentages according es age a, ; to size 3 ue | rice lease-| ten- | not a 2 | hold | hold | ancy {stated hectares hectares 0:55- 3°3| 43,891 92,586] 2:4] 85:7 | 9:9 or 2°7 3°3 -10-0] 65,254 | 449,627] 1-8] 93-9 | 2°6 i-4 2° 10 -15 | 25,404 | 365.722 9-6| 95-4 | 1:2 | 1:8 | 1:6 15 —30 | 43,364 [1,092,880] 28-6] 95:2 iv 2:2 [5 30 -60 | 22,552 |1,063,144) 27°38] 93:6 | i-4 3°4 1:6 60 -120| 4,039 | 387,216| i0-1] 91-2 | 0-6 6:6 1:6 120) 240 916 | 185,227] 49] 79-2 | o-5 | 18:8 1°5 over 240 419 | 181,893} 4°38] 63°5 | o°5 | 3272 3°8 total 205,929 3 818,295 100-0 | 92°4 | 3°5 2°1 2-0 it will be seen that the middle-sized farms of from ro to 60 hectares form the majority, comprising 66% of the total area. the small holdings of under 10 hectares form 14% and the farms of about 60 hectares form about 20%. in 1919 only §°7% of all the farms were not worked by the owners as against 11-6 % in 1901. production and marketing —the war and its after-effects naturally vastly influenced production and marketing. the great development in and industrialising of animal production charac- teristic of danish agriculture during the last 30 years previous to the war have made denmark more dependent on international trade than the agricultural activities of most other countries. in 1913 denmark exported agricultural produce to the amount of about 550,000,000 kr., about 97% of the exports being animal products, and imported corn and feeding stuffs to the value of 181,000,000 kroner. the war seriously affected this develop- ment, especially after the submarine warfare began in i eb. 1917. the effect of the blockade and the post-war recovery may be deduced from the following table:— table il. number of farm animals 1909-25 (in 1000)? horses | cattle a 1since and including 1920 the figures include the slesvig part. the large decrease in the number of milch cows and pigs during the war does not show the full decrease in animal products. the annual yield per cow decreased from about 2,750 kg. milk in 1914 to about 1,810 kg. in 1919, and in terms of butter this means a decrease in production from 143 million kg. in 1914 to +6 million kg. in 1918. it was not until 1922 that the yield reached the 1914 dentistry level, but in 1925 it rose by an additional 250 kg. per cow, the average vield of milk per cow per annum being estimated to about 3,000 kilogrammes. table iii]. export of animals and aninial products in certain years! 1000 head of | million kg. of butter cheese condensed milk eggs on~tm] cw cornyn} wm awo ne oh ind-aio nm bh ld oo vw ow wr~in on c4. >~10 tr to nd = i) ew am mw bo bo wronewat = 5 ‘5 6 7 2 8 -_ oo uw t since and including 1920 the figures also include the slesvig part. the heavy reduction after 1917 was mainly due to the absolute cessation of the import of feeding stuffs, but partly to the very poor harvests during the years 1917-8 especially with regard to grain crops. these reduced the bacon export in 1919 to the minimum of 1,000,000 kilogrammes. in the figures from 1920 the export from slesvig is included. the export of animal products only reached pre-war level in 1923 and 1924. the increase is largest for the export of dairy produce, pigs, bacon and eggs, while the export of cattle and beef taken as a whole is smaller than before the war and there is a considerable decrease in the export of horses mainly due to difficulties expe- rienced on the german market. the large increase in the export, both during and after the war, of live pigs, checse and condensed milk is very remarkable. there has been a corresponding decrease in the export of fresh milk and cream. the total value of the export of animal products was in 1924 1,580,000,000 kroner against 462,000,000 kroner during the five-year period of 1909-13. the gold value of the export for 1924 is 987,400,000 kroner or about twice the value of the pre-war export. the large decrease in animal production from 1914-9 also decreased the plant production, as farm manure plays a prominent part in danish agriculture, and the decrease in manure is roughly proportionate to the decrease in the import of feeding-stuffs. moreover, the import of nitrogen and phosphates was partly stopped during the years 1917-8. table iv. the iarvest 1909-24 (in million crop tunits)' ee. yp a 1909-13 \"992 t°394 4 ; 0\"; ot i9i4-18| 2-476 1-395 0-222 o-112 o:546 | 4:751 i9i9-23 | 2-880 1°577 0-306 o:102 0°554 s409 1924 3:188 1-862 0-167 0-119 0-538 5:°874 do. incl. slesvig ' crop unit equals 1,000 kg. of corn, or its equivalent in feeding value or money in the case of other crops. the above statistics do not include the yield of the grazing and green fodder area nor the yield of various crops grown for the purpose of commercial transactions. if these crops are also in- cluded the total production of 1924 will be about 8,000,000 crop units including slesvig. the decrease during the war is specially noticeable with regard to the corn and hay crop but it is partly due to a decrease in the arable area of these crops, while the area of roots, potatoes and sugar beets was greatly increased during the same period, and this increase in roots continued after the war so that the area under these crops in 1925 was about 13-5 % of the whole of the cultivated area against 10% in 4912. feeding roots in 1924 were 31-3 % of the total harvest as against 25:8°% in 1909-13. this increase is of course closely connected with the great number of cattle. 845 financial returns. —after the long period of depression at the close of the 19th century, prices improved and the relatively few financial accounts which are available for the years 1910-3 show an average yield of interest on capital sunk in well-worked farms of about 4 to 5%. luring the first years of the war the prices of corn and seed as well as of live animals and meat rose very considerably, causing an increase in the yicl! of interest on capital sunk in large and middle-sized farms. during the following years the prices of dairy produce, bacon and eggs also rose considerably, which was of special importance for small farms. the increase in prices since the war is to a large extent due to the low rate of exchange which prevailed. during 1917-8 and onwards regular inquiries have been made with regard to the economic position of large numbers of agri- cultural holdings of an average area of about 45 hectares each. the results of these inquiries are shown in table y. table v. working results of agriculture in certain years net profit in gold per cent | kroner of capital} per ha. net profit working expenses ar. per hate. per ha. gross returns kr. per ha. financial year iqii-4 1917-8 1918-9 1919-20 1920-1 1921-2 1922-3 1923-4 1924-5 the great increase in gross returns and in net profit was noticeable as early as 1917-8, but while the increase in the gross returns was continued until 1920-1 the net profit was at its highest in 1918-9, decreasing until the critical year 1921-2, and rising again until 1924-5. during the spring of 1925 a new period of deflation began which developed quickly during the summer when the value of the krone rose in the course of three months from about 70 to 93% of its pre-war value. the fall in prices, which was almost as great as that of the autumn of 1921, has totally altered the favourable economic position of agricul- ture, and if deflation continues agriculture will be faced with heavy difficulties. it is to be hoped that during the good years some reserve capital was accumulated, and, if a market can be found for the increasing amount of animal products, danish agriculture with its smooth-working co-operative organisations and its good position on the european market may be expected to tide over the crisis. bibliography. —siat, tabelvaerk, femte raekke, litra d. no. 28-45; [statistical tables, vol. §, litra d, no. 28-45]; stat. meddelelser. fjerde raekke; [. statistical communications, vol. 4 (c per eees i1910-24)]; stat. ated s (1910-25); [statistical year books (copen- hagen, i1g10-25)]; undersegelser over landbrugets driftsforhold, 2-8 (1919-25); [research into a gricutural management, 2-8 (copenhagen, 1919-25)|; hl. faber, agricultural production in denmark, extract from the journal of the royal statistical society (1924); stat, efterretninger, 1925, no. 13 and no. 29 (1925); [general statistical in- telligence, 1925, no. 13 and 29 (copenhagen, 1925)]; [twelfth com- munication of the bureau of agricultural finance (copenhagen, 1925)]. (o. h. l.) dentistry (sce 8.50).—the progress of dentistry in the years following 1910 was more rapid and more radical than in any previous period. the cause of this progress was the general advancement in knowledge due to the accumulation of data from scientific investigation and the application of the knowl- edge thus acquired to the prevention and treatment of disease. causes of dental disease —until comparatively recent times the extent to which abnormal mouth and teeth conditions are responsible for derangements of health was imperfectly under- stood. the pioneer studies of w. d. miller, of berlin, especially, as reported (1891) in a series of communications entitled the human mouth as a focus of infection, first called attention to the fact that the oral cavity is the habitat and breeding ground 846 for a large group of micro-organisms, many of them pathogenic, which under conditions of lowered resistance invade other parts of the organism and become the direct exciters of bodily disease. miller also showed that the mouth is the common portal of entry for most of the disease-producing organisms that infect the human body, and further demonstrated that certain mouth bacteria, when injected into the circulation of a test animal, could pass through the blood stream or lymphatic system and establish metastatic foci of inflammatory action at points and in organs remote from the seat of inoculation (sce tuerapeutics). these early findings were afterwards confirmed by other investigators, more particularly by sir kenneth goadby, of london. recog- nition of the significance and far-reaching importance of the principles underlying these results of scientific research was only gradually accorded by the general body of the dental profession, and then merely as interesting facts without direct utility in dental practice. septic focit.—in several communications on septic dentistry, notably in an address delivered in rgro at the opening exercises of the annual session of the medical school of mcgill university, montreal, sir william hunter, physician and lecturer to the charing cross hospital, london, criticised badly conceived and unskilfully executed dental restorative operations, especially in crown and bridge work and the treatment of pulpless teeth, which were performed without regard to surgical asepsis. in this connection hunter brought clinical evidence to prove the soundness of his contention that operations so performed leave septic foci that cause septicaemic conditions, as well as infections in remote parts of the body. hunter’s revelation impressed at once the dental and medical professions, and his criticisms immediately bore fruit. ‘the gen- eral use of the x-ray as a means for study of the apical region of tooth roots, the development and application of specialised bacteriological technique for determining in pulpless teeth the identity and character of the exciters of disease action and similarly those responsible for inflammatory lesions of the reten- tive structures of the tecth (commonly designated pyerrhea alveolaris), all stimulated by the realisation of the profound clinical importance of mouth infections as related to bodily health, quickly followed the communications of hunter. change of interest and development.—the total effect of this evidence, both clinical and scientific, upon the development of dentistry has been little short of revolutionary. trom time immemorial it has been believed from empirical observation that an unclean and infected mouth cavity is a source of bodily ill health, and much direct evidence of a clinical character had accumulated to strengthen that belief, but the evidence now available has definitely established the facts. until this development of knowledge concerning the systcm- atic relationships of disorders of the teeth and their related struc- tures and their bearing upon the bodily health, the major feature of dental interest, upon which the attention of the profession was concentrated, was the development and perfection of manip- ulative procedure in restorative operations. the ingenuity ex- pended and the excellence of the results attained became the outstanding characteristics of dental practice; and the restoration by prosthetic or operative means of the masticatory mechanism damaged by partial or total loss of teeth was its dominating ideal. there is now an enforced recognition in the professional, as well as in the lay mind, of the importance of the welfare of the tissues and organs of the mouth. in the dental profession the consequent changes of technical procedure and objectives have been funda- mental. ‘the ideal of mechanical perfection in the methods and appliances by which the dental surgeon restores the paticnt’s power to masticate is now regarded as a remedial measure sub- servient to the larger ideal of normal mouth health. oral hygiene in schools.—one of the principal factors which ‘extended and popularised this knowledge is the oral hygiene movement, an effort to demonstrate practically the fact that school children, relieved of the disabilities arising from infected mouths and diseased teeth which handicap normal development, will show improved physical and mental efficiency. the cam- dentistry bridge experiment, inaugurated in 1907 by the late george cunningham, of cambridge, england, was perhaps the earliest practical test. the analogous work of dr. ernst jessen, of strasbourg, introduced oral hygiene into the public schools of a number of towns in germany. in the united states the oral hygiene movement took practical form in the test of its utility in the marion school of cleveland, o., in r9r0 and in 1919 there was completed, under conditions yielding accurate figures, a five years’ test of applied mouth hygiene in the public schools of bridgeport, under the direction of dr. a. c. fones. in this test 20,000 children of the first five school grades were under observation and treatment. the average number of cari- ous cavities was found to be over 7° per child; 30° claimed that they brushed their teeth occasionally; 60° frankly stated that they did not use a tooth-brush and 10° were found to have fistulas on the gums, showing outlets from abscesses from the roots of decayed tecth. systematic application of oral hygiene, the intelligent and systematic use of the tooth-brush and the elimination of accretions, dental decay and suppurative condi- tions achieved striking improvement in general health and mental efficiency. ‘the statistics of the bridgeport board of health show that the most common fatal diseases among children in that locality were diphtheria, measles and scarlet fever. the decrease in deaths from these sources after the introduction of oral hygiene in the public schools is shown by the following table, the figures for 1914 showing conditions before the test:— diphtheria . measles scarlet fever dental disease and mental e ficiency.—the improvement in mental efficiency is shown by the reduction in the percentage of retarded children, t.e., children who are not less than two years older than the normal age for the school grade to which they should belong. the percentage of retarded children before and after the introduction of mouth hygiene in the bridgeport schools is shown in the following table:— percentage of retarded children | drop in re- sept. 1912 | nov. 1918 grade | tardation i. : 16°5 % 81% 51-0% | it. ; 37:0 15°3 58-0 ty. 53-0 24°7 53:0 | a 59°5 31°7 47:0 vv 61-0 33¢1 45-0 vi. ; , 54-0 30°4 a4-o vii. ae 39°0 19°3 50-0 vii. ‘ : 27-0 i2°5 54:0 average. 50-0 retardation represents inability of the child to advance with his class, necessitates repetition of his grade work, and becomes an economic question of serious importance to the ratepayer. the cost of re-education in bridgeport in 1912 was 42°% of the entire budget, and for r918 only 17%. among the 20,900 chil- dren under observation in the schools of bridgeport, 98% had various forms and degrees of malocclusion of the dentures, a condition now generally recognised as associated with asymmet- rical development of the bones of the face and the brain case. many children with malocclusion owing to the arrested develop- ment of the facial and cranial bones suffer from impeded nasal respiration, and develop adenoids and tonsillar hypertrophy, leading to infection with its systematic sequelae and the inter- ferences with bodily nutrition incident to insufficient oxidation of the blood. orthodontic treatment for the correction of mal- occlusion in children is a therapeutic and prophylactic measure having an important health relation rather than a procedure for the relief of deformity. work in armies and navies—from small beginnings the u.s. army and navy dental corps rose to an allotment by law of one dental surgeon for each 1,000 of the army personnel, and before the denver close of the world war provision was made to double that allot ment. after 1918 full provision was made by the u.s. govt. for the dental care of its enlisted men and of those demobilised from service suffer- ing from dental defects of disabilities since demobilisation. the proportion of dental surgeons to army personnel in 1917, as given by officials of the british dental assn. (see “ man power and the army dental service,” british dental journal, feb. 15 1918) for some forces, was: canadian expeditionary force, one per 1,000 men; new zealand [-xpeditionary force, one per 2,500 men; austra- lian expeditionary force, one per 2,600 men. satisfactory figures for the german army dental service are not obtainable, but according to dr. [ernst jessen, head of the dental work in strasbourg, quoted in the german dental review, there were 810 dental surgeons active in the field in 1915. france, during the world war, had at least 1,500 army dentists working in various parts of the lines as fixed units, in addition to the dental ambulances. during the latter part of the war, when the man-power of france was seriously depleted, over 250,000 effectives were mustered into the french service as the result of efforts instituted by dr. georges villain, of paris, by which that number of men who had been pre- viously rejected because of loss of teeth, but were otherwise physi- cally sound, were subsequently fitted with artificial dentures and sent to the fighting line. great britain created by royal warrant, issued jan. 4 1921, a military dental service, the army dental corps, which is administered by the director-general, army medical service (see medical service, army), and is a joint service for the army and r.a.f. experience during the war clearly demonstrated to all the bel- ligerent nations the importance of dental service asa means of mouth sanitation and the practical utility of the latter in maintaining the physical efficiency of the fighting personnel. national dental service—undoubtedly the most notable example of comprehensive planning for the national extension of dentistry and oral hygiene as a factor of the public health service is that proposed in the interim report on the future provision of medical and allied services, made to the british ministry of health by the consultative council on medical and allied services, may 1920. this report recognises oral hygiene and dental service as factors of public health and as proper subjects for control and development by the state. oral hygiene compre- hends much more than the correction of dental defects and oral infection due to neglect of the tooth-brush; its aim is prophylac- tic as well as corrective. corrective procedure merely arrests the progress of disease and mechanically restores damage already done. the entire energies and skill of the whole dental profession can cope with only a small fraction of the corrective work needed. personal hygiene.—to establish the habit of personal care of the mouth in school children is a field of activity that has devel- oped the specially trained dental nurse or hygienist as an ad- juvant to dental service, whose calling is now legalised in the principal states of the united states. the work of the dental nurse is limited to the surface treatment of teeth, in the removal of deposits and accretions thereon, the training of school children in the systematic use of the tooth-brush and their education in the importance of mouth cleanliness. a child who has learned to use the tooth-brush exhibits increased sclf-respect, greater attention to bodily and mental cleanliness, closer compliance with school regulations and an awakened interest in attendance and studies. the present trend is toward making dental and oral hygiene service in all civilised countries a public health measure. war surgery.—the many head, face and jaw wounds during the world war created a new field for oral surgery and surgical prosthesis. surgical measures alone were insuflicient for the suc- cessful treatment of these cases, as the loss of tissue from gun- shot wounds of the head and face, as well as the unsighily scars resulting from extensive lesions when surgically treated, left the patient in many instances with repulsive deformities. the re- sources of surgery and dentistry were called into co-operation. in this work the aid of dental prosthetic technique was often necessary. these expcriences furnished convincing evidence of the need by each profession of a more intimate acquaintance with the work of the other, now recognised in the practice of adding a professional dental service to hospital staffs. relations with bacteriology.—bacteriological and histological investigation of dental and oral pathology by numerous investi- gators (see bacteriology) has improved dental and oral surgical technique. notable progress has been made in the study of dental and oral infections and of physical irritations of nerve 847 terminals in and about the teeth, in their relation to mental dis- orders and reflex neuroses (see psychiatry) that cause disturb- ances of the special sense organs as well as spastic disorders of a local or general character. attention has been directed to the endocrine relationships (sce endocrinology) of the teeth and oral tissues, especially as to the probable connection between the activities of the ductless gland system and the reactions of the salivary secretion, and to variations in the calcified structures of the teeth and their susceptibility or immunity to caries. corre- sponding changes in the objectives, the character, the content and extent of dental education have taken place in harmony with these developments. practical teaching approximates more closely to the fundamental ideals and methods of general medicine in so far as they represent the principles common to the whole science and art of healing. oral prophylaxis —oral prophylaxis, in so far as it has been intrumental in securing cleanliness of the mouth and its con- tained dental organs, has undoubtedly prevented dzntal disease to a considerable degree, but has not been wholly effective. as research has thrown light upon the causes and mode of action of the phenomena of dental disease, attention has been increas- ingly focused upon means for its prevention. the factors of sus- ceptibility and immunity are undergoing active investigation with strong indications that nutritional errors anc faulty metab- olism play a rele of primary importance in the causation of dental disease. correction of faulty food habits and a rational hygiene should contribute materially toward the prevention of those dental diseases, caries and periodontal necrosis, the most common and widely distributed of human disorders. because of the recognition of the vital relations of the teeth, a rapid reor- ganisation of the dental educational system is proceeding toward a more efficient adaptation of the knowledge of health relations of the teeth to the ends of dental practice. a systematic survey of the whole field of dental education has been made by the carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching, with a view to recommending such adjustments as will bring systematic dental education fully up to the standard of present requirements from a public health standpoint. general developments.—while the most conspicuous progress in dentistry since rg10 has been in the direction of its vital and hygienic relations, its technical and engineering features have shown a similar development. until this period the construction of artificial dentures for the prosthetic restoration of lost teeth was almost wholly an empirical procedure depending on the judgment, manual skill and good taste of the operator. scientific studies of the engineering principles underlying the mechanism of the human masticatory function, initiated about 1890 by w. g. a. bonwill, of philadelphia, and since prosecuted by his numerous followers, have brought the knowledge of masticatory movements and of the relations of the teeth and their morsal surfaces thereto to a state of completeness that enables the pros- thetist, by the aid of mechanical articulating devices, to reproduce in the artificial denture a mechanism with possibilities approxi- mating, both functionally and artistically, those of natural dentures. in 1913, charles h. mayo, the distinguished surgeon of rochester, minn., expressed the opinion that the next great step in medical progress in the line of preventive medicine should come from the dental profession. a review of the prog- ress since made would seem to indicate a reasonable prospect of the fulfilment of that prophecy. (e. c. k.) denver, colo., u.s.a. (see 8.54), had in 1920 a population of 236,491 (105‘9 males to 100 females), including 6,075 negroes and 38,230 foreign born. in 1925 the estimate of the census bureau was 280,911. denver had no great volume of war business, and consequently suffered only moderately from the post-war de- flation; while the general increase in freight rates (1915-20) created advantages for all western manufacturers and in some cases worked in favour of denver. the aggregate value of manufactured products was $46,925,000 in 1909; $125,411,000 in 1919; $120,789,757 in 1923. receipts at the stock yards in- creased from 1,360,000 head in 1914 to 3,238,900 in 1924, of which 2,039,600 were sheep. at the national western stock 848 show founded in 1907 pedigree breeding stock is bought and sold in carload lots, “ feeder’ stock by the trainload. the volume of denver’s jobbing trade in 1924 was about $125,000,000; of its retail trade $120,000,000. it is estimated that tourisis spent $12,500,000 in the city in 10924. denver is the administrative headquarters for many oil producers and refiners, for the colorado coal corporations and many other mining companies, for all lines of insurance and for numerous branches of the federal government. its growing importance as a financial centre is indicated by the increase in bank clearings; from $459,708,000 in 1914 to $1,611,164,000 in 1924. the advantages of the climate for the treatment of tuber- culosis, and the large number of invalids who go to denver, have combined to stimulate the building of many hospitals and sana- toria, which, together with the new medical school of the state university, make the city an important medical centre. the cost of living is relatively low (93-7 % of the average for 31 amer- ican cities dec. 1924). a unique attraction is the chain of rg mountain parks, over 10 sq. m. in area, owned by the city and connected with it and with one another by 100 m. of boule- vard. illiteracy and child labour are low. school attendance is high. the death-rate is kept high by the influx of invalids from other parts of the country. a serious street-car strike occurred in 1920, involving con. siderable violence, the loss of seven lives, the importation of armed strike breakers, and the intervention of federal troops and military rule for a month. the commission form of government was adopted in r912, but was abandoned in 1916 for the mayor- alty form. the completion of the moffat tunnel, authorised in 1922, will place denver on a direct route to the west, shorten- ing the distance to salt lake by 173 m., and will give access to untapped sources of raw materials. de prorok, byron kuhn (1806- ), american archae- ologist, was born at mexico city oct. 6 1896. ile was educated at folkestone, england, and the university of geneva. he de- voted himself to archaeological study and exploration in yucatan and northern africa, later collaborating with father delattre, who for 40 years had been excavating the ruins of carthage. in his investigations in northern africa, particularly at the sites of carthage, djerba and the hoggar, utica, he made some remark- able discoveries, including the tomb of qucen tin-itinan, de- clared by the french institute to be the most important tomb ever discovered in the sahara. he received the support of archae- ological societies and universities in the united states, his field work being done under the auspices of the french service des antiquites. in 1926 he received from the french govt. perma- nent permission for carrying on archaeological research in north africa. he published digging for lost african gods (1926). derain, andre (1880- ), french painter, was born at chatou (france), june ro 1880. for a considerable time he shared a studio with the landscape painter vlaminck; he then made the acquaintance of picasso, georges braque and the poct guillaume apollinaire. it was from this small group that cu- bism developed. yet derain cannot be considered as a represen- tative of the cubist school; his best wor'.s adhere to the great traditions of the classic landscapes, and are formal in character and restrained in colour, while his figures exhibit a grandeur and serenity, which reveal an admirer of the great masters. derby, edward george villiers stanley, 171m earn of (1865- ), british politician (sce 8.69), was in jan. 1915 created a knight of the garter. in oct. 1915 he became di- rector of recruiting for the army, and as such was responsible for a new scheme for a final effort on behalf of voluntary service known as the derby scheme. in feb. 1916 lord derby became chairman of the naval and military air service joint committee, but resigned in april, becoming under-secretary for war in july. on the formation of mr. lloyd george’s government in dec. 1916 he became secretary for war, and in april 1918 was appointed british ambassador to france. he retired from the latter office in nov. 1920. in oct. 1922 he became secretary for war in mr. bonar law’s cabinet, retaining this position under mr. baldwin until jan. 1924. de prorok—dietroit derbyshire neck: see goitre. deroulede, paul (1846-1914), french author and poli- tician (see 8.74), died at mont-boron, near nice, jan. 30 rot4. in rato he published a collection of his patriotic speeches, and a volume, la ligue des patriotes, containing further extracts from them, appeared in 1916. deschanel, paul eugene louis (1856-1922), french statesman (see 8.91). after presiding over the commission of toreign and colonial affairs (1905-9) and acting as reporter of the foreign office estimates committee, m. deschanel filled many responsible positions. in jan. 10920, he was elected president of the republic, as being a “ safer” candidate than m. clemenceau, though the latter’s popularity spoke strongly in his favour. in the autumn of the same year, however, failing health obliged him to resign office. he dicd in paris april 28 1922, from the effects of a fall from a railway carriage. design: see decorative art. des moines, ia., u.s.a. (see 8.98), increased in population 46-4% in the decade beginning rgto, reaching 126,468 in 1920, of whom 5,512 were negroes and 11,224 foreign-born. the state census of 1925 gave a population of 141,441. des moines has the highest percentage of home ownership among american cities (51-1°%5 in 1920); its percentage of illiteracy is one of the lowest; its death-rate also is low. it was one of the first american cities to plan on a generous scale for beauty in its development. the civic centre, including a new city hall ($500,000), a new municipal court building ($600,000), and the coliseum (seating 8,500) extends along the river front through the heart of the city. the state fair attracts each year about 400,000 visitors; and the city entertains annually 150 conventions. in the six years after the close of the world war over $50,000,000 was spent in building operations, representing more than 12,000 projects. manufactures showed an increase at each federal census, even in 1921. the aggregate value was $23,585,000 in 1909; $59,831,000 in 1919; $72,287,732 in 1921; $102,919,008 in 1923. the average number of wage-earners in the factories increased from 5,383 in 1909 to 9,558 in 1923. the printing and publishing of newspapers and periodicals was the largest industry in r9g1g. the city ranked fifth (1925) in second-class mailings, and was the largest centre in the world for the publication of farm journals. . de stefani, alberto (1879- ), italian economist and statesman, was born at verona oct.6 1879. after graduating in law at the university of padua he devoted himself to the study of economics and became professor of political economy at the superior commercial institute of venice. in 1921 he was returned to the chamber as a fascist and soon gained the confidence of mussolini, who, on coming to power, appointed him minister of finance. later he was also entrusted with the treasury department and welded the two into a single ministry. he at once began to reform the financial system. he abolished useless expenditure and simplified the fiscal system, reducing innumerable taxes to three main sources of revenue, with the result that, in three years a deficit of 6,500,000,000 lire was converted into a surplus of 209,000,000. ilis measures for re- straining speculation in the currency and stock markets during the financial slump in the spring of 1925 were less successful, and he was superseded by count volpi. it is generally recog- nised, however, that he rendered invaluable service by rescuing his country’s finances from the chaotic state into which they had fallen. detaille, jean baptiste edouard (1848-1012), french painter (see 8.110), died in paris dec. 23 1912. detroit (sce 8.113)—commencing with the recovery from the industrial depression of 1907-8, the city of detroit entered upon a period of growth almost without precedent among large cities. the area of the city in 1926 1s 139 sq. miles. the census of 1920 gave a total population of 1,088,853 within the city limits. in may 1925 detroit proper had a population of 1,200, 310. the addition of the enclosed cities of hamtramck and highland park, with villages just outside the city limits, give for greater detroit an estimated population of about 1,400,000. de valera—de villiers in 1920 about 70% of the population was either of foreign birth or foreign parentage. doles, germans and russians represented the largest numbers, though there were large accessions from southeastern europe. in dec. 1920, 55% of the pupils in the public schools were of american-born parentage, 50-5 °% being white, and 4-5 °% coloured. in the three years ending 1920, much work was done by the board of commerce, the board of educa- tion and leading manufacturers in teaching the english language and ihe elements of citizenship. amfanufactures—the extraordinary growth of the city was mainly due to the expansion of its manufacturing industries. in 1984 it was surpassed only by new york, chicago and phila- delphia, with a capital of $405,000,000; 141,188 employecs; and products valued at $569,000,000. in ro1rg the number of em- ployees within the city limits had increased to 307,000 and the value of the product was $1,803,728,000. in 1923 the value of ‘the product within the city limits was officially reported at $2,071,477,380. in 1924 the product in the metropolitan dis- trict, including detroit and adjoining villages, was estimated at $2, 500,000,000. the most important of the manufacturing industries in this district is the making of motor-cars (see iienry forp). in 1926 there were 26 companies assembling cars and about 150 whose sole, or principal, business was the making of parts and acces- sories. they employed 200,000 persons, and in 1924 turned out 2,500,000 vehicles. trucks and motor-buses constitute the most rapidly growing branches of this industry. during the period i9to-25 numerous changes took place in other industries. freight-car building, for many years the largest of all, disap- peared almost entirely. the carriage and furniture factories were for the most part changed to the making of automobile accessories, and clothing manufacture diminished. meantime some of the metal industrics, notably brass and aluminium, increased enormously. the city is in the front rank in the follow- ing lines: aluminium castings, adding machines, brass and bronze products, druggists’ preparations, gas-engines, machine tools, soda ash and kindred alkalis, stoves, furnaces and varnishes. transport.—the industrial expansion necessitated a great enlargement of the transport system. the michigan central railway co. tunnelled detroit river and built an immense new passenger station and office building. the same company made great additions to their freight yards, stations and sidings, as did also the grand trunk and the pere marquette lines. the outer belt linc was extended and the pennsylvania lines were extended from toledo to detroit, with a belt line of their own round a portion of the city and ample freight and pas- senger facilities. the detroit, toledo and ironton line, which was suffering from lack of capital and equipment, was purchase by henry ford, who greatly improved its service. the line has, since 1920, been practically rebuilt and in part electrified. there has also been a great development in motor-truck freight service which extends from 50 to roo m. in all clirections from the city. at the april election in 1920 a plan was approved for the munic- ipal construction and operation of street railway lines. the city has since acquired the detroit united railway for $40,000,000 within the city limits, has added many more lines, and operates the whole system. the trolley service is supplemented by an ex- tensive motor-bus system, both municipally and privately oper- ated. a private air freight line is in operation between detroit and chicago. administration.—under a charter adopted by popular vote, june 25 1918, the methods of municipal government were matc- rially changed. in place of a board of education of one member from each ward, there was a board of seven members, elected two or three at a time on a general ticket and holding office for six years. the old board of estimates, consisting of two members from each ward and five at large, was abolished, leaving appro- priations and bond issues to be determined by the mayor and common council. the mayor’s final judgment was conclusive upon all appropriation items, unless reversed by a vote of seven out of the nine aldermen. the old common council of two alder- men from each ward was displaced by a council of nine members, 849 all elected at one time on a general ticket. the mayor, city clerk and city treasurer were clected, but all other administra- tive officers and commissions were appointed by the mayor, without reference to the council, and were subject to dismissal by him without trial. nominations, two for each office to be filled, were made at non-partisan primaries. blanks for voting were also non-partisan, and the time of election was separated from that of the state and national contests. by special legis- lative enactment the police and recorders’ courts were combined in one with seven judges, holding office for four years, and having jurisdiction of all criminal and ordinance cases. the judges were all chosen at one time on a non-partisan ticket. in 1925 legisla- tion was secured to provide for the creation of a metropolitan district for administrative purposes to include detroit and the adjacent villages; also for the creation of a port development area including detroit and other towns bordering on the detroit and rouge rivers. (w. st.) de valera, eamon (1882- ), irish politician, was born in new york city oct. 14 1882. he was sent to his mother’s home at charleville, co. cork, as a child, and was educated at blackrock college and the royal university, dublin. in 1913 he became an ardent supporter of the newly formed irish vol- unteers and in the easter rising of 1916 commanded a party of the insurgents. on april 30 he surrendered and was sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to penal servitude for life. on june 15 1917, however, he was released under the terms of the general amnesty. in the same month he was elected to parliament for east clare, but in may 1918 he was rearrested in connection with another plot for a rising. imprisoned in lincoln, he escaped on feb. 3 1919 and went to the united states. in 1920 he was elcct- ed for co. down in the northern parliament and in 1921 was nominated chancellor of the national university. in ro1r7 he was chosen president of the irish republic, but resigned in jan. 1922 and led the republican forces. in aug. 1923 he was cap- tured and once more imprisoned; being released in july r924, he became in the same vear president of sinn vein, but resigned ta march 1926, after encountering strong opposition to his proposal that members of the republican party might enter the dail and the northern parliament if exempied from taking the oath. deventer, sir jacob louis van (1874-1922), south african soldier, was born in the orange free state. beginning life as a farmer, he achieved distinction in the south african war of 1899-1902, becoming second-in-command to gen. smuts dur- ing the latter’s invasion of cape colony. a colonel on the per- manent staff of the south african defence force, van deventer served in the campaign in german south west africa, 1914-5, where he had a distinguished record in active service. his real gifts as a general, however, were not fully appreciated until he went to german iiast africa, to fight in gen. smuts’ campaign against the germans. in 1917 he was appointed commander- in-chief of the forces in east africa. he was then a major-gen- eral, and was given the temporary rank of licutenant-general on becoming commander-in-chicf. shortly afterwards, he was created k.c.b. as commander-in-chief he showed the same qualities which had secured for him this high promotion and it was under his auspices that the campaign was brought to a suc- cessful end. he died aug. 27 1922. de villiers, john henry, baron (1842-10914), first chief justice of the union of south africa, was born at paarl, cape colony, in june 1842. descended from the huguenots who settled in that part of the cape, he was educated at the south african college, cape town, and went to utrecht and berlin universitics. in 1865 he was called to the bar by the inner temple and in the same year returned to south africa and began practice as an advocate of the supreme court of cape colony. entering cape politics in 1866, he was elected a mem- ber of the house of assembly, became attorney-general of the colony in 1872 and two years later was appointed chief justice of the cape. in this capacity he succeeded, by his decisions, in adapting the roman-dutch law of the colony to modern require- ments. de villiers was knighted in 1880 and was created a 850 k.c.m.g. a year later. he was appointed president of the national convention in 1908 and in 1910 was raised to the peer- age on becoming chief justice of the union of south africa. he died sept. 2 1914. dewar, sir james (1842-1923), british scientist (sce 8.137), died march 27 1923. he published (with g. d. liveing) coi- lected papers on spectroscopy (1915). in 1016 he received the copley medal of the royal society; and in 1919 the franklin medal of the franklin institute of philadelphia. de wet, christian (1854-1922), bocr general and politician (see 8.138), remained until 1914 a member of the legislative assembly and minister of agriculture in the orange free state. in 1912-3 he supported gen. hertzog in his separatist policy, se- ceded from the south african party and helped to form the nationalist party. soon after the outbreak of the world war, de wet rebelled against the south african govt., but after raid- ing a few towns in the northern free state was captured at waterberg on dec. 1 r914. on june 10 1015 his trial began ona charge of high treason and on june 21 he was found guilty on eight of the ro counts. he was sentenced to six years imprison- ment and fined £2,000, but in the following dec. was released, on undertaking to abstain from political agitation. he died at bloemfontein feb. 3 1922. dewey, george (1837-1917), american naval officer (sce 8.139), died in washington jan. 16 1917, and three days later was buried in the arlington national cemetery. his body was transferred, on mar. 28 1925, to the crypt of the bethlehem chapel of the national episcopal cathedral, washington, d.c. by special provision adm. dewey was never retired, but continued in active service up to his death, being president of the general board of the navy for the last seven years of his life. to the end he continued to urge the building of large battleships, citing their superiority in the battle of jutland. he published his autobiography in 1913. dewey, john (1859- ), american philosopher, was born at burlington, vt., oct. 20 1859. he graduatecl from the uni- versity of vermont, taking the degree of a.b., in 1879, and johns hopkins university, where he became ph.d., in 1884. after teaching for four years at the university of michigan he was appointed in 1888 professor of philosophy at the university of minnesota, returning in a similar capacity the following year to the university of michigan, where he was made head of the department. in 1894 he was appointed head of the department of philosophy at the university of chicago, and was, in addition, head of the school of education for two years (1902-4). in 1904 he became professor of philosophy at columbia university. in the field of philosophy he is a pragmatist and as such has had a very great influence on the trend of modern thought. ile was antagonistic to formalism of any kind. when at chicago he de- veloped a theory of education, embodied in his scheol and society (1899), the aim of which is the utilisation, instead of suppression, of the impulses of childhood, and the substitution of practical experience in place of theoretical knowledge. in ro19 he visited japan, where he lectured at the imperial university of tokio and other places, subsequently proceeding to china, wherc he madea prolonged stay and devoted his attention chiefly to educational problems. among his important works may be mentioned psychology (1886); a critical theory of ethics (1894); jfow to think (1909); german philosophy and politics (1915); experimental logic (1916); democracy and education (1916); reconstruction in philosophy (1920); human nature and conduct (1922); expertence and nature (1925).",
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