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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:danube:b130fee36149",
    "title": "DANUBE",
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    "verified_text": "in the new map of europe the danube passes through a considerable number of countries which are chiefly dependent upon it for their subsistence. it rises in germany; flows through austria, passing vienna; past the czechoslovak port of bratislava; through hungary, passing budapest; through yugoslavia, passing belgrade; follows the bulgar-rumanian frontier for some distance, and runs out through rumania into the black sea, passing the seaports of braila and galatz. a boat going from regensburg to the black sea crosses five frontiers, passes through the waters of seven countrics and is obliged to stop at eight places for customs formalities before it reaches its port of destination. the traffic is as international as the river; before the war it was carried principally by austrian and hungarian companies, though rumanian and greck enterprises carried on a considerable traffic below the iron gate. under post-war conditions the shipping shows the german, austrian, czechoslovak, hungarian, yugoslav, bulgarian, rumanian, greek, french and dutch flags, and in the austrian and hungarian companies important british interests are involved. the two sections——the danube may be divided for traffic purposes into two quite distinct sections, the maritime danube from the sea to above braila, and the fluvial danube from this point up to regensburg, where the river at present ceases to be navigable for large craft. bradila and galatz, situated respectively 171 and 150 kilometres from sulina (at the mouth of the river), are the usual points for transhipment between seagoing vessels and barges. the export traffic on the maritime danube consists principally of grain and other agricultural produce from rumania, bulgaria and yugoslavia; timber from rumania and poland; and petroleum and its derivatives from rumania. the import traffic is principally in manufactured and miscellaneous goods from western europe. besides transhipping goods on to barges, the seagoing vessels also tranship a considerable quantity on to the railways at the ports of braila and galatz. a great part of the surplus agricultural produce of hungary and yugoslavia is carried up the danube to germany, austria and czechoslovakia. the normal traffic downstream consists of goods manufactured in the three last-mentioned countries, with some from hungary. the volume of traffic has never approached that on the rhine, where the countries are much more highly developed indus- trially and vast quantities of coal and ore are consigned from and to the ruhr. the exropean commission.—the administration of the danube was formerly controlled by the single european commission of the danube, an institution set up with a provisional character by the treaty of parisin 1896. its headquarters were at galatz, and it administered the danubian delta only, eight interested nations being represented on it. the conservancy of the other danubian reach of international importance—the iron gate—was en- trusted to austria-hungary, and assigned by her to hungary. in the treaty of bucharest (may 1918) the central powers danzig reduced the membership of the european commission to “ states situated on the danube or the european coasts of the black sea.” the treaty of versailles (june 10919) reinstated the commission in ‘‘ the powers it possessed before the war.” it went on that ‘“‘ as a provisional measure, only representatives of great britain, france, italy and rumania shall constitute this commission.”’ the commission acquired definite character when the danube statute was signed in paris july 23 1921. in future, subject to the unanimous consent of the states represented on the commission, any european state which is able to prove its possession of sufficient maritime commercial and european interests at the mouths of the danube may be represented on it. up to 1926, however, the representation had not been increased. the international commission.—the treaty of versailles, art. 347, provided that “ from the point where the competence of the european commission ceases,” i.¢c., from above braila, “ the danube system referred to in art. 331,” t.e., as far as the highest navigable point at ulm, “shall be placed under the administration of an international commission composed as follows:— two representatives of german riparian states, one representative of each other riparian state, one representative of cach non-riparian state represented in the future as the european commission of the danube.” this commission was to carry on the administration provision- ally until the conclusion of a definitive statute concerning the danube. on july 23 1921 this statute was signed. many of its provisos simply followed the lines of the “ convention on the regime of navigable waterways of international concern” concluded at barcelona april 20 1921. article i. declared navigation on the danube system to be unrestricted and open to all flags, on a footing of complete equality, from ulm to the black sea, and the internationalised portions of the danube tributaries were defined. the provisional composition of the international commission was confirmed. it had to see that the declaration in art. 1 was not infringed by anv riparian state or states, to draw up a pro- gramme of public works for the improvement of the waterway on the basis of proposals submitted by the riparians, controlling and if necessary modifying the annual programmes of the riparian states for current worksof maintenance. the cost of such works was borne by the riparian state concerned, assisted, if the commission so decided, by other states interested. the cost of works of improvement (not maintenance) might be covered by navigation dues, to be imposed (with the com- mission’s authorisation) by the riparian state which had executed the works, or by the commission itself, if it had executed them at its own charges. ducs were to be assessed on the ship’s tonnage and not based on the goods transported, revenue from them was to be applied exclusively to the works for which they were imposed, there was to be no differential treatment of flags. customs duties levied bv a riparian on goods loaded or discharged at the danubian ports in its territory were also to be levied with- out distinction of flag or hindrance to navigation, and were not to be higher than duties levied at other frontiers of the same state. the transport of goods and passengers, even between ports of the same riparian state, was to be unrestricted and open to all flags on a footing of perfect equality, with the exception of regular local services which may only be carried out by foreign craft subject to the observance of the national law of the local sovereign, and in agreement with the authorities of the riparian state concerned (art. 22). passage of goods and passengers in transit was to be free. uniform police regulations were to be drawn up and applied by each riparian on its own territory. a special joint service of rumania and yugoslavia, organised with the approval of the commission, will have to take over the maintenance and improvement of the iron gate section, with headquarters at orsova. the commission was to decide on special works to be undertaken (and dues to be levied for the purpose) and to have power to abolish the service when its work was done; it could inaugurate like services elsewhere if necessary. the commission was to determine its own procedure and acte public relatif ad la navigation 813 administer its own budget, the presidency being held for six months by each delegation in turn. itsseat was to beat bratislava the first five years, and thereafter it might be established at other towns on the danube, selected at its discretion, for five- vear periods in rotation. its property and mcmbers were to en- joy diplomatic privileges and it was to fly its own flag. it was to deal in the first instance with questions regarding the interpreta- tion and application of the convention; but the special jurisdic- tion set up by the league of nations would ultimately have to deal with complaints from a state that the commission was acting ultra vires, or from the commission against a state for neglecting to carry out its decisions. every effort was made to insure uniformity between the workings of the international and the i.uropean commissions, and between different signatory states. the convention came into force june 30 1922. one of the most important questions that have been raised since that date was connected with the interpretation of art. 22 (above), as certain states in eastern europe were anxious to reserve to their own flag the passenger and goods traffic between ports in their own territory. in the discussion on art. 22, the rumanian delegate stated that the carriage of goods on river craft between two ports in the same country did not constitute cabotage if the goods were subsequently transhipped to a seagoing vessel to export, and that art. 22 imposed no restriction on the traffic carried on up to that time by greece. it would seem to be established by the decisions of the powers’ conference that casual transport by foreign vessels between two ports in the same state is to be unrestricted even if it takes place repeatedly. (see inland water transport.) bibliography.—sir e. hertslet, afap of europe by treaty (1875-91); traiie de paris du 30 mars 1856, vol. 2; 7 raite de londres du 13 mars 1871, vol. 3; 7razte de berlin du 13 juillet, 1878, vol. 4; traite de londres de 10 mars rae vol. 4; state papers, vol. 55, es embouchures du danube du 2 novembre, 1865; british foreign office, the treaty of peace, etc. art. 331-9, 346-53 (1920); soci(te des nations, recueil des traites, vol. 26, no. 647, convention etablissant le statut dcfinitif du danube du 23 juillet, 1921; j. p. chamberlain, ‘ the regime of the inter- national rivers: danube and rhine,” columbia univ. studies in ilistory, vol. 105, no. 1 (1923); a. j. toynbee, survey of inter- nationul affairs 1920-3 (1925). (r. rw.) danzig, free city of (see 7.824), a territory under the protection of the league of nations, has an area of 791 sq. m.; the territory is divided into municipalities and rural districts. population of the whole state (1924) 385,000 (96° of which were germans), that of the danzig municipality being 206,500. be- sides the municipality of danzig, there are the municipality of =10 f=danzi g—— | stee fe is : = ens”. danzig english miles 5 id i5 kilometres o 5 0 15 main railways zoppot (27,500 inhabitants), the two towns tiegenhof (3,100) and neuteich (2,900) and some greater communities as oliva (14,000) and ohra (12,500). two-thirds of the population are evangelical and one-third roman catholic, but the mennonites 814 are represented in districts in the delta of the vistula. a roman catholic bishopric of danzig was created in jan. 1926. histoery.—danzig, which until the close of the world war had been the capital of west prussia, was separated with a con- siderable part of the surrounding country from the german em- pire by the treaty of versailles, and received the status of a free city. the decision registered in articles too-8 of the treaty represented a compromise between the polish demand for the cession to the new polish state of the most convenient outlet and inlet for polish commerce, and the reluctance felt by the peace conference to place a city, 96% of whose population was ger- man, under another sovereignty. the separation became eflec- tive on jan. 10 1920, and the administration of the city and the territory was placed temporarily under allied administration. sir reginald tower acted both as allied administrator and as ijigh commissioner for the league of nations, and two battalions of allied troops under the command of sir richard haking were stationed in the city. this interim regime lasted until nov. 15 1920, when the formal proclamation of the free city of danzig as an independent political state was made by the representative of the league of nations. the troops were withdrawn, and gen. haking actecl as high commissioner for the league until ieb. 1923, when he was succeeded by mr. m. s. macdonnell. in feb. 1926, mr. macdonnell was succeeded by dr. van hamel, a dutch jurist. internal administration was under the burgo- master, iferr sahm, who, as soon as the constitution came into force, was elected president of the senate. constitution.—the constitution, drafted by a constituent assembly elected in may 1920, was ratified, with some small amendments, by the league of nations, and finally authorised by the high commissioner in may 1922. the international and public status of the free city as an entirely separate state and independent member of the commu- nity of nations under the protection of the league of nations, represented in danzig bya special high commissioner, is based on articles 100-8 of the treaty of versailles and the subsequent treatics between danzig and poland as provided for in the treaty of versailles. of these, the most important are the danzig-polish treaty drafted by the conference of ambassadors with the assistance of delegations from the polish and the dan- zig states, and signed in paris on oct. 27 1920, and the warsaw convention of oct. 24 1921 (a supplement to the first-named treaty). the high commissioner of the league of nations de- cided in the first instance all differences arising between danzig and poland. the two parties retain the mght of appeal to the council of the league of nations. poland’s rights in danzig are exclusively economic and ensure her free access to the sea. the administration of the harbour and waterways is carried out by a harbour commission consisting of five nominees each from danzig and poland under the chairmanship of a president of swiss nationality appointed by the league of nations. the settlement of this question led to much friction, and the document transferring the ownership of the state property in the port and waterways to poland, danzig and the harbour commission was only signed on may 3 1923. the administration of the railways in the free city, with the exception of narrow gauge railways and street tramways, is under the directorate of the polish state railways, danzig’s special interests being protected by a representative of the free city. the conduct of the free city’s forcign relations is committed to the polish govt., which is also entrusted with the protection of danzig nationals abroad. in foreign towns, where poland is represented by a consulate and where danzig has important commercial interests, danzig officials are to be attached to the consulate. danzig takes part in international conferences as an independent state. the official language is german. the legislative body, the volkstag, consists of 120 members. the senate consists of a president and seven senators holding chief office (elected for a term of four years) and a vice-president and 13 sen- ators in adjunct office (elected for an indefinite period, depending on the confidence of the volkstag). in accordance with the provision of the treaty of versailles the free city is in customs union with poland. the organisation of the customs is under the government of the free city. dardanelles posts, telegraphs and telephones are under the postal and tefe- graphic administration of the free city, which is a member of the international postal union. poland is only entitled to have a postal service office in the harbour for the purpose of maintaining direct communication between danzig and poland, as well as between poland and overseas countries. the area of the harbour has recently been defined to include most of the town of danzig. fiducaiion.—resides numerous elementary schools, technical and advanced schools, as well as secondary schools, there is a technical university with an instructional staff of 58 professors. in the sum- mer term, 1925, there were 1,526 students. trade and shipping.—the situation of danzig on the mouth of the river vistula is most favourable. the vistula connects danzig with poland and, by means of its tributaries and canals, with ger- many, the ukraine and lithuania. the so-called '' dead vistula ” is navigable from the mouth at neufahrwasser to a distance of four miles for ships drawing 30 ft. and for a further two miles up the river mottlau for vessels of about 15 ft. draught. facilities are available for the repair and maintenance of ships. up to 6,000 tons these can be accommodated in floating docks, of which there are several. there are four dockyards: f. schichau, international shipbuilding and engineering co., ltd. (comprising the former imperial dockyard and the railway-workshops), klawitter, and wogan. the international shipbuilding and engineering co., ltd., has an original capital of £10,000, english and french capital participating cach with 40° and danzig and polish capital each with 10°>. schichau has built vessels of 35,000 tons. the present annual building output of 20,000 tons could be largely increased. the free basin has a wharfage of about 3,600 ft., and vessels drawing to 25 ft. can lie alongside. electric cranes and warehouse accommodation are provided and railway connection exists with the main system. an important adjunct to the port is the island of holm, having a basin of great potential value as a commercial harbour. the chief imports are foodstuffs, fertilizers, chemicals, building materials, ceramics, raw cotton and textiles; the principal exports are timber, sugar, grain, naphtha and coal. large granaries and warehouses for sugar and grain stand near the wharves of the port, which also afford storage capacity for over 20,000 tons of naphtha, of which some 100,000 tons may be expedited in one year. as for timber, 1,500,000 tons can be loacled during one year. large timber ponds are at holm i. and extend for several miles along the bank of the ‘ dead vistula ” between danzig and plehnendorf. the port is practically ice-free, and has great commercial possibilities, the natural features of the waterways and surrounding country render- ing expansion easy. thanks largely to the protection afforded by the peninsula of hcla, it has special advantages of security. there is scarcely any current, the main river having received another outlet to the sea several miles further east, near to schiewenhorst. danzig’s mercantile fleet consists of 67 vessels with 117,000 gross registered tons, there are regular passenger-and-cargo sailings from the port of danzig to nearly all the ports of the baltic and the ger- man ocean, even to new york, philadelphia and the atlantic ports of canada, and to london and itull. as to the railway traffic, there are direct express passenger trains from danzig to all the chiet centres of germany and the baltic states. danzig 1s an important junction of aeroplane communications. regularly for berlin, warsaw. banking and finance.—the free city has a currency of its own, the unit of which is the gulden (fixed at 1/25th of the £ sterling and divided into 100 pfennigs}). this new currency was introduced by the bank of danzig, as an emission bank, in the beginning of the year 1924. the fully paid-up capital of the bank is 7,500,000 gulden. besides the bank of danzig there are five big danzig banks, as well as branches of most of the important german and polish banks. there is also a produce and a stock exchange, and twice a year (springtime and autumn) international sample fairs are held. biblioography.— official journal of the league of nations (passim) and the saar basin and free city of dansig (league of nations secretariat, geneva, 1924), where further relevant publications of the league of nations are given; s, askenazy, danzig and poland (trans. w. j. rose, london, 1921); e. keyser, dansigs geschichte (danzig, 1921). (m.s. m.) dardanelles (sce 7.829), the strait uniting the sea of marmora with the aegean. the question of the military, naval and political status of the dardanelles and the bosporus was raised by the defeat of turkey in the war of 1914-8. in the armistice signed at mudros (oct. 30 1918), one of the principal conditions was that the straits should be opened to the allied fleets, and the future regime of the straits figured prominently in the abortive treaty of sevres (aug. 10 1920), and in the defini- tive straits convention (july 24 1923), which was negotiated during the lausanne conference. on the side of the allies the initiative in this matter was taken by great britain, and british statesmen, under the influence of the failure to force the dardanelles during the world war, were aeroplanes leave danzig marienburg, kdenigsberg, stockholm and dardanelles eager to introduce a regime which would keep the straits open, not only to merchant ships, which had enjoyed freedom of passage for more than a century, but to warships both in peace time and in war time. this marked a complete reversal of british policy which, for a century past, had aimed at closing the straits to the ingress or egress of all except turkish warships, with the object of preventing the russian black sea fleet from issuing into the mediterranean and threatening the flank of the british line of communications with india. as a result of the world war, russia had ceased for the time being to be a naval power, while the right to enter the straits, which had been secured to the british navy under the armistice with turkey, had enabled great britain to intervene with considerable effect in the russian civil war between whites and reds. for these reasons, partly practical and partly sentimental, but all based on an abnormal and probably temporary state of aflairs, the permanent opening dardanelles & gallipoli peninsula english miles es 0 5 ia kilometres fy) 5 10 roads x ~s on a 5 a3 + 4 ’ “ jie : rece ' yy \" 0 a on ae as : ft 2 ire is tis. ipa uae oe en 4 sr ie 2 ely, “£0 ti we == 8 case ‘ dnt s ae = a , a gow es fut oe haa = ae ¢ on gi 4 kageif teeere: gaba tepe-x 4 aef ———--—$~-——— y es : gmi i 4 i 5 e (] a n wy f ; ay = m ter, a % ¥ rn ss hn ! 3 = § tis 3 ff “, = sai: ere f rf re bn. on eit} 4 helle enfglish mil of the straits became one of the principal aims of british levant policy during the long-drawn-out settlement after the war. for corresponding reasons, russia, in her metamorphosis as the union of socialist soviet republics, likewise reversed her tradi- tional policy and set herself to close the straits again to war- ships, in order to keep the british fleet out of the black sea. treaty of sevres—in the treaty of sevres the freedom of the straits for warships was provided for by three separate guar- antecs. first, the sovereignty over the two shores of the dar- danelles, which hitherto had both been under turkish rule, was now divided, the gallipoli peninsula and all eastern thrace up to the chatalja line being transferred from turkey to greece, while only the asiatic shore of the dardanelles was icft to turkey. since greece and turkey were unlikely to find themselves on the same side in any war, either local or general, this division of sovereignty would have constituted a guarantee of a crude but effective kind, on the presumption that, if either party attempted to use its shore in order to obstruct the passage in violation of the treaty, the other party would place its shore at the disposal of the powers who had been made guarantors of the treaty under other articles. the remaining articles placed a military sanction in the hands of great britain, france and italy. a zone of territory was laid down, including the whole of the asiatic and the european shores of the dardanelles, marmora and bosporus, with the adjoining territorial waters and a number of islands in the sea 815 of marmora and off the mouth of the dardanelles. within this zone all the fortifications were to be dismantled permanently, and the territorial sovereigns, turkey and greece, were pro- hibited (with two unimportant exceptions) from maintaining armed forces, whereas the three principal allied powers, as guar- antors, were permitted to do so. it was further laid down that the waters of the straits should not be subject to blockade and that no belligerent right or act of hostility be committed within them unless in pursuance of a decision of the council of the league of nations. the commis- sion (on which the eventual representation of both russia and the united states was provided for) was to have two distinct though related functions. it was to organise and administer the freedom of the straits, and also to report upon any inter- ference with that freedom. in addition to extensive conservancy duties, similar to those entrusted to the european commission of the danube, the straits commission was empowered to raise its own police force under foreign officers, to claim diplomatic privileges and immunities, and to exercise its powers in complete independence of the local sovereign. turkish conditions imposed.—these arrangements never came into force, for though the treaty of sevres was signed by repre- sentatives of the expiring ottoman govt. at constantinople, it was never acceped by the new nationalist govt. at angora. the question of the straits was dealt with in article 4 of the turkish national pact of jan. 28 1920, which accepted the opening of the straits to commerce, but made this subject to the provision of security for constantinople and tacitly repudiated, by passing it over in silence, the new claim that the straits should be opened to foreign warships. the debacle of the greek army in anatolia in the summer of 1922 enabled the turks to impose their point of view upon the allies. in the armistice of mudania (oct. 11 1922), the retrocession of eastern thrace to turkey was conceded, and this removed the first of the three sevres guarantees before the conference of lausanne (q.v.) opened. at lausanne, lord curzon concentrated his efforts upon saving what he could of his policy regarding the straits, and on this point the turkish negotiators came some distance towards meeting him, though not till they had cut out so many of the sevres guarantees that the regime of the straits, as finally established, became a paper constitution rather than an arrangement on which reliance could be placed in time of stress. the demilitarised zones of the sevres scheme were reduced in area; they were to be closed to allied as well as to turkish forces (which extinguished the positive military sanction of the sevres treaty); any tight of the allics to occupy or even inspect the zones in case of actual or prospective violation on turkey’s part was passed over in silence; while, on the other hand, it was expressly stipulated that turkey might maintain a garrison in ‘constantinople, including its insular and asiatic suburbs, up to a maximum strength of 12,000 men; that she might utilise the demilitarised zones for lines of communication between her military forces in asia and europe; and that she might anchor her fleet (an arm which the sevres treaty had forbidden her to possess) in the demilitarised waters. : the commission of the straits was maintained for conservancy. purposes alone, but even then with diminished functions and under turkish presidency. in return for the few points which they saved from the wreck of their policy, the three principal european allied powers and japan pledged themselves to resist by force any violation of the freedom of navigation and also of the security of the demilitarised zones (a clause which virtually gave turkey a territorial guarantee of her most exposed and most valuable territories). under these conditions, the turks conceded to warships a restricted right of passage. it was noteworthy that the russian delegation at the lau- sanne conference did its utmost to prevent agreement on these lines between turkey and the allics and made a formal protest in energetic terms against the text of the straits convention. although the soviet govt. acceded to the convention on aug. 4 1923, it had become evident at lausanne that, as between russia and turkey, the problem of the straits was still unsolved. 816 brsliograriy.—h. w. v. temperley, iftstory of the peace con- ference of paris, vol. 6, part 2 (1920-4); a. j. toynbee, survey of international affairs, 1920-23, pp. 374-76 (1925); british blue books, cd. 1814 of 1923, and cd. 1929 of 1923. (ax je.) dardanelles campaign.—this campaign, brought about by a desire on the part of the allies that communications should be opened up from the mediterranean into the black sea with a view to assisting russia, was begun in feb. 1915 as a purely naval undertaking (see wortp war, naval). but it had been realised from the outset that, even should the warships succeed in attaining their object, land forces would sooner or later be required to aid in the campaign, if only to secure the communications of the fleet after it had passed into the sea of marmora. before the failure of the naval attack of march 18, entente troops had been set in motion for the aegean. some were already in lemnos, and sir jan hamilton, chosen as com- mander-in-chief of the military contingents, had arrived in time to witness the fight of the 18th. in view of its result, the allied governments decided that from this time onwards the gathering army must assume the principal rele in the effort to secure pos- session of the straits. hamilton was unable to initiate land operations at once. the turks were making preparations to repel landings on both sicles of the straits, while the troops at his disposal were partly in egypt, partly at lemnos, and partly on the high seas, en route from england and france. organisaiton in egypt.—he decided therefore that his army must in the first place be concentrated in egypt, to be organised for the hazardous undertaking to which it was about to be com- mitted, and that it must then be disposed in transports in accord- ance with tactical requirements in anticipation of a landing in face of the encmy. a month was lost in consequence. during that month the turkish army was formed (march 24) to guard the straits. marshal liman von sanders, head of the german military mission in turkey, was appointed its commander-in- chief, and under his instructions the defence system, organised in consequence of the warning offered by the naval operations, was overhauled and developed. consittution of attacking army.—the franco-british expe- ditionary force was composed of five divisions—two (the 20th and the royal naval) furnished by the united kingdom, two formed of australian and new zealand troops, and one com- posed of french colonial troops. against this force liman von sanders could pit six divisions, but these were perforce dispersed; two (3rd and 11th) were watching the coast on the asiatic side, two (5th and 7th) were near bulair to guard against a landing at the neck of the gallipoli peninsula, while the remainder (oth and 1oth) were disposed towards its southern end. i. the first landings the expeditionary force concentrated in mudros bay, lemnos, in the third week of april. hamilton contemplated two distinct major operations to secure a footing on the gallipoli peninsula. the 29th div., supported by the royal naval div., was to be put ashore at its extremity, an area which it is convenient to designate as helles; the australian and new zealand divs. under sir w. birdwood were to land just north of gaba tepe, where there are extensive beaches. but part of the one available french division was furthermore to effect a descent at kum kale, opposite helles, as a subsidiary operation, subsequently being transferred to helles. after a short delay, enforced by bad weather, the armada put to sea during the nights of april 23-4 and 24-5, so that the transports and the covering war- ships should arrive at their various rendezvous at or before dawn on the 25th, and the day broke calm after a placid night. landing at cape helles—five points had been selected in the helles area for attack’ enumerating from right to left the beaches were “‘ s ” in morto bay, * v ” and “‘ w ” on either side of cape helles, and ‘‘ x ” and ‘ ¥y ”’ on the outer shore. the attacks at “s ” and “‘ ¥y ” were intended to be subsidiary; but great importance was attached to “ w ” and “ v, ” as those two beaches offered the most suitable landing places from the point of view of subsequent operations. owing to its vicinity to dardanelles campaign “w,” “x ” was calculated to play a very prominent part in the affair as a whole. covered by the fire of battleships and cruisers, the troops started in flotillas of boats soon after dawn for all points, and, as it turned out, the actual disembarkations at “s,” “xx” and “ y ” were carricd out without any great difficulty. but at “ w ” the troops only gained a footing after incurring heavy loss, while at “ v,’’ where a large part of the landing force was carried in the steamer “ river clyde ” which was run ashore, the effort nearly failed altogether. after hard fighting all day the position at nightfall was that the troops landed at “‘ w ” and “ x ” beaches had joined hands and that a battalion was established at ‘‘s, ’’ while the situation at “ v ”’ was critical, as also at ‘‘ y”; but during the night more troops were got ashore at “ v,”’ and those at “ y ” were safely with- drawn and re-embarked next morning. losses had been severe. landing at kum kale—in the meantime a french brigade had, after a tough struggle, effected a lodgement at kum kale (qum qal‘e), the turks were in strong force here, so that any advance by the french was out of the question, but their presence on the asiatic side was being indirectly helpful to secure a footing on the further shore. some little progress was made on the mor- row in spite of determined resistance by the encmy, additional troops were landed, and during the night the french were with- drawn from kum kale and they were landed at ‘‘ v ”’ beach on the 27th. on that day the allies’ line was again advanced by a few hundreds of yards; but the turks had received substantial reinforcements in this quarter, and but little ground was gained when hamilton ordered a fresh attack on the 28th. the invaders had suffered very heavy losses during the initial landing and the subsequent strenuous encounters, and there were no reserves on the spot to fill the gaps that had been created in the ranks. landing at anzac.—birdwood’s divisions had in the meantime effected a lodgement to the north of gaba tepe. the actual disembarkation had in this case been started before dawn on the 25th at a point about a mile and a half north of the gaba tepe promontory, and at a spot where the hills rose abruptly from the actual beach which came to be known as anzac. a haphazard line on the heights immediately above the beach had been secured at once, the turks being in weak force at the moment when the advanced parties of invaders reached the shore; but the defenders were able to hurry reinforcements to the point of danger and the actual area secured was of limited extent. won practically at the first blow, it provided but a scanty water supply, it presented great inconveniences and its beach was much exposed in the event of bad weather setting in; it was but slightly extended during the following three months, for liman von sanders realised that owing to its proximity to the narrows of the dardanelles, it represented a very serious danger to the turks, and he took steps accordingly. although the ottoman troops delivered vigorous counter-attacks on the 26th, these were beaten off with loss to the assailants, and by the night of april 27-28 the position of which birdwood had contrived to gain possession had come to be, tactically, fairly secure. hamilton thus gained a somewhat precarious footing at two points of the peninsula. but his two forces were some 15 m. apart, and what amounted to little more than a patch of ground had been won in either case. his intentions were now completely exposed to the enemy, and the great advantage of surprise had passed away without his force having established itself in a dominating position capable of being turned to satisfactory account in subsequent operations. in both areas the turks enjoyed the tactical command, they were at least equal in force to the allies, their guns were able to bear with effect upon the beaches used as landing places and advanced bases, and, although at this time of the year the weather was generally calm, these beaches provided but inadequate facilities for the landing of ammunition, armament or stores. reinforcemenis.—early in may the allies’ contingents planted in the helles area were strengthened by the arrival of the british 42nd div., an indian brigade, and the french znd divi- sion, some ground was gained on may 6, and during the next day or two determined counter-attacks on the part of the enemy dardanelles campaign were effectually repulsed. the two french divisions were occupying the right of the line, next to the straits; and that arrangement held good up to the time when the gallipoli peninsula was finally evacuated early in jan. in the following year. both here and facing the australasian troops at anzac the turks had dug themselves in, establishing elaborate defences, and trench warfare was becoming the order of the day. during the month a state of stalemate set in, and although ground was gaincd by the allies in attacks delivered in the helles area on june 4, 21 and 28 and during the month of july the line was gradually pushed forward near krithia, the situation was so unpromising that the british govt. decided to send five more divisions (10th, 11th, 13th, 53rd and 54th) to the aegean. these arrived at the islands of mytilene and imbros during the closing days of july and the first days of august. hamilton’s artillery was at the same time strengthened, and his very in- adequate ammunition supply somewhat improved. but liman von sanders was likewise receiving reinforcements, and, although the ottoman maritime communications with the gallipoli peninsula were from time to time imperilled by the submarines of the allies, the relative strength of the two opposing armies facing each other in the theatre of war was not, as it turned out, greatly affected by the appearance of the fresh troops sent out from england to these waters. the allies, in view of the coming of reinforcements, treated july as a month of preparation, al- though a general attack was delivered by them in the helles area by which a little ground was gained. a few days later the first of the reinforcing divisions, the 13th, arrived and was landed at helles as a temporary measure. ii. sari bair and suvla bay how to employ the fresh divisions coming out from home had to be decided by hamilton. the french had from the outset favoured operations on the further side of the straits, and there was something to be said for such a plan of campaign. but a descent in that quarter must involve a disembarkation in face of opposition, the perils of which had been made apparent on april 25; moreover, granting the landing to be successful, the forces would start work much further from the narrows of the dardanelles, the true objective, than were either helles or anzac. there were also not wanting inducements for the allics to attempt a landing at bulair, seeing that their presence at that point would carry with it the severance of the turkish land communications with the peninsula. but this would likewise mean a landing in face of opposition; and the distance of bulair from the island of imbros, the nearest base of operations for the peninsula, provided a strong argument, from the point of view of ship transport, against such an undertaking. moreover, a land- ing either on the asiatic side or at bulair meant a dispersion of the allies’ forces as a whole, unless helles or anzac, or both of them, were to be abandoned; and the fact that the ottoman commander-in-chief had to be prepared for his opponent adopting one of these two plans, offered a strong argument against selecting either of them. british plans hamilton decided that his great effort should be made at, and immediately north of, anzac. the rugged bluffs on which birdwood’s men had taken root since april were spurs of a tangled mountain mass known as sari bair, from the topmost ridges of which the narrows were visible four or five miles off; anzac was moreover situated almost at the narrowest point of the peninsula. the plan was to reinforce birdwood secretly by a division and a half (the 13th and part of the roth) and that, thus strengthened, he should secure possession of sari bair by a night attack. a further force (the r1th div. and the rest of the roth) was on that same night to effect a landing at an entirely new point—suvla bay—a few miles north of anzac, where the turks were known to be few. this force was to assist the troops attacking sari bair in due course; and the possession of suvla bay would furnish troops ashore in and about this area with a much more sheltered landing place than the beaches about anzac offered. the last divisions to arrive, the 53rd and s4th, were to be employed wherever should secm 817 best after the offensive had begun; to land the whole of the re- inforcements simultaneously would not have been practicable with the amount of water transport available. | the utmost secrecy was observed by the allies’ staff. steps were taken to mislead the ottoman authorities by means of feints and of reconnaissances executed at localities other than those selected for operations. false reports were circulated assiduously by the intelligence department. liman van sanders was well aware of the arrival of large bodies of british troops in the islands; but he remained in complete ignorance of his rival’s teal design until this was actually in course of execution. he had organised his forces as a southern group watching anzac, while two divisions were retained near bulair, where he was disposed to anticipate that the blow would fall. there were also large bodics of turkish troops in reserve about chanaq, and others about kum kale and besika bay. numerically the con- tending armies at this critical juncture were about equal, but the turks were necessarily much dispersed, so that the result of the impending clash of arms really hinged upon the speed with which the attacking side should gain ground before the defenders had time to concentrate. the allies’ offensive started on aug. 6 with two preliminary enterprises. an onset was made upon part of the turkish lines in the iiclles area. portions of birdwood’s force broke out of the southern end of the anzac position and gained ground. but the real purpose of the two operations was to occupy the enemy’s attention and to conceal a design of much greater moment. attack on sari bair.—so dexterously had the assembling of the reinforcements in the anzac area been effected that the turks were entirely unaware that birdwood’s army had been nearly doubled. the plan for gaining possession of the sari bair mountain was that several columns were to move out from the northern end of the anzac position at nightfall on aug. 6 and, on reaching their appointed stations, were to wheel to the right and to work their way in the dark up certain stecp but well- defined gullics that led up to the summit. but, although the turks were to some extent surprised, and although the outlets of the gullies were in consequence in the assailants’ hands by midnight, so stubborn a resistance was offered by the defenders that by daybreak the columns were not much more than half way up, and all attempts to win the upper ridges failed on the 7th in the face of the ‘turkish reinforcements. atter a rearrangement of the troops during the night, the offensive was resumed on aug. 8; but except at one point very little progress was made. after a fresh reorganisation during the dark hours another effort was made on the oth, and on this occasion a small body of british and indian troops actually fought their way to a commanding summit from which the narrows were secn, but they were driven off again. next day the turks, now in great force, counter-attacked and thrust those opposed to them back down the slopes all along the line, where- upon strenuous fighting ceased. both sides had lost heavily, but victory for all practical purposes rested with the osmanhs, even if the anzac position had been extended considerably in a northerly direction as a result of the operations. landing at sula bay.—stirring events had in the meantime been taking place around suvla bay. the troops detailed for the landing in this quarter belonged to the british “‘ new army’; they were not conversant with active service conditions, and they were bcing highly tried in being called upon to execute a landing in force at night in face of opposition. ‘there was indeed no precedent for an undertaking of this kind under modern tactical conditions, but the turks were known not to be in sufficient strength to offer serious resistance. as it was, the whole of the 11th div. was ashore before dawn; but the urgent need of pressing forward at once was not realised by the attacking side, and some confusion arose when the roth div. arrived and began to disembark. no vertebrate advance in force took place until late in the afternoon, and at nightfall the attacking force had only reached the foot of the hills lying to the east of the landing places and captured one advanced spur. the troops had suffered greatly from thirst, the arrangements with 818 regard to water having practically broken down, mainly owing to the inexperience of the troops themselves. attack in the hills—when liman von sanders learned during the night of aug. 6-7 that the allies were landing in force at suvla and were attacking sari bair from anzac, he ordered the two divisions at bulair to proceed to suvla with all speed. but this meant a two days’ march along indifferent roads. conse- quently there was still on aug. 8 a great opening left for the attacking side to complete the first part of its programme, 7.¢., to gain possession of the heights to the east of suvla which dominated the landing places and a considerable area of level ground around suvla bay. but no organised move took place. the opportunity was allowed to slip by, and that night turkish reinforcements began to arrive from bulair and to occupy the all- important high ground. next morning the roth and 11th divs., supported in a measure by the 53rd div., which had arrived during the night, advanced to the attack. but the effort failed, and when it was renewed on the following day the turks had been so effectually reinforced that the offensive enjoyed little chance of achieving success. that day, aug. 9, was the last on which there remained any hope cither of the sari bair offensive achieving success or of the suvla force establishing itself in a satisfactory position. this force, however, made a fresh attempt on the toth to wrest the heights in front of it out of osmanli keeping; but this failed completely, and further offensives in this quarter were abandoned for the time being. hamilton’s carcfully devised scheme of offensive operations had in fact come to nought in its most important features. the determined effort to secure possession of sari bair had mis- carried. a footing had, it is true, been gained at suvla, giving the allies control of a fairly well sheltered inlet on the outer coast of the peninsula; but as the high ground within easy artillery range of the landing places, which overlooked the whole occupied area, remained in the hands of the turks, much of the benefit hoped for from its acquisition was neutralised. only a restricted patch of ottoman territory had in fact been occupied thanks to the new undertaking, and although the position at anzac had been extended and improved it remained a very bad one. the allies now occupicd many miles of front in the penin- sula, but there was scarcely a spot where the enemy did not enjoy the advantage in respect to ground; what the attacking forces needed from the outsct was depth rather than breadth, and depth they had failed to secure. they had moreover incurred very heavy losses during the succession of combats lasting from aug. 6 to 10, and, except for a mounted division coming from egypt to fight on foot, no reinforcements were on the way; the 54th div. had already been swallowed up at suvla. the defending side had also, no doubt, suffered heavily in casualties, notably on sari bair; but liman von sanders could fairly claim that, even if some valuable ground had been lost by the turks, he had held his own in a contest in which his adversary had enjoyed the initiative and had been in a position to effect a surprise. an effort was made by the troops on the extreme left of the allies’ position at suvla to gain ground along the ridge north of the suvla plain on aug. rs, but nothing came of it. itamilton, however, did not despair of improving the situation in this area, so the mounted division from egypt and another division from helles were quietly concentrated there in support of the troops already on the spot, and on the a2tst, a determined attempt was made to capture some of the high ground which had baftled the attempts of the invaders on the gth and roth. large forces were engaged on either side in this battle, and the attack was pre- pared by a heavy bombardment of the ottoman trenches, in which warships moored in suvla bay, where they were secure from submarines, participated. but after a sanguinary en- counter the assailants met with a decisive rebuff, and from that date onwards no serious offensive operation was attempted by the allies in the dardanelles campaign. the conditions of stalemate which had prevailed before the arrival of the five new divisions from england set in afresh and continued to the end. as a consequence of the failure at suvia during the early days dardanelles campaign of its occupation certain changes in command were carried out, gen. byng, especially sent out from home for the purpose, taking over command in this area. gen. davies was in command at helles, and, as the right of the suvia force was in touch with the left of the anzac force in the low ground near the shore, byng and birdwood now held a continuous front extending from a point on the coast about 3 m. northeast of suvla bay near to gaba tepe, overlooked for practically the whole of its length by high ground in occupation of the turks. owing to the losses that had been suffered during the august combat and even before the final reverse of aug. 21, hamilton had cabled home asking for reinforcements and for the very large drafts needed to bring his depleted units up to their war establishment, amount- ing to a total of 95,000 men. he had, however, been informed that no large bodies of fresh troops could be spared for the dardanelles theatre. a temporary change of plan did occur a few days later owing to a french proposal to despatch four divisions to the scene to operate on the asiatic side of the straits, whereupon the british govt. became disposed also to send fresh divisions. ill. events in the balkans and evacuation these projects were dropped early in september, owing very largely to the threatening aspect of affairs in the balkans. (see salonika campaigns; serbian campaigns.) serbian defeat—the campaign by which the central powers and bulgaria crushed serbia for the time being, and by which communications were opened through bulgaria between austria- hungary and the ottoman empire, profoundly influenced the situation in the gallipoli peninsula to the disadvantage of the entente. not only was all idea of reinforcing the allied army that was planted in this region abandoned, but some of hamilton’s troops had before long been transferred to salonika. the linking up of turkey with the central powers by railway, moreover, connoted that liman von sanders would speedily be furnished with ample munitions of all kinds, which would make the prospect of anglo-french forces gaining possession of the straits remoter than ever. withdrawal discussed.—by the middle of september the paris government had come to the conclusion that there was now no hope of victory in the dardanelles theatre; but the british cabinet, influenced by anxiety as regards prestige in the east and by disinclination to abandon an enterprise in which great sacrifices had been incurred and from which much had at one time been expected, could not make up its mind to cut losses and to withdraw. on hamilton being asked to give his views concerning the question of evacuation, he pronounced himself as emphatically opposed to such a step, so sir c. monro was sent out from england to take his place. the new commander- in-chief, impressed by the very unsatisfactory positions occupied by the allied troops, by the impossibility of their making any progress at their existing strength, and by the risks that the army ran by clinging to such a shore without any safe harbour to depend upon for base in stormy weather, declared unhes- itatingly in the closing days of october for a complete with- drawal after examining the situation on the spot and consulting with birdwood, byng and davies. | lord kitchener’s visitt—the british cabinet would not, how- ever, accept the recommendation, and they despatched lord kitchener to the acgean to investigate and report. he had viewed proposals to abandon the campaign with alarm; but after visiting the peninsula he realised that evacuation was the only justifiable course, and reported to that effect. all this time winter was drawing nearer and the need for a prompt decision was becoming more and more urgent, but the authorities in london lost another fortnight before, on dec. 8, they at last sent instructions to monro to withdraw from suvla and anzac, while retaining helles. evacuation of surla bay and anzac.—anticipating orders to this cffect, monro had already made certain preparations for evacuation, and, as he was also responsible for the british forces at salonika, had placed birdwood in command, gen. godley darling—dartmouth college relieving birdwood at anzac. it was recognised that the with- drawal of the vast accumulation of stores about the beaches, and also of the bulk of the actual troops, must be carried out grad- ually on successive nights, and this process was at once sct on foot both at suvla and at anzac. the decision come to as to the final stage of the operation was that the front trenches should be held up to the last on the night of definite evacuation, and that the troops manning them should hasten straight to the beaches, everything removable having already been embarked; at a given moment the trenches (which at many points were but a few yards from those occupied by the turks) would be vacated by detachments which by that hour would have shrunk to mere handfuls of men. the final night was provisionally fixed as that of dec. 18-19, and, thanks to favourable weather and to the efficiency of the arrangements, the very critical undertaking was carried out with triumphant success just as had been laid down by programme 10 days before. night after night the landing places were scenes of unceasing activity as war material, food supplies, animals and finally large bodies of troops, were got away. during the daytime reliefs took place as usual, pretences were made of landing stores and animals, and the result was that the turks remained in complete ignorance of what was passing close to their lines. on dec. 18 only a meagre force, composed almost entirely of infantry and disposed almost entirely in the front trenches, was holding a front of to m. face to face with an enemy incomparably stronger in numbers. at nightfall the very few guns not yet withdrawn were hurried off to the jetties; then the troops along the front were quietly withdrawn by successive detachments; finally the parties still in the trenches slipped away; and when dawn broke the turks discovered that the invaders were gone. practically nothing worth mentioning had been left behind at suvla, and at anzac, where conditions were more difficult, only a very few worn-out guns had to be abandoned and some valuable war material destroyed. the relaxing by the allies of their frail hold upon a strip of the outer coast-line of the gallipoli peninsula had been effected more successfully than the most sanguine amongst them had permitted themselves to hope. yet, for a week subsequent to the good news reaching them, the british government remained irresolute with regard to the policy to be pursued at helles. then, however, monro received the expected sanction for evacuating that area likewise, and birdwood promptly grappled with this fresh problem, a problem rendered more difficult than the last owing to liman von sanders having full warning of what might be expected and, moreover, now enjoying an enormous preponderance in force. he had 21 divisions available, while there were only four left to oppose him. evacuation of cape helles-—the same principles as had been adopted by byng and godley at suvla and anzac were put in practice at helles, the withdrawal of stores, war material, animals and personne] being carried out on successive nights. while the front trenches were to be held up to the last, the fighting force ashore was to be gradually reduced, and the detachments holding the front trenches were at the given hour on the last night, fixed provisionally for that of jan. 8-9, to vacate them and hurry straight off to the beaches. but the weather was none too favourable on several of the preliminary nights, and the enemy’s guns gave a good deal of trouble on the beaches; causing many casualties. the turks were aware that a withdrawal was gradually being carried out; but they could not tell which would be the final night, nor could they make sure how far the number of combatants within the british lines had been reduced. so, with the intention of ascertaining the strength of their opponents, on jan 7 they delivered a half- hearted attack upon the left of the british position. this was beaten off, and they came to the mistaken conclusion that the final evacuation was not imminent. shortly after dark set in on the night of jan. 8-9 the wind rose ominously. nevertheless the guns remaining to be embarked were got off, the infantry followed, and the last detachments quitted the front trenches at 11:45 p. m., without the turks noting their departure. but when they reached the shore it was 819 found, in the case of those detailed for gully beach, that em- barkation there was impracticable; so these had to march to ““w ” beach and they were not afloat till after 4 a. w., only being got off with great difficulty owing to the surf. several worn-out guns had been intentionally left behind, besides much ordnance material and foodstuff; but practically all of this was rendered unserviceable, for, just as the last boats were lowered off, the masses of stores were set on fire, and only then did the turks discover that their opponents had evaded them a second time. the withdrawal from helles had been a masterly military and naval achievement. iv. conclusions most authorities on war agree that the failure of the entente in this memorable campaign was primarily due to the abortive naval effort to force the dardanelles. this gave the turk such warning of what was in store that, when hamilton’s army was ready to land, the defenders were in a position to bring it at once to a standstill. the only chance of success after that lay in very substantial reinforcements reaching the scene promptly, but neither the british nor the french could divert the requi- site military resources from the main theatre of war at the moment, and when some additional troops were sent later, their numbers were insufficient and it was too late. brstiocrapny.—p. f. schuler, australia in arms (1916); h. shiermer, two iwar years in constantinople (1917); the dardanelles commission, final report (1919); sir 1. hamilton, gallipoli diary (1920); liman von sanders, fiinf jahre tiirkei, (2nd ed., 1922); tur- key, historical section of staff, campagne de dardanelles (1924);c.p. aspinall, gallipoli (1926). see also wortld war: bibliography. | (c..e. go) darling, charles john, ist baron (1849- ), british judge, was born dec. 6 1849. at the age of 24 he was called to the bar; in 1885 he took silk, and shortly afterwards entered parliament as conservative member for deptford. he sat in the house of commons from 1888 until 1897 when he was knighted. his appointment in 1897 to a judgeship was not received with universal approval; but he later justified the choice by provirg himself to be a man of acute understanding, with an unusucl insight into human nature. he achieved success rather by his mother wit than by his knowledge of the law; and his shrewd and entertaining dicta made him a favourite with the public. in 1923 he retired, and in 1924 was granted a peerage. among his published works are scintillae juris (1877); meditations in the tea room (1870); seria ludo (1903); on the oxford circuit (1909). darrow, clarence seward (1857- ), american lawyer, was born at kinsman, o., april 15 1857. he received a public school education and was called to the bar in 1875, after- wards practising in chicago. ife appeared as counsel in a large number of important cases, many of which attracted wide at- tention and became recognised as one of the leading criminal lawyers in the united states. he was retained by the labour organisations in nearly all their litigation of recent years. among the celebrated cases in which he appeared were the debs strike case (1895), anthracite coal strike arbitration (1902), steunenburg murder (1907), the los angeles times dynamite case (1911) and the loeb-leopold case (1924). in july 1925 he defended j. t. scopes at the tennessce evolution trial. he wrote crime, its cause and treatment (1922), and many other books and pamphlets on social and economic questions. dartmouth college (sec 7.838) in the period between 1908 and 1926 experienced a great expansion in its equipment, endow- ment and enrolment. it has 22 buildings devoted to lecture- rooms, laboratories, administration and similar purposes. the extensive gymnasium was erected in 1910; robinson hall, the home of all undergraduate organisations except athletic, in ror4; and the steele chemistry laboratory in 1920-1. the construc- tion of a new library costing $1,000,000 will begin in 1926. six of the 18 dormitories, which together house 1,350 students, were added between 1908 and 1923. the value of the equipment is over $3,000,000. the college also has single or apartment houses for housing 50 faculty families. its productive investment assets more than doubled in this period, approximating $7,500,000. in 820 1925-6 it had over 200 officers, administrative and professional, with 2,100 enrolled students. the tuition cost is $400 a year. provision is made through scholarships for assisting students unable to pay this sun. in 1910, 62% of the students came from new england. the constituency of the college gradually changed until, in 1924-5, the majority came from outside new england, only 44°, of the men coming from homes within those states. the trustees set a limit on the number to be accepted—at about 2,000. candidates were selected on a basis of character, scholarship and general accomplishments. in june 1925 certain major changes were made in the curriculum, providing 7xfer alia for special treatment for students of higher grade, and for the granting of but one degree, bachelor of arts. one of the most interesting influences of the college is promoted by the dartmouth outing club, for the stimulation of healthful outdoor activities. the total number of dartmouth men, graduates, undergraduates and faculty, who served in the army, navy or marine corps during the world war was 3,319. those dying in active service numbered 112. (r. r. l.) darwin, sir george howard ape 1912), british astronomer, was born at down, kent, july 9 1845 and was the second son of charles darwin (se 7.840). he was educated at cambridge university (second wrangler and smith’s prizeman) where he became plumian professor of astronomy and experi- mental philosophy in 1883. his work on the application of harmonic analysis and prediction to oceanic tides is monumental, as is his discussion of the intluence of tidal friction in deter- mining the evolution of binary systems, with special reference to the earth and moon. in an early paper he cliscussed the possibility of geological changes having altered considerably the inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of its orbit, and came to a negative conclusion. these works constituted the first attempt to apply thorough dynamical analysis to cosmogony and the major problems of geological evolution. he also carried out important work on periodic orbits in the problem of three bodies, figures of equilibrium of rotating masses of fluid and the stresses in the earth’s crust produced by continents and mountains. he was awarded the gold medal of the royal astronomical society in 1892 and the copley medal of the royal society in 1911. he was made k.c.b. in roo05, and he died in cambridge on dec. 7 1912. among his works are the tides and kindred phenomena in the solar system (1898), 3rd ed. (1911); scientific papers (1909-16). das, chitta ranjan (1870-1025), indian politician and leader of the swaraj party in bengal, was born at calcutta on nov. 5 1870. his father, bhuban mohan das, an attorney of the calcutta high court, joined the brahmo samaj, and edited the brahmo (afterwards the bengal) public opinion. chitta ranjan was educated at the london missionary college, bhowanipore, and at the presidency college, calcutta, obtaining the b.a. degree. he came to london to compete for the indian civil service, but, just failing to secure a place in the examination, pursued legal studies instead and was called to the bar by the middle temple on june 26 1894. joining the calcutta bar, he first came into prominence as counsel for arabinda ghosh in the manicktollah bomb conspiracy case. the acquittal of arabinda after prolonged trial, and the small remuneration accepted by das, brought him popularity and a large practice. his prosperity enabled him to meet all debts in connection with his father’s bankruptcy, though he was under no legal obligation to do so. he defended relays of young political desperadoes, and assisted in keeping extremist papers, such as bunde amataram, going, until they were checked by the press act, 1910. more and more the young lawyer threw himself into national- ist and literary activities. in 1895 he had published a volume of bengali lyrics malancha which ‘ introduced a new element of freedom and realism into our modern lyrical literature ’ (motilal ghose in foreword of speeches by das, 1918), and two further volumes were issued during the war. in 1915 das started the bengali monthly narayana, but his chief journalistic work was darwin—das the founding and conduct of the aggressive swarajist daily, forward. “‘ his dominating note was hatred—and dread—of everything that savoured of the west... . it was the pursuit of these false gods that had converted bengal from a smiling land of happiness and plenty into a salt waste over which brooded stagnation and death ” (lord ronaldshay’s heart of arydevurta (1925). yet he was sufficiently interested in the shaping of political reforms on western lines to participate in discussions leading to a joint address of europeans and indians to the secretary of state and the viceroy in nov. 1917 (sce lionel curtis, diarchy, 1920). das became an influential though not always tractable sup- porter of m. k. gandhi in the non-codperating movement launched in the autumn of ro018. apart from defending in political cases, he abandoned almost entirely his large practice, took to the wearing of kkadar (homespun cloth) and lived in the utmost simplicity in order to devote his means to the swarayjist cause. late in 1921 it was found necessary to proscribe the “volunteer ’? movement in bengal, as in other provinces. on dec. 10, some days before das was due to preside at the indian national congress at ahmadabad he was arrested for tssuing a public appeal for the proscribed organisation, and was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment. the daily conflicts of his followers with the police in calcutta were complicated by processions of bengali ladies, headed by mrs. das, who was in thorough sympathy with her husband’s views. she was arrested, but by order of the governor, lord ronaldshay, was speedily released. das presided at the national congress at gaya in dec. 1922, and endeavoured to secure revocation of previous resolutions against entering the legislatures, suggesting obstructive tactics in place of boycott. the controversy sharply divided the non-cogeper- ationists, but with the decline of gandhi's influence the das policy gained ground, and was largely followed at the end of 1923 in the second gencral election under the reforms; das was elected to the bengal council by more than one constituency. in the following april his party captured the majority of seats in the calcutta corporation elected under a new act, and das was elected the first mayor of calcutta. in the bengal legislature das did not command a clear ma- jority, but he knew how to bring pressure to bear on the in- dependents and also upon the mahommedans, to whom he sug- gested a pact under which, when swaraj came, a substantial proportion of elective seats ‘and public appointments would be reserved for them. he secured a bare majority on march 24 1924 for refusal of the salaries of ministers whom lord lytton, the governor, had provisionally appointed. lord lytton’s offer of a ministership to das, as commanding a larger body of votes in the legislature than any other member, was refused after con- siderable hesitation. das laid down unacceptable conditions, and offered vehement opposition to the bengal criminal law amend- ment ordinance (oct. 25 1924) subsequently embodied in a certified act under which 110 persons were kept in imprisonment for terrorist conspiracy, some of them having close association with das. his refusal of office and command of votes in the legislature led to the suspension of the diarchical system in bengal, all transferred subjects being taken over by the executive government. at the bengal provincial conference at faridpur, early in may 1925, das modified his position and a resolution was passed condemning revolutionary tactics, though a year earlier at serajganj the conference had praised the patriotism of the mur- derer of mr. day, a european merchant who was assassinated in the streets of calcutta in mistake for a high police official, the resolution receiving the approbation of das’ paper for ward: there can be no doubt that the connection between the ter- rorists and the swarajists under das was more than mere sym- pathy of the latter for the former. while each party had its own separate aims, each was working to use and assist the other in so far as it was useful for the attainment of its own ends. there was public surprise, not unmingled with amusement, when the secretary for india in the first labour government, lord olivier, stated in debate (july 21 1924) that he wasinformed dato— davidson by a high authority in indian politics that das had “‘ the repu- tation of being a particularly upright and scrupulous politi- cian second only to gandhi himself in saintliness of character.” undoubtedly, the indian mind was impressed by the great per- sonal sacrifices of das for the swaraj cause, and by his cour- age in act and utterance. in resource and driving power he stood high above his associates. he was skilful in swaying ben- gali audiences and individuals, being capable both of playing upon their weaknesses and appealing to what was best in them. he was eloquent, emotional and clever, generous, warm-hearted and a lover of popularity. his vision of india under swaraj as a conglomeration of semi-autonomous villages had no relation to the hard facts that make centralisation inevitable. competent judges believe that das was gaining a fresh out- look, more tolerant of western ideas, in the closing months of his life. he was at darjeeling in search of health when he died from heart failure following diabetes, on june 16 1925. the body was taken to calcutta for cremation, and the funeral con- course was one of the very largest in living indian memory. a national memorial was promoted and received support from i dians of all political views. das’ book, india for indians (1918), gives extracts sain speeches. a substantial volume of specches (some translated from bengali) was published in calcutta 1918. the wavy to swaraj (1923) gives the speeches made during a tour in southern india, and expounding, according to the prefatory note, ‘‘ the whole of desabandhu’s philosophy of indian nationalism.” this philosophy is discussed with penetrating insight in lord ronaldshay’s books: india: a bird's-eye view (1924) and the heart of arydvarta (1925). (fs t1b.\") dato, eduardo (1856-1921), spanish politician, was born at corunna aug. 12 1856. he graduated in law at the univer- sity of madrid and was elected a deputy in 1884. an under- secretary for the home dept. in 1892, he became minister for the department in 1899, and was largely responsible for bills regarding accidents, insurance and women’s labour. in dec. 1902 he became minister of justice, in t907 mayor of madrid and then president of the chamber. he was elected a member of the royal academy of social and moral sciences june 20 1905. he belonged to the “ liberal-conservative ” variety of the conservative party, which his friend and political chief silvela had represented, and, after silvela’s death continued to main- tain this attitude. when in 1913 sefior maura refused to take power, sefior dato dissented from his chief, carrying with him the majority of his party, which elected him as its leader. when the world war broke out, he was responsible for spain’s declara- tion of neutrality. becoming prime minister again in june 1917, he faced with determination the revolutionary outbreaks and disturbances of that summer. he resigned in october, but in 1920 resumed office, and while prime minister was murdered in madrid march 8 rg2tr. daudet, leon (1867- ), french man of [etters and politician, was born in paris nov. 16 1867, the son of alphonse daudet (see 7.848). he married a granddaughter of victor hugo. like his father he began by writing numerous novels, but failed to gain distinction as a novelist. his true vocation was that of a pamphleteer, and his violent opposition to the government gave him the opportunity for displaying his talents as a con- troversialist. he wrote for le gaulois and le figaro, and also for la libre parole, a violently anti-semitic paper, in the col- umns of which he was able to give full vent to his fiery tempera- ment. influenced by the writer, charles maurras, he adopted the doctrines of neo-royalism. at the time of the dreyfus case, through the generosity of madame de loynes, the royalist paper, action francaise, was founded in 1899, afterwards appearing as a daily paper in 1908. through its columns daudet soon became a power in the political world. his inflexible will, the lucidity and force of his literary style, the wealth of his invective, often highly-coloured, combined to make him read and feared for 20 years. during the elections of r919 he was elected to the cham- ber as a deputy for paris. but by this time his influence as a controversialist was no longer as strong as it had been. with the s21 establishment of peace, he suffered a decline recalling the cases of rochefort and drumont. the suicide of his anarchist son caused a great sensation. | daudet wrote about 20 novels, of which the best are those which reflect his own dominating personality, such as l’astre noir (1893); les aforticoles (1894); le vovage de shakespeare and sylla et son destin (1922). among his philosophical and contro- versial works may be mentioned [’ iteredo (1916); le monde des images (1019); l’avant-guerre (1913); le stupide nine. siecle (aes): and souvenirs (1914). it is by this last work, still in- complete, that daudet will probably be best remembered; for with its series of pen-portraits and caricatures it suggest a whimsical saint-simon, and vividly depicts modern political and literary life. sce robert guillou, leon daudet: son caractere, ses romans, sa politique (1918); andre goucher, l’honorable leon daudet (1921). daumet, pierre jerome honore (1826-1011), french architect, was born on oct. 23 1826 in paris. he entered the ecole des beaux-arts in 1846, and in 1855 he was awarded the prix de rome. in 1861, he was sent on an archaeological expe- dition to macedonia, and published, in collaboration with leon henzey, an important work on the researches in thessaly, thrace and hlyria. but he is principally known for his achieve- ments in restoring monuments of french architecture, in particu- lar the castle of chantilly, and the palais de justice, paris, and the theatre at orange. in nov. 1884 daumet was rptnisted with the construction of the fglise du sacre-cocur on montmartre, which had already been begun by the architect abbadie; but the following year he abandoned the task, after a dispute with the ecclesiastical authorities. in 1885 he was chosen a member of the academie des beaux-arts, and in 1889, was awarded a gold medal for his designs exhibited at the paris exhibition. he died in paris on dec. 15 torr. davidovic, ljubomir (1863- ), yugoslav politician, was born at vlaskain serbia. in1got heentered parliament and, the next year, with ljubomir stojanovi¢, founded the inde- pendent radical party. in 1904 he became minister of educa- tion, in 1905 president of the skupstina and in 1909 mayor of belgrade. in that year he was one of the serbian witnesses at the friedjung trial in vienna, and soon afterwards professor ma- saryk laid before the austrian delegation the papers on which the forgers had practised davidovic’s signature. in the serbian coalition cabinet, formed during the austrian invasion in nov. 1914, davidovic again became minister of education, but in 1917 he resigned office and remained in active opposition to pasie throughout the remainder of the world war. in 1919 he was elected chief of the newly formed democratic party and was yugoslav premier from aug. of that year until feb. 1920. in later years he adopted a conciliatory attitude towards the croats, and condemned the policy of extreme centralisation. in july 1924 he again became prime minister at the head of a coalition of democrats, slovene clcricals and bosnian moslems, supported by the croat peasants. he was, however, unable to maintain himself in office, and was replaced, in oct. 1924, by a purely radical government under pa&ic. davidson, randall thomas (1848- ), english divine (see 7.863), appointed archbishop of canterbury in 1903, was with king edward vii. at his death in 1gto, as he had been with queen victoria in 1901, and he crowned king george v. in rorr. tile was one of the four counsellors of state who acted as his majesty’s commission when the king went to india in 1911, and again in 1925 when the king went to the mediterranean after illness. during the whole of this period he took a leading part as spokesman of the national church in the house of lords. lord morley bore public witness to the effectiveness of his inter- vention in the critical debate on the parliament act in rgrq. he made important contributions in debates on tempcrance, divorce and various social and moral questions. his influence was also constantly and successfully exerted in matters affecting the welfare of native races, e.g., in kenya, and he made notable appeals on behalf of christian minorities in the east. in general national and ecclesiastical affairs his attitude is admirably 822 expressed in his charge, the character and call of the church of england (1912). trusted by englishmen of all classes for his wisdom and goodness, the archbishop commanded the confidence of free churchmen to a greater degree than any of his predecessors. he had a peculiarly anxious task during the world war, and his utterances from 1914-9 published in the testing of a nation (1919) show the combinationof just patriotism with an inter- national spirit by which his leadership was distinguished. on more than one occasion he lifted up his voice both in convoca- tion and the house of lords against reprisals which had “asa deliberate object the killing and wounding of non-combatants.” twice he visited the troops in france. in 1916 he placed himself at the head of a national mission, which aimed at the deepening of religious life at home. at an early date he gave public support to the proposals for a league of nations, and it was recognised as specially fitting that he should preach the sermon at the opening of the third assembly in geneva, 1922, since published with other post-war addresses in occasions (1925). in 1922 dr. davidson took the lead in issuing a vigorous protest, signed by the leaders of the anglican, roman, free church and jewish communions, against religious persecution in russia—one result of which was the saving of the patriarch tikhon’s life. in 1923 he also made a successful public appeal for the retention of the oecu- menical patriarchate at constantinople. the archbishop also took a deep interest in the work of the church overseas. he presided over the sixth lambeth confer- ence in 1920, attended by 252 out of the 368 bishops of the anglican communion, and throughout the deliberations adopted a strong forward-looking attitude. after the issue of the appeal to all christian people by that conference he took a prominent part in securing widespread consideration of the proposals for the reunion of christendom which it contained. he actively forwarded conferences with the free church representatives in iengland, a series of important meetings being held at lambeth palace. he further expounded the appeal to the general assem- bles of the church of scotland, and the united free church of scotland in 1921. in addition, the archbishop markedly de- veloped friendly relations between the anglican and orthodox churches, and it was to him that the patriarch (meletios iv.) of constantinople communicated his synod’s acceptance of the validity of anglican ordinations in 1922. he also took “ cogni- sance ’’ of the conversations between anglican and roman catholic theologians held at malines (1921-4) under the presi- dency of cardinal mercier, and which took place with the cogni- sance of pope pius xi. in 1920 two other events occurred with which he was closely identified in different ways. the first archbishop of wales was enthroned by him at st. asaph, following upon the disestablish- ment of the welsh church. the national assembly of the church of england, with the powers conferred upon it by the enabling act of 1919, met for the first time. dr. davidson’s chairmanship of the national assembly gave it a vitality and eoherence which would otherwise have been difficult to attain. the two chief church problems which confronted his primacy were those connected with modern criticism, and with ecclesiastical discipline in ritual and doctrine, including prayer-book revision. his own policy was to try to secure the fidelity to primitive christianity, historical continuity, due regard to the needs of the present day and loyalty to truth, for which the church of england stands. (g. k. a. b.) davies, arthur b. (1862- ), american painter, was born at utica, n.y., sept. 26 1862. he was a pupil of dwight williams at utica, afterwards studying in new york and chicago. he became an adherent of the romantic school of painting and made notable contributions in the fields of etching and colour-lithography. among his more important works are ** dream ” and “ the girdle of aries,” in the metropolitan mu- scum, new york city; “‘ maya, mirror of illusions,” in the art institute, chicago; “ spring in a valley ” and “‘ night overture,” in the minneapolis institute of art; and “ the place of the mother” and ‘ children of yesterday,” in the brooklyn davies, a. b—davis, j. w. museum. in 1923 his picture, “ after-thoughts of earth,” procured for him from the carnegie trust a medal of the first class and $1,500. ile had previously been the recipient of the corcoran gold medal (1916). | davies, sir louis henry (1845-1924), canadian politician and jurist (see 7.865), was in rgor appointed a judge of the cana- dian supreme court. in 1918 he became chief justice and in the following year wassworn of the privy council. he died at ottawa may i 1924. davis, henry william banks (1833-10914), british painter (see 7.866), died at glaslyn, radnorshire, dec. 1 1914. davis, henry william carless (1874- ), british historian, a son of h. f. a. davis of stroud, gloucestershire, was born jan. 13 1874 and educated at weymouth college and balliol college, oxford. he was made a fellow of all souls college and from 1902 to 1921 was a fellow of balliol, where he was responsi- ble for much of the history teaching. during the world war he served in the war trace intelligence department. in 1921 davis was appointed professor of modern history at manchester and in 1925 he returned to oxford as regius professor of modern history. ile became director of the dictionary of national biog- raphy, when, in 1902, the copyright of that work passed to the clarendon press. davis’s early historical work was chiefly done in the medieval field and found expression in his /ngland under the normans and angevins, 1905; afediaeval europe, 1911, and a revised edition of the select charters of william stubbs, 1913. during the war period he turned to subjects bearing on the strug- gle, wrote the political thought of treitschke, 1914; edited the oxford pamphlets and worked on a history of the peace con- ference. davis, john william (1873- ), american lawyer, was born at clarksburg, w.va., april 13 1873, where he received his early education. he graduated from washington and lee uni- versity in 1892, and from the law school there in 1895, being admitted to the bar in the same year. after a year as assistant professor of law at his alma mater, he returned in 1897 to clarksburg, where he entered into an informal partnership with his father, also a lawyer, which continued until 1913. in 1899 he was clected a member of the west virginia house of delegates, and in 1904 was a delegate to the democratic national conven- tion at st. louis. he was elected to the 62nd (1911) and 63rd (1913) congresses for the first west virginia district. during his period of service he was one of the managers on the part of the tiouse in the successful impeachment of judge archbald. in aug. 1913, he was appointed solicitor-general of the united states, an office which he held until 1918. in this position he con- ducted many important cases, among them the midwest oil case, involving the right of the president to withdraw from entry public lands thought to contain mineral deposits. from 1913 to 1918 he was counsel for the american red cross. in 1918 he was appointed american delegate to a conference with germany at bern on the treatment and exchange of prisoners of war, and in the same year succeeded walter hines page as american am- bassador to great britain, retaining this post until rg21. among the honours conferred upon him was that of election as a bencher of the middle temple. | during the peace conference john w. davis was one of pres- ident wilson’s chief advisers, and was the american representa- tive on the joint committee which drafted the form of allied con- trol and government in the occupied rhineland territory. in 1921 he returned from england and accepted a partnership in the new york law firm of stetson, jennings and russell, which had many distinguished clients, among them j. p. morgan & co. and the guaranty trust company. mr. davis was nominated on the ro3rd ballot as democratic candidate for the presidency at the democratic national convention held in new york city july 1924. the ensuing election resulted in an overwhelming victory for calvin coolidge, the republican candidate, the electoral vote being 382 for the latter, 136 for davis and 13 for la follette, the progressive candidate, while the popular vote was 15,748,356 for coolidge, 8,617,454 for davis and 4,686,681 for la follette. davis, r. him—dawson of penn davis, richard harding (1864-1916), american writer, was born in philadelphia april 18 1864. he studied at lehigh and johns hopkins universities and in 1886 became a reporter on the philadelphia record. after working on several news- papers he acted as managing editor of harper’s weekly. he be- came widely known as a war correspondent, reporting evcry war from the greco-turkish war (1897) to the world war. of his numerous works of fiction, the earliest are the best, especially gallegher and others (1891); van bibber and other storics (1892); and episodes from van bibber’s life (1899). his other books include: soldiers of fortune (1897); captain macklin (1902); the bar sinister (1904); vera the medium (1908); and with the brench in france and at salonika (1916). his plays include: miss civilization; the dictater; the galloper; the orator of zapata city; and the zone police (1914). he died near mt. kisco, n.y., april 11 1916. ; dawes, charles gates (1865- ), american statesman and financier, was born in marietta, o., aug. 27 1865, the son of gen. rufus r. dawes. he was educated in his home town, graduating from marietta college in 1884 at the early age of 10. he then attended the cincinnati law school and in order to de- fray his expenses obtained employment during his vacation on the marietta, columbus and northern ohio railway. before finishing his two-year law course he was made chief engineer in charge of construction on this railway—a fact eloquent of the energy and versatility which were to distinguish his whole career. he received his ll.b. degree in 1886, before he was old enough to practise. admitted to the barseveral months later, he commenced practice at lincoln, neb., in 1887. two years later he married caro d. blymer of cincinnati. dawes’ reputation as a lawyer was established by his part in the nebraska rate case, in which he appeared successfully as counsel for the lincoln board of trade in an effort to obtain a reduction in railway rates in nebraska. in 1894 he became ex- tensively interested in the gas business at evanston, ijil., and at other western points, and removed to evanston in that year. in 1896 he organised the movement in illinois to nominate william mckinley as republican candidate for the presidency. he was chosen a member of the executive committce of the republican national committee, and was active in securing mckinley’s nomination and election. he was appointed comptroller of the currency by president mckinley jan. 1 1898. his tenure of office was conspicuous for efficiency of administration and dis- regard of “ red-tape ’’ methods, especially in the conduct of the many receiverships and trusts created by the financial disorders following 1893. retiring from this office in 1902, he organised the central trust co. of illinois, which, under his presidency, be- came one of the strongest financial institutions in chicago. on the declaration of war against germany by the united states april 6 1917, mr. dawes volunteered for service and was given a commission as major and later as heut.-col. of the 17th engineers (railway), his well-known ability and early experience in railway construction outweighing the fact that he was over age. he landed in france july 17 and was placed on the head- quarters staff of the american expeditionary force by gen. pershing as chairman of the general purchasing board and chief of supply procurement charged with the duty of collecting sup- plies in europe and of co-ordinating their purchase in such a way as to guard against inflated prices and duplication of orders. his conspicuous success in directing these transactions, which secured for the american army over 10,000,000 ship tons of supplies in europe as against 7,000,000 shipped to it from the united states, led to his promotion to the rank of brigadier-general in 1918 and, on the unification of command of the allied forces under foch, gen. dawes was appointed as u.s.member of the military board of allied supply, the organisation of which had been largely due to his efforts. this board for the last four months of the war co-ordinated the movement of supplies for the allied armies in the zone of the advance. after the conclusion of the armistice, dawes became a member of the liquidation committee of the a.e.f., charged with the task of disposing of the huge accumulations of american property 823 in france and of settling outstanding claims against the army, which engaged his efforts until aug. 1919, when he resigned his commission and returned to the united states. upon the creation of a budget bureau by congress, april 1921, the directorship of it was offered to gen. dawes by president harding and was accepted on condition that the bureau should be non-political, that in gathering information the director should be assumed to be acting for the president and his calls for consultation or information should take precedence of all others. his work in organising this bureau and creating under executive order the existing system of co-ordinating boards now operating in govern- ment business was carried through with characteristic vigour and directness and resulted in savings estimated officially at $250,- 000,000 in the first year. having completed the task of placing the budget on a satisfactory and permanent basis, he resigned his position june 30 1922. in the meantime the collapse of the german financial! structure and international reactions resulting therefrom had precipitated a crisis in european affairs, the outcome of which appeared omi- nous. at this juncture, the allied reparations commission, in 1923, appointed gen. dawes and owen d. young as u.s. mem- bers of the committee of experts to report upon means of balanc- ing germany’s budget and stabilising its cutrency. dawes was sclected as chairman, and the committee’s report, known as the “ dawes plan,’’ was subsequently ratified and accepted by all the powers concerned. by making the actual transfer of repara- tion payments conditional on the stability of german exchange, this plin provided a non-political and automatic means for de- termining germany’s ability to pay and so withdrew this vexed question from international controversy and paved the way for the later agreements entered into at locarno (sce reparations), at the republican national convention held at cleveland, o., june 10-12 1924, following the nomination of president coolidge for re-election, gen. dawes was nominated for vice-president on the third ballot by a vote of 6824 against 3345 for herbert hoover and 75 for judge kenyon. following the overwhelming triumph of the republican ticket at the ensuing election, gen. dawes assumed office on march 4 1925. in his inaugural speech he called for a revision of the rules of procedure in the senate so that a majority vote could apply the closure to debate. he later carried his proposals for senatorial reform before the people in a series of public meetings in various parts of the country. another aspect of gen. dawes’ character is revealed by two acts of philanthropy. in memory of his son, rufus fearing, who was accidentally drowned sept. 5 1912, he established the rufus f. dawes hotels in chicago and boston, at which impoverished men could obtain food and accommodation at nominal rates. as a memorial to his mother he established the mary dawes memoria} hoiel, where women might live at small cost and retain the physical comforts and social opportunities compatible with self-respect. in the course of his varied and successful career as engineer, lawyer, politician, comptroller of the currency, public utility operator, banker, philanthropist, soldier, organiser of the government budget, leading spirit in the settlement of german reparations, and vice-president of the united states, gen. dawes found time also to become an accomplished musician on the piano and flute, and is the composer of the well-known “melody in a major.” bis outstanding achievements were re- warded with a number of decorations, including the d.s.m. of the united states, croix de guerre and commander of the legion d’honneur of france, companion of the order of the bath of england and commander of the order of leopold, belgium, his forceful expression “ hell and maria,” used in giving evidence contributed not a little to his popularity. dawes wrote the banking system of the united states and tts relation to the money and business of the country (1894); essays and speeches (1915); 4a journal of the great war (1921); and the first year of the budget of the united states of america (1923). (o. d. y.) dawes plan: sce reparations. | dawson of penn, bertrand edward dawson, ist baron, british physician. he studied medicine at university college and the london hospital, where in 1896 he became an 824 dawson, g. assistant physician, and in 1906 physician. he carried out extensive researches on gastric affections, and became one of the leading authorities on this subject. he was appointed physician extraordinary to king edward vii. in 1907, and later physician in ordinary to king george v. and in 1923 to the prince of wales. during the world war he did very valuable work on war diseases, publishing various papers on paratyphoid and in- fective jaundice. he was made g.c.v.o. in 1917, k.c.m.g. in 191g and in 1920 was raised to the peerage. dawson has pub- lished the diagnosis and operative treatment of diseases of the stomach (1908), various contributions to allchin’s afanual of afed- icine, and many papers in medical journals on gastric disorders. dawson, george geoffrey (1874- ), british journalist, was educated at eton and magdalen college, oxford, and was elected a fellow of all souls college in 1900. passing into the civil service, he was appointed to the colonial office, and in 1901 he went to south africa as private secretary to lord milner, then high commissioner. on lord milner’s retirement from the high commissionership in 1905 he accepted the editorship of the johannesburg star, which he held for the next four years. returning to london in roro, he was appointed a director of the times, which was then in the early days of lord northcliffe’s direction, and in 1912 succeeded mr. g. e. buckle as editor. the conspicuous success which the times attained during the difficult years of the world war was largely due to mr. dawson’s sound judgment and knowledge of affairs, which formed an admirable and often very necessary complement to lord north- cliffe’s imagination and genius. in 1919, however, mr. dawson found himself unable to carry out lord northcliffe’s policy for the times and resigned. he was suceecded by mr. ilenry wickham steed (g.v.). when in consequence of lord north- cliffe’s death in 1923 the times was reconstructed, mr. steed retired and mr. dawson was recalled to the editorship. during his absence from journalism he was estates bursar of all souls college (1919-23) and secretary to the rhodes trust (1921-2). in 1917, under the terms of a relative’s will, he took the name of dawson instead of robinson. daylight saving.—in the second year of the world war nearly every country in europe adopted the device of putting the clock forward an hour during the spring, summer and autumn months. the motive was quite simply to get people to bed an hour earlier and out of bed and at work an hour earlier, to save fuel for lighting and heating. great britain.—in great britain, the idea itself did not arise out of the war at all. about 1907 it occurred to mr. william willett, a chelsea builder, that civilisation got up an hour or two too late in the summer months, and had a short evening for out- door recreation, when it might have a long one. he devoted him- self to a campaign for putting the clock on by 80 min. in the spring and summer months. he made no attempt to found a league or society, but ran the campaign himself at his own ex- pense and succeeded so far that in 1908 mr. (afterwards sir rob- ert) pearce introduced a bill in the house of commons to put the clock on by law. the bill was sent to a select committee the following year. in ro916, the expert committee set up by the british government to study the question of fuel economy ad- vised that the measure should be adopted. the scheme was simplified. mr. willett had proposed that the clock should be put on 80 min. in four moves of 20 min. each. the first select committee in 1908 had advocated one movement of the clock of one hour in the spring. this was the method adopted by the act which was passed on may 17 1916 and put into operation the following sunday, may 21. there was a good deal of oppo- sition. farmers objected to it because milkers would have to get up an hour earlier to do their work, which meant getting up in the dark during the greater part of the year. hay and corn har- vests could not be carried until the dew was dried off, which meant an hour during which labourers could do nothing. when put to the test of practice these difficulties proved to have been much exaggerated. in the house of commons sir frederick banbury and lord hugh cecil were the tellers against the bill in the division upon g.—dayton the second reading. in the house of lords lord balfour of bur- leigh opposed it as ‘‘ the most absurd and ridiculous bill that had ever been presented to the house.” he said further that h{e did not propose to give it strenuous opposition as it was but a temporary measure for the duration of the war. but if any attempt were made after the war to make it a perma- nent institution it would have to receive the most critical attention. he asked their lordships to carry their minds to the night in october when the clock was sct back. at1i o'clock the clock would be put back to midnight. supposing some unfortunate lady was confined with twins and one child was born ro minutes before i o’clock. if the clock was put back the registration of the time of birth of the two children would be reversed. thesccond child would be born 50 minutes before the other. such an alteration might conceivably affect the property and titles in that house. the actual introduction of summer time on sunday, may 21 1916, was fortunate in the matter of weather. may 21 wasa day of summer warmth and sunshine, and the fine evening was a strong popular argument for the advancing of the clock. some few adjustments had to be made and warnings issued. the president of the royal meteorological society sent out a letter stating that greenwich mean time would continue to be used for all meteorological observations and publications, but asked that regular observers for this society should state in their re- ports whether they were recording greenwich or summer time. the port of london authority announced that the tide tables in the almanacs would remain greenwich time. the royal and l.c.c. parks decided to close at dusk by the sun, but kew gar- dens decided to follow the clock and closed an hour earlier by the sun. at edinburgh the castle gun continued to be fired at i p.m. summer time, but the ball on the top of the nelson monu- ment on calton hill was dropped at 1 o’clock, greenwich mean time, for the benefit of mariners who watched it from the firth of forth. the legal change of the clock was fixed for 2 a.m. in the morning, so that only travellers by long-distance trains run- ning through the night actually saw the jump of an hour. | in great britain summer time was renewed after the war by a series of acts of parliament. the final and permanent act of 1925 provided that summer time should begin on the day next following the third saturday in april, or if that day is easter day the day next following the second saturday in april. summer time closes in great britain on the first saturday in october. the official time for altering the clock is 2 a.m. on sunday morning. (h. d.*) united siates-—the course of the daylight saving movement in the united states has been different. no public interest was developed in the project till after the outbreak of the world war, and it was not until 1916 that a nation-wide campaign was initiated in its support. opinion was divided, but in 1917 con- gress passed an act, to take effect in 1918, whereby the standard time of the united states would be advanced one hour on the last sunday in march and set back one hour on the last sunday in october. the act was effective from march 31 till oct. 27 1918, and again on march 30 1919. strenuous opposition devel- oped, however, from the farmers and the law was repealed aug. 20 1919 over the president’s veto. since then the question has been left to the various state and local authorities, with the result that daylight legislation has been sporadic and intermit- tent. daylight saving was observed in 1925 in the states of massachusetts and rhode island by virtue of state laws, and by municipal ordinance in the new york metropolitan district, philadelphia, chicago and a number of other cities and towns, but the movement as a whole has lost ground. dayton, o., u.s.a. (see 7.877), made a remarkable recovery from its losses in the floods of march 1913, which covered 7 sq. m. of its area, including the business district and large resi- dential sections, the water standing 12 ft. deep on main street. a pestilence was only averted by prompt and energetic measures. a relief fund of $750,000 was disbursed by the american red cross and the citizens’ relief committee. to prevent a recur- rence of the catastrophe, the miami conservancy district, formed in 1915 under the provisions of a state law of ror4, constructed a series of dry reservoirs at a cost of $35,000,000, deaf and dumb which met successfully the test of severe spring storms in 1922. the total value of the output of the factories rose from $60,378,- 000 in 1909 to $174,991,000 in ror19 and $187,933,516 in 1923. the population increased from 116,577 in 1910 to 152,559 in 1920, of whom 9,025 were negroes (an increase of 86-4% in 10 years) and 13,165 foreign-born (a decrease of 5-3%); in 1925 the official estimate was 172,942. (see cox, j. m. dayton was the first large city to adopt the commission- manager form of government which came into effect jan. 1 1914. between roro and 1925, nearly $7,500,000 was spent on public- school buildings. the university of dayton, until 1920 st. mary’s college, had an enrolment of 1,150 in 1925. the civic music league was organised in 1912, and an art institute was established in 1919 in a reconstructed factory building. the importance of dayton as an aviation centre, the home of wilbur and orville wright, was increased during the war, when the u.s. govt. located its aviation experiment laboratories at mccook field. when this became too small, the wilbur wright ficld was expanded to 5,000 ac. by the gift of the people of dayton (1924). this was accepted by the war dept. as the permanent location for the engineering division of the air service. deaf and dumb.—the efiects of deafness upon the physi- ology and the psychology of the individual necessarily vary according to its history, its degree and its possible physical and mental complications. it is practically impossible to obtain complete or reliable statistics of the incidence of deafness in the general population; or of the history and nature of the affliction. i. great britain the census authorities of great britain and ireland still use headings which, under the circumstances in which these are answered, render the published results both incomplete and un- satisfactory. the board of education is the only other official department which issues any statistics on the deaf, and these necessarily relate to children. in his report for 1924, the chief medical officer states that there were, in that year, 3,584 deaf children and 423 partially deaf children in attendance at certi- fied special schools: 288 deaf children and 1,279 partially deaf children were attending public elementary schools or other insti- tutions and 3o1 deaf children and 79 partially deaf children were at no school or institution, while there were 586 vacancies for such children in the special schools. the incidence of total deaf- ness in children, as shown in the returns of the local education authorities for 1924, was -81 per 1,000 children; that of partial deafness in the same year was -35 per 1,000 children. the inci- dence of deafness in school children varies very widely in differ- ent districts and is shown in the chief medical officer’s report to be 5-18 per 1,000 children in the is. of scilly and -33 in southport. classification.—the national college of teachers of the deaf has for many years past advocated the scientific classification of deaf children for the purposes of instruction according to the history and degrce of their deafness and their mental condition. clearly, the partially deaf, and those who lose their hearing after the habit of speech has becn naturally acquired, stand in a dif- ferent relation to education from the deaf born, whose minds have never been stimulated by heard speech. up to comparatively recent times, both types were grouped together for instructional purposes, an entirely wrong procedure. the movement to give these children the advantages of a hearing environment and to train them by methods adapted to children who hear is steadily growing, and schools for partially deaf children are increasing in number. this is only part of the classification necessary to ensure that each type and condition of deafness shall receive the special educational care it needs. the london county council institution for the defective deaf at rayners is another step in this direction. international action—at the international conference of teachers of the deaf held in london in 1925, which was attended by leading experts from some 15 nations, recommendations were adopted, urging the need for opportunities for the higher educa- tion and technical training of the deaf after school age; the establishment of classes for the partially deaf in connection with 825 schools for hearing children, such classes to be taught by spe- cialist teachers of the deaf; the enforcement of a compulsory hearing test in elementary schools, in order to ensure the detec- tion and treatment of deafness in its early stages; the appoint- ment of national committees to enquire into, and report upon, all matters affecting the education, training, industrial and social conditions of the deaf in the various countries represented; and the establishment in every country of a national organisation to promote the gencral interests of the deaf throughout life. the conference also decided to organise an international organisation of teachers of the deaf. | the british association.—the british deaf and dumb asso- ciation is a national body consisting of deaf adults together with the leaders, hearing and deaf, of the local welfare societies, of which there are some 60 in existence, and is complementary to that of the teachers. the main consideration of its congress at southampton was devoted to the industrial and social position of the deaf. the great advance in the education of the deaf during the 20th century has established their fitness for higher educational and technical training. with this conviction the leaders of the schools and welfare socicties for the deaf initiated, in 1923, a movement for the reconstitution of the then national bureau for promoting the general welfare of the deaf, established in 1911, which was reorganised as the national institute for the deaf and came into being in april 1925. the national institute—the main attention of the institute has been devoted to the industrial conditions of the deaf, the conditions of the deaf in poor law institutions and mental hos- pitals and the care of the blind-deaf. one of the greatest needs at the present time is the establishment of provision for the training of the deaf who leave school, in skilled trades in order to prevent the wastage of intelligence and ability now too common. in great britain the compulsory education of deaf children has been operative since 1894. no official enquiry has yet been made into the conditions and needs of the deaf after school age; and the committee of the national institute are of opinion that the appointment of a departmental committee for this purpose is long overdue. the general objects of the institute are:— the prevention of deafness; the education of the deaf, includin the proper administration of the law affecting the attendance of deat children at suitable schools, and the furtherance of their early train- ing: the re-eclucation of the partially deaf through speech-reading; the provision of efficient training in trades for children leaving school, and of opportunities for continued academic study; the adjustment of official and trade regulations, where they operate harshly against the deaf worker; the provision of opportunities for the higher eclucation of the deaf; the adequate care of the blind-deaf and the mentally defective deaf; the social elevation and fuller cit- izenship of the deaf; supplying information to, and advising public departments, private bodies and individuals needing this assistance; and generally by propaganda, whether in the way of local or national action, to influence the public in favour of the deaf, with a view to bringing about necessary reforms. (ho. il. the united states during the years 1910-25 the number of schools for the deaf in the united states increased from 145 to 167. the school at- tendance during the same period has grown from 13,540 to 15,473. it is not likely that this increase in number of pupils means an increase in the actual percentage of deaf children in the united states, but that it is due to the passage of more compulsory school laws and to the more careful execution of suchlaws. proba- bly the increase is partly due also to the increasing tendency to transfer hard-of-hearing children, who are dropping behind in the ordinary public schools, to special schools for the deaf. the in- crease in the number of schools is largely confined to the establish- ment of small day schools, particularly in the middle western states. entirely new school plants have been built in connecticut at hartford, in tennessee at knoxville and in new jersey at trenton. these new plants are of three distinct types: the first, single building to include all the activities of the school; the second, a group of buildings separating the activities to some 826 extent; and the plant at trenton, a highly divided plant with many cottages accommodating small groups of children only. it is worthy of note that the plant in construction at the tennessee school was designed and built under the direction of a deaf architect, a graduate of gallaudet college. many other schools have added to their physical equipment, particularly to their primary departments and their trades schools. labour bureaus for the deaf have been established as part of the state government in north carolina and minnesota, for the purpose of aiding deaf workers to obtain employment. social workers to keep in touch with both the young and the adult deaf have been appointed in the states of illinois, pennsylvania and minnesota. considerable attention has recently been given in educational work for the deaf to the training of residual hearing and the improvement of speech and accent by the use of musical instruments, such as the piano. various electrical inventions have been placed upon the market for use with hard-of-hearing pupils, some of which can be operated by one teacher for a whole class. such instruments, however, are yet in their experimental stage, as far as value in educational work gocs. the course of instruction at gallaudet college, which reccives graduates from various state, city and private schools of the country, has been extended to include practical work for the men, such as printing, mechanical drawing, agriculture and chemistry. courses in library cataloguing, domestic art and domestic science have been added for the benefit of the women students. a survey of over 40 schools in the united states was under- taken in 1925 by the national research council. it covered, among other questions, that of hearing, speech and speech-read- ing powers of pupils, causes of deafness, courses of study given in schools, trades taught, laws under which the schools operate and the general equipment for instruction of pupils. schools visited were both of the institutional and the day-school type. the results of this survey are being published in the american annals for the deaf. they already seem to show the need of more attention to auricular work and of better speech teaching in the american schools. deakin, alfred (1856-1919), australian statesman, was born at melbourne aug. 3 1856. educated at the university of melbourne, for a time he worked as a journalist, being called to the victorian barin 1877. he entered the victorian legislature in 1878 and held several important ministerial posts. he played a prominent part in the federation movement and, in rgo1, as attorney-general, was included in the first federal cabinet of sir edmund barton, whom he succeeded as prime minister in 1903. during his legislative career in victoria he was active in pro- moting social legislation and an ardent advocate of preference in favour of great britain. this fiscal policy he pursued curing his three federal premierships (1903—4, 1905-8, i909-i0), and sup- ported australia’s co-operation in imperial defence, being re- sponsible for the reception of the measure authorising australian naval construction in 1909, and for the invitation to lord kitch- ener to visit australia and report on the question of defence. after 1910 he led the opposition in the australian parliament: until compelled to retire owing to ill-health in 1913. he died oct. 7 1919. death: why and wherefore (sce 7.898).—the life cycle of individual multicellular organisms, standing relatively high in the scale of organic specialisation, as for example, a fly, a bird or a man, is typically divisible into five biologically differentiated, and usually distinct, phases as follows: (a) the formation of the zygote, which is the individual, by the union of ovum and sperma- tozoon in the process called fertilisation. the life-history of the individual, as a distinct and biological entity, begins with this event. (&) the period of development and growth, which has two sub-phases, commonly designated respectively as embryonic or foetal, and post-embryonic or post-natal. the duration of this growth phase of the life-cycle in time varies widely in different organisms, as from 8 to 10 days in the fruit fly, drosophila, to more than 20 years in man. this developmental and growth phase finally comes normally to an end in most forms of higher animal life, and is succeeded by deakin—death: why and wherefore (c) the phase of adult stability, in which no marked changes are observable either in the direction of growth or degeneration. this phase is the “‘ prime of life ”’ in common parlance. its dura- tion in time is again widely variable. sooner or later the individ- ual can be observed to have passed definitely into the next phase of the life-cycle, which may be designated (d) the period of senescence. this phase is characterised by a progressive wan- ing in the intensity of the vital processes generally, accompanied by regressive and degenerative changes in the structures of the body. the duration in time of this portion of the life-cycle again varies greatly, but ultimately, in all the more highly specialised organisms, the life of the individual, as such, comes to an end with the terminal event of the cycle (e) death. by this term is designated the cessation of all vital capacity. the cycle of life-—in the cycle of individual life as outlined, the most significant phases biologically are obviously (6) growth and (d) senescence. phases (a) and (e) (fertilisation and death) are the terminal events of the important periods (b) and (d). phase (c) is transitional between (6) and (@), and may be wholly absent, as when obvious senescent changes follow im- mediately upon the cessation of obvious growth. indeed it is doubtful if phase (c) has theoretically any place in the life- cycle at all. perhaps in cases where a stable adult plateau in the middle of the cycle seems to exist, it merely means that the changes of growth or of senescence are proceeding at too slow a rate to be observable by the relatively crude methods available. senescence and death.—the special problem of the biology of death is the analysis and elucidation of phases (d) and (e) of the life-cycle, senescence and death. as a result of investigations in this special field of general biology certain broad gencralisations are now possible. ‘the more important of these will now be discussed. time duration.—the time duration of the entire individual life-cycle varies enormously, both as between different forms of life, species, genera, families, etc., and also as between different individuals belonging to the same species. thus the maximum duration of life of the rotifer, proales decipiens, is 8 days (noyes). at the other extreme there are other authentic records of in- dividual reptiles living to as much as 175 years, and of individual birds and mammals living to well over 100 years. zoological groups.—the differences between distinct groups of animals (species, genera, families, etc.) in respect to the length of the life-span stand in no generally valid, orderly relationship to any other broad fact now known in their structure or life- history. in spite of many attempts to establish such relationships every one so far suggested has been upset by well-known facts of natural history. thus it has been contended that the duration of an animal’s life is correlated with its size, in the sense that the larger the animal the longer its life. but plainly this has no general validity. men and parrots are smaller than horses, but have life-spans of much greater length. individual differences ——the differences between individuals of the same species in the duration of their lives are distributed in a lawful and orderly manner, in marked contrast to the ap- parently haphazard character of the inter-group variation in length of life-span just discussed. the individual variation in the duration of life is capable of exact mathematical description, and, indeed, its treatment constitutes a special branch of mathematics, known as actuarial science. it has been shown by pearl and his students that if the life of different animals, such as the rotifer, proales, the fly, drosophila, various other insects and man, be measured not in absolute time-units of years or days, but in terms of a relative unit, namely a hundredth part of the biologically equivalent portions of the life-span in the several cases, then the distribution of individual variation in duration of life, or the distribution of mortality in respect to age, or, in short, the life- curve, is quantitatively similar in these widely different forms of life almost to the point of identity. this is illustrated in fig. r. these facts suggest that the observed differences between individuals in duration of life are primarily the result of inborn differences in their biological constitutions (their structural and functional] organisations) and only secondarily to a much smaller death, why and wherefore degree the result of the environmental circumstances in which their lives are passed. this inference is supported by the further fact that:— inheritance.—the differences between individuals which find expression in varying degrees of longevity, or duration of life, are definitely inherited. this has been demonstrated statistically b® @®© aman survivors from groups of /00 s) ‘z. 10. 20 30 40 #50 60 70 +80 90 100 biologically equi valent life spans represented as fgual and divided into 100 units fic. 1.—these curves show the survival rates for man, a fruit fly (drosophila) and a water animalcule (proales) at corresponding ages. ‘the remarkable similarity of these curves shows that actuarial tables constructed for man would apply with little change to these other animals, although the fruit fly lives, on the average, about 50 days and the water animalcule less than 8 days. for man by karl pearson, alexander graham bell, pearl and others. it has been proved experimentally by cross-breeding long-lived and short-lived strains of the fruit fly, drosophila melanogaster (hyde, pearl and his students, parker and gonze- lez). the results of such an experiment are shown in fig. 2. in the first generation (f;) from such a cross the progeny exhibit a life-curve essentially like that of the long-lived parent stock, but with a slightly greater average duration. if now these f, individuals are bred together izfer se there are produced in the second cross-bred generation (f2) two kinds of individuals, one of which (long-winged) has a life-curve like the original long-lived parent stock, while the other (short-winged) resembles in duration of life the original short-lived parent stock. in ad- dition to these experiments along mendelian lines, it has been shown that there can be isolated from a general population of wild drosophila inbred strains showing definite and permanent innate differences in average longevity. the conclusion that individual differences in life duration are fundamentally an ex- pression of hereditary differences between individuals is firmly established. natural death a novelty——neither senescence nor natural death are necessary, inevitable consequences or attributes of life. natural death is biologically a relatively new thing, which made its appearance only after living things had advanced a long way on the path of evolution. the evidence supporting this conclusion is manifold, and may be considered under several heads. (a) various single-celled organisms (profozoa) have proved, under critical experimental observation, to be im- mortal. they reproduce by simple fission of the body, one individual becoming two, and leaving behind in the process nothing corresponding to a corpse. the brilliant work of wood- ruff and his students, in particular, has demonstrated that this process may go on indefinitely, without any permanent slacking 827 of the rate of cell division corresponding to senescence, and without the intervention of a rejuvenating process such as con- jugation or endomixis, providing the environment of the cells is kept favourable. (6) the germ cells (ova and spermatozoa) of all sexually differentiated organisms are, in a similar sense, im- mortal. reduced to a formula we may say that the fertilised ovum (united germ cells) produces a soma and more germ cells. the soma eventually dies. some of the germ cells prior to that event produce somata and germ cells, and so on in a continuous cycle which has never yet ended since the appearance of multi- cellular organisms on the earth. (c) in some of the most lowly organised groups of many-celled animals or metazoa, the power of multiplication by simple fission, or budding off of a portion of the body which reproduces the whole, is retained. this asexual, or agamic, mode of reproduction occurs as the usual, but nof exclusive, method in the three lowest groups of multicellular animals, the spunges, flatworms and coelenterates. more rarely it may occur in other of the lower invertebrates. so long as reproduction goes on in this way in these multicel- lular forms there is no place for death. in the passage from one generation to the next no residue is left behind. agamic repro- duction and its associated absence of death also occurs come monly in plants. budding and propagation by cuttings are the usual forms in which it is seen. the somatic cells have the capac- ity of continuing multiplication and life for an indefinite duration of time, so long as they are not accidentally caught in the break- down and death of the whole individual in which they are at the moment located. (d) there is some evidence that in certain fish there is no occurrence of senility or natural death, but that in- stead the animal keeps on growing indefinitely, and would be immortal except for accidental death. the animal soma in such 4,000 / survivors from groups of 1000 indi 200 ny @&© aaan 42 48 s54 60 66 72 78 84 30 age (in days) | fic. 2.—thischart shows the manner in which longevity is inherited among fruit flies (drosophila) when a long-lived stock is crossed with a short-lived one (both represented by an unbroken line). the first generation of progeny (dotted line, f's) is longer-lived than cither parent stock. the first generation, when inbred, produces progeny of two kinds (broken lines, f2’s): a short-winged, which approxt- mates in length of life the short-lived ancestral stock, and the long- winged, which approximates the long-lived one. the mendelian laws of heredity are thus seen to hold, in the case of these fruit flies, for longevity, which is thereby shown to behave like a definitely inheri- table quality. cases behaves like the root stock of a perennial plant. (for further discussion of this line of evidence see interesting cor- respondence by geo. p. bidder, in nature, vol. 115, jan. to june 1925, passim.) . 828 (e) the successful cultivation in vitre of the tissues of higher vertebrates, even including man himself, over an indefinitely long period of time, demonstrates that senescence and natural death are in no sense necessary concomitants of cellular life. carrel and ebeling, by transferring the culture at frequent intervals into fresh nutrient medium, have kept alive for more than 14 years, and in perfectly normal and healthy condition, a culture of tissue (see tissue culture) from the heart of a chick embryo. there is every reason to suppose that, by the continuation of the same technique, the culture can be kept alive indefinitely. the ex- perimental culture of cells and tissues in vitro has now covered practically all of the essential tissue elements of the metazoan body, even including some of the most highly differentiated of those tissues. nerve cells, muscle cells, heart muscle cells, spleen cells, connective tissue cells, epithelial cells from various loca- tions in the body, kidney cells and others have all been success- fully cultivated in vitro. : potential immortality —it may fairly be said that the potential immortality of all essential cellular elements of the body either has been fully demonstrated, or has been carried far enough to make the probability very great, that properly conducted experi- ments would demonstrate the continuance of the life of these cells in culture to any indefinite extent, it is not to be expected, of course, that such tissues as hair or nails would be capable of independent life, but these are essentially unimportant tissues in the animal economy, as compared with those of the heart, the nervous system, the kidneys, etc. generalising the results of the tissue culture work of the last two decades it is highly probable that the cells of all the essential tissues of the metazoan body are potentially immortal, when placed separately under such con- ditions as to supply appropriate food in the right amount, and to remove promptly the deleterious products of metabolism. death among mutlticellular animals —a fundamental reason why the higher multicellular animals do not live forever appears to be that in the differentiation and specialisation of function of cells and tissues in the body as a whole, any individual part does not find the conditions necessary for its continued existence. in the body any part 1s dependent for the necessities of its existence, as for example nutritive material, upon other parts, or put in another way, upon the organisation of the body as a whole. it is the differentiation and specialisation of function of the mutually dependent aggregate of cells and tissues which con- stitute the metazoan body that brings about death, and not any inherent or inevitable mortal process in the individual cells themselves. when cells show characteristic senescent changes it is probably because they are reflecting, in their morphology and physiology, a consequence of their mutually dependent association in the body as a whole, and not any necessary progressive process inherent in themselves. in other words, in the light of present knowledge, it seems necessary to regard senescence as a phenom- enon of the multicellular body as a whole resulting from the fact that it is a differentiated and integrated morphologic and dynamic organisation. this phenomenon is reflected mor- phologically in the component cells. but it does not primarily originate in any particular cell because of the fact that the cell is old in time, or because that cell in and of itself has been alive; nor does it occur in the cells when they are removed from the mutually dependent relationship of the organised body as a whole and given appropriate physico-chemical conditions. in short, senescence appears not to be a primary attribute to the physiological economy of individual cells as such, but rather of the body as a whole. the suggestion of bidder that in air- breathing animals senescence and death are the alternative to physically impossible gigantism is essentially another way of expressing this idea. times of death.—the different organ systems of the body have characteristic times of breaking down and leading to death. these differences probably represent in considerable part different innate degrees of organic fitness of the different tissues and organs, and also in part the degree of exposure of the different organ systems to environmental stresses and death-rate—de bosis strains. the following table, based upon mortality returns of the u.s. registration area in 1910, illustrates these differences. the figures tabulated are (a) the mean or average age at death, and (b) the median age at death (that is, the age so chosen that the same number of deaths occur below this age as the number occurring above it). deaths due pri- mean age at death median age at marily to organic (years) death (years) breakdown or => failure of male female male female errata | cn ee a |p nr es 1. alimentary tract and associat- ed organs of digestion . |25-54- -06,28-24 -07| 4-98 -08 14-93 + -09 2. respiratory sys- tem . [32°24 & -05/32-57 = -06/31-86+ -07/28-24 + -08 3. skeletal and muscular sys- tem, . (35:09 = -29137-96 + -32|33-02 -36/35-96= -41 endocrinal sys- tem . 144-17 -82/44-15 + -36]45-45 = 1-03/43-42 = -46 skin . - 40°73 = -34/42-45 = -46153-47 = -43/48-96 = -58 sexual system. {47°37 + -32:42-47 + -08|57-96+ nervous system|49-11 = -08.51-56 + -09/54-64 circulatory sys- tem and blood]|54-50 = -07'5.4-25 + -08/62-04 + excretory sys- tem (kidneys and associat- ed organs) -40/40-°88 = -ii -10/60-29 * -12 soe 09/62 -14 + -09 = 5794 = -07|54°24 * 0061-37 = ° there are thus wide differences in the time of breakdown of the different organ systems, as reflected in mortality. the alimen- tary tract, on the average, ‘‘ wears ”’ rather less than half as long as the excretory system. the two organ systems which stand at the head of the list as leading earliest to death by their break- down are the two (alimentary tract and respiratory system) which are in direct contact with external environmental agents (food and air) throughout life. the two which stand at the bottom of the list (the circulatory and excretory systems) practically never come into direct contact with the external environment. rejuvenation.—in recent years numerous attempts have been made to bring about “‘ rejuvenation ” of the ageing body, and to lengthen the span of life by various surgical alterations of certain endocrinal organs, particularly the essential organs of sex (see rejuvenation). whatever may be the immediate physical and psychological effects of such procedures, there is as yet no con- vincing evidence that they alter the ae of life of the individual. senescence.—many theories of senescence have been ad- vanced. no one of them can be regarded as entirely satisfactory, or as generally established by the evidence. most of them suffer from the logical defect of setting up some particular observed attribute or element of the phenomenon of senescence itself, such as protoplasmic hysteresis, slowing rate of metabolism (meaning essentially only reduced activity), etc., as the cause of the whole. more experimental work on the problem is essential; in particular in the direction of producing at will, and under con- trol, the objective phenomenon of senility irrespective of the age of the organism, and conversely preventing the appearance of these phenomena in old animals. literature.—the literature on the subjects treated in this article is widely scattered in biological, medical and statistical jour- nals and separate treatises. the following books summarise the field, and will serve to introduce the reader to the detailed literature: m. child, senescence and rejuvenescence (1915); e. worschelt, lebensdauer, ‘altern und tod (1922); r. pearl, the biology of death (1922); t. brailsford robertson, the chemical basis of growth and senescence (1923); studies in human biology (1924). {r. pe.) death-rate: see population. de bosis, adolfo (1863-1924), italian poet and man of letters, was born at ancona. he studied at the university of rome, where he graduated in law and practised for a few years, but was always more interested in literature. in 1805 he became editor of zi convito, a literary review to which d’annunzio and diebs—debts, inter-allied other distinguished writers contributed. although he was after- wards largely absorbed by business affairs, as manager of the italian carbide company, he continued his literary activities and made his reputation as the translator of shelley (// pro- meteo liberato, 1922) and homer into italian verse. he was also an original poet of considerable distinction, and in rgoo he collected his own poems in a volume entitled amori ac silentio sacrum, which was republished in 1914, together with le rime sparse, and again in 1923. he was not a prolific writer, but he exercised considerable influence on the younger authors of his time, many of whom were inspired by his deep love of the classics and keen sense of beauty. he died near ancona aug. 29 1924. debs, eugene victor (18s5- ), american politician, was born at terre haute, ind., nov. 5 1855. on leaving the pub- lic schools he became in 1871 a locomotive fireman. in 1879 he was elected city clerk of terre haute and in 1881 was re-elected. during 1885 he was a member of the indiana legislature. pre- vious to this, in 1880, he was elected secretary and treasurer of the brotherhood of locomotive firemen and was appointed ed- itor of the locomotive firemen’s magazine. in 1893 he organised the american railway union and was elected president of the union, serving four years. in 1894 he led the strike which, be- ginning in the pullman-car plants, soon involved the railways leading into chicago (see 6.124). debs was arrested on a charge of conspiracy to kill, and ac- quitted, but was later convicted of contempt of court for violat- ing an injunction, and sent to gaol for six months (may-nov. 1895). in 1897 he allied himself with the socialist movement. he was socialist candidate for the presidency of the united states in 1900, 1904, 1908, 1912, but declined the nomination in 1916. in 1907 he was on the editorial staff of the appeal to reason and in r914 became editor-in-chief of the national rip-saw, a so- cialist paper published at st. louts. he was a pacifist and in sept. 1918 was convicted of violating the espionage act and sentenced to ro years in the penitentiary. in 1920, while in pris- on, he was again nominated presidential candidate by the so- cialists and received 915,302 votes. his sentence was commuted by president harding in dec. 1921. he is the author of union- ism and socialism; a plea for both (1904). debts, inter-allied.—an examination of the methods by which the allies financed the cost of the war (that is to say, the difference between normal pre-war expenditure and actual ex- penditure for the period 1914-9 inclusive) can only give approxi- mate results, but it is estimated that of the total war expenditure 6% was met by taxation, 77-2% by home borrowing, 14°5 % by loans between the allied govts. themselves and 2.3% by bor- rowing in other foreign countries. in general the funds placed by the allies at each other’s disposal were utilised, not for internal expenditure by the borrowing country, but for purchase in the lending country of military stores and supplies and, in certain cases, for exchange stabilisation and interest payments on pre- war external loans. at one time or another during the war all the allies employed this means of obtaining funds abroad, but only three of the allied and associated powers acted to any appreciable extent as lenders, namely great britain, the united states of america and france, the advances made by italy being comparatively unimportant. it is extremely difficult to arrive at any accurate estimate of the total sum of these transactions, the details of which are still the subject of dispute between the governments concerned. in the majority of cases, however, offi- cial statements have now been published by the various creditors showing the total amount claimed by them from each of their debtors (see currency). i. statement of loans and funding agreements great britain.—¥for great britain the figures in table i. are taken from a statement made bv the chancellor of the exchequer (mr. churchill) in the house of commons on july 27 1925. they show the amount of the original advances and, after addition of interest due and deduction of principal and interest repaid in cash, the net amount due on june 30 1925. the belgian pre- 829 armistice debt of £110,000,000 is not given, as, under the treaty of versailles, this is a charge on german reparations. the figures do not include loans made to the dominions for war purposes, but do include advances made to certain new and ex-enemy states as well as to allies, in the period immediately following the war:— table loans advanced by great britain to certain countries for war and post-\\war purposes as at june 30 1925 (in thousands of £) original debt at advances june 30 1925 allied govts. lrance 446,226 626,182 russia 432,321 756,705 italy : 369,824 589,530 serb-croat- siovene kingdom. 295453 29,905 rumania 16,401 26,124 portugal . 15,611 22,678 greece 16,391 21,237 belgium (post- armistice) 6,799 sg total a 1,376,956 2,072,361 loans for relief a a austria 11,578 t1,341 rumania 1,592 2,200 serb-croat-slovene kingdom 1,884 2,388 poland 3,682 4,770 czechoslovakia 46i a7a estonia 241 251 ifungary . ; 109 109g armenia . : , ; 88 i1l lithuania ; : y 17 an latvia... 20 loans for reconstruction belgium . : , 9,000 9,000 belgian congo 3,550 31550 other loans—stores, etc. irance 6,726 4,500 grecce 395 395 armenia . az 908 | czechoslovakia (w heat loan) 1,901 =f baltic states . 2,435 2,435 repatriation of prisoners czechoslovakia 827 827 poland ; 168 168 rumania 38 138 serb-croat-slovene kingdom 187 187 latvia , ; ; : 130 130 total b. 46,176 43,882 total a and b 1,423,132 2,116,243 table ii. loans advanced by the united staies to certain countries for war and post-war purposes (in thousands of dollars) | principal ey | eaheree of surplus total country of pauses’. | stores and neces loan acts relist principal | advances cronies armenia 11,960 11,960 austria o 24,056 24,056 belgium 349,214 29,873 379,087 cuba . ; 10,000 i 10,000 czechoslovakia . 61,974 | 29,906 91,880 estonia s 3 13,999 13,999 finland - 8,282 8,282 france 2,997,478 407,341 3,404,819 | great britain 4,277,000 oa 4,277,000 | greece 15,000 © i 15,000 hungary = 1,686 1,686 italy 1,648,034 re 1,648,034 ' latvia . i 5,132 5,132; liberia 26 3 26 | lithuania 4,982 4,982 nicaragua , 167 *167 | poland 159,667 159,667 rumania 25,000 12,922 37,922 russia . 75730 4,871 192,601 yugoslavia . 26,780 24,978 51,758 total 739,822 10,338,058 830 great britain’s only debt to another allied govt. was that of $4,277,000,000 to the united states. as will be seen from the above, her advances to allies greatly exceeded the amount borrowed from the united states. united states —the united states was a creditor only; and after entry into the war in april 1917 incurred the main responsi- bility for financing the allies. great britain was the principal debtor, but a considerable proportion of the funds which she ob- tained in this way were re-advanced by her to the other allies. aiter the armistice large sums were provided by the american govt. for relicf credits in central europe and for purchases of war stores. table if. on p. 829 shows the total loans to the allies and hungary as given in the annual statement of the secretary of the united states treasury for 1925. the majority of these loans have since been the subject of funding agreements, as the following official statement shows:— table iit, funding agreements of certain countries with the united states (in thousands of dollars) principal a a eats date at of obliga- #acctue on ss country \\ rc interest | received | ess teemene f ae q | funded | or to be bes received belgium aug. 18 1925 377,030 40,750 417,780 czecho- slovakia oct. 13 1925 91,880 23,120 115,000 estonia oct. 28 1925 12,066 1,764 13,830 finland may 1 1923 8,282 718 9,000 great britain june 19 1923 4,074,818 525,182 | 4,600,000 hungary april 25 1924 1,686 253 1,939 italy nov. 14 1925 1,647,869 394,131 | 2,042,000 latvia sept. 24.1925 5,132 643 5,775 lithuania sept. 22 1924 4,982 1,048 6,030 poland nov. 14 1924 159,667 18,893 178,560 rumania dec. 1 1925 36,128 8,462 44,590 total 6,419,540 | 1,014,964 | 7,434,504 n.b.—cuba as eee her debt in full. france.—the position of france, which, like great britain, was both a borrower and a lender, is more obscure. in the first place, she has as yet (1926) made no final funding arrangements with either great britain, from whom she borrowed £446,226,- ooo, or the united states, from whom she received $3,404,000,000. on the othcr hand, she advanced considerable sums to russia and the smaller allies; here, too, no refuncling arrangements have been made, and in many cases the exact amount is in dis- pute. in the inventory of the french financial position laid be- fore the chamber in dec. 1924 by m. clementel, the then minis- ter of finance, the following list is given of advances made by france with the note that it must be taken as a general inclica- tion of the position as at june 30 1924 and not as a statement of exact figures. foreign currencics are converted into francs at the rates ruling on june 30 1924, when the american exchange was rg fr. to the dollar. wer and post-war loans made hy france outstanding on june 30 19024 | thousand francs russia (old regime) 6,023,300 russia (various later gov ernments) _ 490,000 belgium : ; 3,067,295 yugoslavia 1,738,566 rumania 1,132,000 greece 537,514 poland . 895,400 czechoslovakia 542,200 italy 350,273! portugal 9,000 estonia . 3,500 latvia 9,000 lithuania 2,300 ilungary 800 austria . 331,926 15,133,074 ? this percents net debt due to france and is at variance with published italian figures. debts, inter-allied italy.—italy was in the main a borrower, although to some extent she made advances to other allies. after her entry into the war in may 1o15 she borrowed from great britain {369,824,000 and from the united states $1,648,000,000. according to official figures her loans to other allies were as follows, but cer- tain of the items in the french account are in dispute. foreign currencies are converted at the rates ruling on april 23 1926. in thousand lire rumania 189,936 france 292,380 russia 63,000 yugoslavia 56,000 (sreece : ; : ; ; : 5,000 austria . , i : p 1,730,000 2,336,316 russia.—russia, on the other hand, was entirely a borrower. her loans from allied govts. up to the time of the revolution in r917 were as follows :— great britain united states france italy . £483,321,000 $187,729,750 fr. 6,023,300,000 lire 36,045,000 other allies.—belgium was also a borrower, and received con- siderable sums from the united states, great britain and france. as a recognition, however, of the damage done consequent on the violation of the treaty of 1839, germany undertook in article 232 of the treaty of versailles ‘“‘ to make reimbursement of all sums which belgium has borrowed from the allied and associ- ated govts. up to nov. 11 1918, together with interest at the rate of 5°%> per annum on such sums.” at the time of the peace conference the representatives of great britain, france and the united states agreed, subject to ratification by their govern- ments, to accept german bonds to the value of the allied pre- armistice loans to belgium, thus freeing belgium from the responsibility of these debts. ‘this was eventually carried out by great britain and france. the united states congress, how- ever, refused to ratify the agreement, and the pre-armistice debt was the subject of a special arrangement in the subsequent belgian debt funding agreement. for the sake of convenience, the fol- lowing table gives the advances made by each of the allies during both periods :— pre-armistice post-armistice £110,000,000! £18,500,000 . $171,780,000 $207,307, 194 fr. 3,219,474,742! fr. 241,472,300 great britain united states of america france ! including interest at 5°46. of the other allies, rumania, yugoslavia, greece, portugal, armenia, nicaragua and liberia were all borrowers, while aiter the armistice the new states of poland, czechoslovakia, finland, lithuania, latvia and estonia received advances for various purposes, and austria and hungary, of the ex-enemy states, re- ceived relief credits. the actual amounts loaned can be seen from the preceding tabulations. il. history of the loans any attempt to trace in detail the development of inter-allied borrowings, of which the above official figures represent the pres- ent position, must be one of great difficulty. for the greater part no authoritative information has been made available as to the dates at which these various obligations were incurred, and the figures given in the following survey must be taken as mere esti- mates. for the sake of convenience the history of these loans may be divided into three periods :— first period: 1914-7.—up to the end of 1914 the various allies were able in the main to finance their own foreign purchases. russia, however, soon found herself in difficulties. unlike great britain and france, her government was unable to command large funds abroad, while her incapacity to manufacture muni- tions on a sufficiently large scale necessitated heavy purchases from her allies. in addition, considerable sums were required for the payment of interest on the existing external debt. as debts, inter-allied early as oct. 1914 she had been forced to apply to the british govt. for assistance, and a credit of some {11,500,000 was opened on her account at the bank of england against a shipment of gold to the value of £8,000,000. at the end of the year a further credit was granted, and in feb. 1915 at a mecting in paris the british, french and russian finance ministers agreed to unite their financial resources, to share the advances made to allied govts., to issue a joint loan and to co-operate in the purchase of supplies abroad. actually the second proposal was never carried out, but as a result of this and subsequent conferences large funds were raised for russia in both france and england by the sale of russian treasury bills on the open market and by the extension of governmental crcdits against a small pro- portion of gold from the russian reserve. it is estimated that russia, during the period 1914-sept. 1917, borrowed {483,000,000 from the british govt., against a deposit of gold in london of £60,000,000, and 6,000,000,000 fr. from the french government. she also obtained credits from the united states govt. between the months of april and sept. 1917. in the united states and japan, moreover, considerable sums were placed at her disposal by the british government. the next country to find difficulty in financing its war require- ments abroad was france. in oct. 1914 she had found it advisa- ble to arrange for the issue of treasury bills on the london mar- ket. by may 1915 some {10,000,000 worth of these bills had been placed, and by the end of that year the figure of open market borrowings had risen to £33,000,000 and to {80,000,000 in 1917. in may rors it was agreed that the british govt. should grant france substantial credits against shipments of gold in the pro- portion of three to one. this system lasted until the end of 1916, when the shipment of gold ceased. during the same period france raised considerable sums on the american market, of which the most important was the joint anglo-french loan for $500,000,000 in oct. 1915, repaid in 1920. france, during this period, borrowed altogether nearly £200,000,000 from the british govt. and dispatched to london some £53,500,000 in gold. to the other allies the french govt. lent approximately 6,500,000,000 francs. great britain during this period loaned to her allies over £900,000,000. in addition to the above-mentioned advances to france and russia, {60,000,000 were advanced to belgium and £27,000,000 to rumania, serbia, greece and portugal. up to oct. 1915 great britain had not had occasion to borrow in the united states, but it was found impossible to maintain the american exchange unless funds were available to cover the greatly in- creased purchases there of war materials. the joint anglo- french loan was raised on the market without other security than the credit of the two governments, but all moneys subse- quently raised in america during this period took the form of credits or secured notes, collateral being deposited in each case. for this purpose the british and french govts. encouraged their nationals either to sell or lend to the government their holdings of american securities, which were either sold for dollars or em- ployed as collateral. italy did not enter the war until may 1915, and from then until the end of this period confined her borrowing to the united kingdom (with the exception of asmall amount raised in canada). credits to the extent of some £153,000,000 were granted to her by the british govt., gold to the value of £22,200,000 being de- posited in london as security. on the other hand, she herself advanced about 63,000,000 lire to russia. her advances to france during this period are in dispute. the second period—this dates from april 1917, when the united states entered the war, till the armistice in nov. 1918. | towards the end of the previous period the allies were beginning to grow anxious as to their ability to continue the purchase of supplies in america on the then existing scale for an indefinite period. accordingly, one of the first acts of the united states govt. after the declaration of war was to obtain the consent of congress to a law (liberty loan act) authorising the extension of credits to allied govts. up to a total of $3,000,000,000. this limit was subsequently raised three times up to a total of $10,000 831 million in july 1918. such credits were granted without collat- eral and for an indefinite period, and were to bear the same rate of interest and be subject to the same conditions as the corre- sponding bonds to be issued on the united states market in order to raise the sums required. from that time the amcrican govt. assumed the responsibility for allied purchases in the united states. market borrowings by the allies ceased with the excep- tion of certain small amounts required for the purpose of refund- ing existing market loans, some of which, however, were also paid off with the funds obtained from the new credits. the total advances by the united states govt. to the gov- ernments of the allies amounted during this period to some $8,200,000,000, of which great britain received approximately $4,000,000,000, i'rance $2,800,000,000, italy $1,030,000,c00 and belgium $171,780,000. russia received $188,000,000 before the revolution, and certain smaller allies account for the remainder. during the same period the british govt. continued to finance the requirements of the allies in the united kingdom, and also assisted them by the employment, to a certain extent, of the credits extended to her in america. these credits were princi- pally employed for the purchase there of raw materials required for the manufacture in the united kingdom of war supplies for the allies. for, as the needs of the united states army increased, her ability to meet all the allied requirements decreased to some extent, and great britain endeavoured to take her place. in aug. 1918, however, it was arranged that each ally should be debited by america with the cost of the necessary raw materials. in addition, during the early part of 1917 great britain advanced funds from her american credits to the russian govt. for interest payments due in amcrica. total loans by great britain to her allies during these years amounted to over £550,000,000, of which france borrowed nearly £250,000,000, italy {220,000,000 and belgium {50,000,c00. france, on the other hand, in addition to the advances made by great britain, borrowed nearly $3,000,000,000 from the united states, and loaned to her other allies nearly 7,000,000,000 francs. italy, russia, belgium, serbia and rumania were all borrowing nations. third period: nov. 1918-sept. 1920.—although the armistice was signed on nov. 11 1918, nearly two years elapsed before it was possible for the lending governments to cease making ad- vances to the other allies for the payment of goods already sup- plied or ordered. ‘they were also required to enable the allies to purchase war stores left by the lending governments in their territories. in addition, the impoverished condition of europe made it essential, if complete economic chaos were to be avoided, for relief credits for the purchase of foodstuffs and for recon- struction to be granted not only to the poorer allies but also to certain of the new states created by the peace treatics, and even to some of the enemy countries. in the united states there was some doubt after the armistice as to the legality of granting further credits under the liberty loan acts. these acts limited advances to the period of the war, and congress had refused to approve any prolongation. on the other hand, the presidential proclamation announcing the official termination of the war was not published until july 2 1921, and the administration felt themselves justified in con- tinuing to make advances during the intervening period. the balance of $1,700,000,000 authorised under the acts was, in this way, advanced to the allies and utilised by them partly to meet existing contracts in america and partly for the purchase of supplies for the relief of europe. moreover, special credits were granted with the approval of congress to the extent of $740,000,000, of which $600,000,000 were advanced for the sale of war stores to allied govts., and $140,000,000 for the sale of flour through the united states grain corporation. to this must be added a revolving credit of $100,000,000 opened in favour of the american relief administration. relief and reconstruction loans by the british govt. amounted during this period to £32,522,000, loans for the purchase of war stores to {12,205,200 and for the repatriation of prisoners to £1,450,000. similar advances by france amounted to some 1,500,000,000 fr. and by italy to approximately 600,000,000 lire. 832 ill. the debt settlements before even the last inter-ally loans had been made, it was clear that the problem of repayment would assume an impor- tance in international politics second only to the question of reparations. soon after the armistice it became known that the british govt. favoured a gencral cancellation of inter-ally debts, but the united states was not prepared to agree to such a course. in may 1920 the inter-ally conference on reparations at hythe declared that it was “important to arrive at a settlement which will embrace the whole body of the international liabilities which have been left as a legacy of the war, and which will at the same time ensure a parallel liquidation of the inter-ally war debts and of the reparation debts of the central empires.”’ this was fol- lowed, however, a few days later by a statement by the chan- cellor of the exchequer in the house of commons to the effect that the question of the united kingdom debt to the united states of america was being dealt with independently of any question of the part of this country’s share of indemnity from germany. by 1922 the different points of view of the various allied and associated powers on this subject became clearly defined. on feb. 9 of that year the american foreign debt funding bill was signed, authorising the refunding of allied debts to the extent of $11,000,000,000 into securities with a maximum currency of 25 years, carrying interest at a rate of not less than 41%, the negotiations to be carried out by a commission of five members (subsequently increased to eight) under the chairman- ship of the secretary to the treasury. it was, at the same time, made clear that the united states govt. would not consider the remission of debts due to them from the allies but would look for repayment in full, though it was recognised that imme- diate payments would not be possible in every case. this action had a determining effect on the attitude of the powers concerned towards the whole problem of inter-ally debts. the balfour note—great britain, which had hitherto made no final pronouncement of policy, was now faced with the neccs- sity of funding her debt to america, and consequently compelled to lay down a principle for dealing with her own debtors. accord- ingly,on aug. 1 1922,a note was dispatched to the governments concerned which has since formed the basis of british policy. in this communication, commonly known as the ‘‘ balfour note,” it was stated that, while great britain would have been willing to forego all claims for reparations and the repayment of inter- ally debts if this had formed part of an universal settlement, she must now ask for some measure of repayment. she would, how- ever, be content with a total sum from her allies and germany suflicient to cover her own payments to the united states, though this was equivalent to only one quarter of the amount due to her. the french reply in sept. was inconclusive and unsatisfactory, and the policy of that country was definitely revealed in oct. at a meeting of the reparations commission. at this meeting certain proposals were submitted by the brit- ish delegate for the settlement of the reparations problem, pro- vided that the question of inter-ally debts was settled at the same time. the french delegate rejected this scheme and put forward a counter-proposal which definitely made the payment of inter-ally debts dependent on receipts from reparations. at the inter-allied conference in london in dec. 1922 signor mus- solini, on behalf of italy, proposed the cancellation of part of germany’s reparation liability if great britain would agree to the cancellation of the debts due to her from her allies. m. poin- care elaborated this scheme and offered to hand over forthwith part of the french claim on germany in payment of her debt to great britain and to accept similar terms from her own allied debtors. both these proposals were rejected by mr. bonar law. the discussion was continued at the paris conference on repara- tions in jan. 1923. at this conference the french govt. reiterated the principle of the dependence of inter-ally repayments on ger- man reparations. the british proposal, which was contingent on the ee of their plan for the solution of the reparations question, rested on the basis of the remission of all european allied debts to the united kingdom except a small percentage which was to be paid debts, inter-allied in german obligations, while all german payments over a fixed minimum were to be available for the repayment of european debts to the united states. the failure of the paris conference, which was followed by the trench occupation of the ruhr, marked the last attempt to reach any common basis of agreement on this question, although the question was dealt with in the british note of aug. 11 1923 addressed to the french and bel- gian govts. regarding the occupation of the ruhr. in this docu- ment the british govt. offered as part of a general settlement of the reparation question to accept in full payment of both repara- tion and allied debts a sum equivalent to the amount necessary to cover the funded british debt to the united states, which was estimated on a 5% basis at 14-2 milliards of gold marks. the proposals contained in this note were not accepted by the allied govts. concerned. anglo-american funding agreement.—meanwhile, the con- stitution of the united states funding commission in feb. 1922 was immediately followed by preliminary discussions be- tween the british and american governments regarding the’ debt due from the united kingdom. it was finally arranged that a british delegation, under sir robert horne (the then chan- cellor of the exchequer), should leave for washington in oct. with the object of negotiating a settlement. owing to the change of government in great britain, its departure was postponed, but a payment of $100,0c00,0c00 was made on account—the first allied payment in respect of interest on war debts. the mission finally sailed early in jan. 1923 under mr. baldwin (the new chancellor of the exchequer),and returned to england at the end of the month with a proposed settlement which was accepted by the cabinet on jan. 31. under the terms of this agreement the whole principal sum, which after allowing for interest due to dec. 15 1922 at 44% per annum and for payments already made, was agreed upon at $4,600,c00,000, is to be repaid over a period of 62 years in annual instalments increasing from $23,000,000 in the first year to $175,000,000 in the last. interest is to be paid at the rate of 3°% per annum on unpaid balances for the first 10 years and at 34% for the remainder of the period. the total annual payments on account of interest vary between $161 ,000,000 and $187,c00,000. great britain has the right to defer half the interest for the first five years, to anticipate payments and to make payments in u.s. govt. bonds issued subsequent to april 1917. as these terms were not in accordance with those which the united states debt funding commission was author- ised to accept, it became necessary for congress to approve the agreement, which was done on feb. 28. on march 15 the first payment under the scheme was made by great britain. other funding agreements —while the british negotiations were in progress, the united states administration had made their wish to be repaid known to the other countries concerned. the first country to respond was france, which in july 1923 dispatched a mission under m. parmentier to washington. no basis of settlement, however, was reached, and negotiations with the czechoslovak govt. led to the same negative result. in oct. the administration, hearing that the rumanian govt. contemplated raising a foreign loan, protested against such action before the american relief debt was funded. a ruma- nian mission subsequently visited the united states, but failed to come to terms. in march 1923 an agreement was reached with finland for the funding of its debt of $8,000,000 on the same terms as those accorded to great britain. no further settlements were reached until 1924, when an agreement was signed in april with hungary for the refunding of the relief credits to the extent of $1,939,000 on similar terms to those accorded to great britain and finland. this was followed by settlements with lithuania (sept. 1924) and poland (nov. 1924). in dec. 1924 the authority of the debt funding commission was extended for another two years and in the following may a demarche was made by the united states govt. to induce the governments whose debts were still unfunded to negotiate for repayment on the basis of the capacity to pay of the debtor. consequently, in the latter part of 1925 the majority of the re- maining allies either came to terms or initiated discussions. thus debts, inter-allied in aug. a belgian delegation arrived at washington and an agree- ment was shortly reached by which the debt was divided into two parts. the pre-armistice debt of $171,780,000 was treated spe- cially, as by the treaty of versailles germany must pay the bel- gian war debt as part of her reparations. belgium undertakes to repay this sum in full over a period of 62 years, but no interest is payable. the post-armistice debt of $246,000,000 is also to be repaid in full over 62 years, and in addition interest is to be paid at the rate of 3° 4 for the first 10 years and at 35% thereafter. in oct. an agreement was reached with the czechoslovak govt. which fixed the debt due at june 1925 as $115,000,000, re- payable on terms similar to those reached with great britain. latvia had already signed an agreement in sept., and was fol- lowed by estonia in october. in nov. an italian delegation signed an agreement which fixed the principal sum due at $2,042 million to be repaid over a period of 62 years. interest, however, will not be paid during the first ro years, and thereafter only at a rate rising by 10-year periods from one-cizhth of 1% to 2% per annum, or an average of just under 1° per annum for the whole time. this was followed in dec. by a settlement with rumania, on the british model. the french debt-—meanwhile, the french govt., which, since the failure of m. parmentier’s mission in 1923, had made no move with regard to the refunding of its debt to the united states govt., dispatched in sept. 1925 a mission under m. caillaux (the then minister of finance), but the proposals put forward at that time were unacceptable. better fortune attended the next attempt, and on april 29 1926, an agreement was signed. by this france undertook to pay a total of $6,847,- 674,102 over a period of 62 years, and to issue bonds, beginning at $30,000,000 for 1926 and rising to $125,000,000 for the seven- teenth and subsequent years. no interest is payable until june 15 1930, after which one per cent will be paid to june 15 1940, 2% to june 15 1950, 23% to june 15 1958 and 3% there- after. of the remaining debtors, yugoslavia sent a delegation to washington, while the greek negotiations have reached a dead- lock. there is little hope of the russian govt. making any such move. if the settlements which have already been made are considered, it will be seen that the terms of the debt funding bill with regard to the repayment of capital in full have been carried out in each case, and that, where concessions have been made, they have taken the form of a reduction in the rate of interest. thus, great britain is paying 76% of the 41% per annum laid down by the law, while belgium pays 48°% and italy 254%. these agreements were ratified by congress early in 1926. debts to great britain —up to the end of 1924 little or no prog- ress had been made with regard to the repayment of debts due to great britain from her allies. in dec. of that year the chancellor of the exchequer (mr. churchill) made an official statement to the effect that great britain would expect any country making a funding agreement with the united states to come to terms, puri passu, with his country. as a result, the french govt. took advantage of mr. churchill’s presence in paris in jan. 1925, at a financial conference on the ruhr and the dawes scheme, to state their intention of opening negotiations and to ask for a definition of the british position. an official reply in feb. adhered to the principle of the balfour note, while no longer supporting the proposals contained in lord curzon’s note of aug. 1923 on the ground that they were out of date. it further proposed that france should pay fixed annual amounts from her own resources, together with a further annuity based on the french share of the dawes annuities. direct negotiations were resumed in london in july, when mr. churchill proposed the payment by france for 62 years of an annuity of £20,000,000, subsequently reduced to £16,000,000 and only a small proportion of which was based on payments to france under the dawes scheme. m. caillaux’s counter-proposal of {10,000,000 fed eventually to a compromise on a basis of an annual payment for 62 years of £12,500,000, with a partial moratorium until 1930, and a vague proviso to suspend transfers if the p'rench exchange was in danger. further, these terms were to be revised if the 833 final terms to be arranged with the united states govt. should be more favourable to america. this proposal, which reduced the french debt to great britain by nearly two-thirds, was re- ferred by m. caillaux to the lrench govt. and was in principle accepted, but the political situation in that country had up to 1926 prevented a formal agreement. irench opinion was subsequently moved towards the hope of obtaining better conditions by the terms of the italian agreement with great britain signed on jan. 27 1926. the total amount of the italian debt at that date was calculated at £610,840,000, and it was agreed that italy should pay 62 annual payments of £4,500,000 with a partial moratorium for the first seven years. in addition, the italian gold to the extent of £22,200,000 which had been deposited in the bank of england as part security for certain loans is to be returned to her by instalments over the same period. it will be seen that, while the total amount to be repaid is not so great in proportion as that which the united states will receive, the value is about the same. of the remaining debtors belgium has repaid her post-armistice debts, and ru- mania has reached an agreement on the same basis as that of the offer to france in aug. 1925, while yugoslavia, greece and portugal have cither opened negotiations or are preparing to do so. russia alone has made no move. as far as relief credits and credits for stores are concerned, lithuania and latvia repaid the amount due on jan. 1 1925, while funding agreements for the full amount have been concluded with poland, czechoslovakia, estonia, iiungary and rumania, and early negotiations are antici- pated with yugoslavia and greece. although it is the declared policy of both great britain and the united states to treat the problem of inter-ally debts as en- tirely separate from that of reparations, the doctrine of repay- ment according to capacity, enunciated by the united states, has led to results which are not without interest. great britain has advanced to her allies a total sum of £1,423,132,000, and, on the basis of arrangements already concluded or in course of negotiation, will receive a total sum on account of both principal and interest of £1,147,000,c00 in the form of annual payments over a period of 62 years of £18,500,000. on the other hand, she borrowed from the united states approximately {£960,000,000, on which she is now paying £30,000,000 and will later have to pay £38,000,000 per annum, so that, in effect, although she loaned over 50° more than she borrowed, she will receive from her allies less than half the amount which she must in her turn pay. even if she receives her full share of {20,000,000 per annum of german reparation payments under the dawes scheme (which is a very optimistic estimate), her total reccipts on account of inter-ally debts and reparations combined would only just cover her payments to america. on the other hand, it is interesting to note that the united states should eventually receive on account of loans to her allies an annual sum equivalent to 65 9 of that payable annually by germany in a standard year under the dawes scheme in respect of reparations. (r. j. s.) bibliography.—i, official papers. great britain: finance ac- counts of the united kingdom (published annually in june); despatch to certain allied governments respecting war debt (bal- four note). cimd. 1737 (1922); report of inter-allied conferences tn london and parts: dec. 1922 and jan. 1923. cmd. 1812 (1923); american debt agreement, cmd. 1912 (1923); correspondence urth allied governments respecting reparation paymenis (curzon note). cmd. 1943 (1923); itafian debt agreement, cmd. 2580 (1926). united states: report of the secretary to the united states treasury (published annually in february). france: m. clementel, jxven- taire dela situation financiere dela france au debui de la tretzteeme legislaiure (paris, imprimerie nationale, 1924). il. unoffictal papers. h. e. fisk, inter-ally pebts, bankers’ trust co., (new york, 1924); a. j. toynbee, survey of international affairs, vol. 1. 1920-3; vol. h., 1924 (british institute of international affairs, 1925-6); znter-ally debis and the united states of america, national industrial conference board (new york, 1925); gustav cassel, ‘‘ economic bases of the international debt problem,” a mer- ican bankers’ association journal (july 1925); moulton and lewis, french debt problents (1925); ‘‘ guiding principles in foreign debt settlement,’ american bankers’ association journal (jan. 1926); a. rathbone, ‘' making war loans to the allies, ” forezgn affairs (april 1925); philip snowden, “ inter-allied debts problem for america,’ labour magazine (march 1925). 834 debussy, claude achille (1862-1918), french composer (see 7.906}, died in paris march 26 1918. de camp, joseph rodefer (1858-1923), american painter (see 7.909), died at boca grande, fla., feb. 11 1923. decorative art.—the hopes which came to birth at the nd of the 19th century seemed, in the early years of the 2oth, to have succumbed. the art nouveatt of 1900, freed from imita- tion of the styles of the past, did not extend beyond a restricted circle of amateurs, and the mass of the greater public remained hostile, or at least indifferent, to its manifestations. in 1901 the soczele des artistes decoratcurs held, in paris, the first of its serics of expositions, which it continued without interruption for a quarter of a century, and from 1905 onwards the sulon d’ au- tomne provided annual evidence of the efforts of the artists. but between the great firms and the actual creators of modcls the divorce was an enduring one. the artists, thrown back on themselves and lacking the resources of capital, unknown more- over to the purchasing public, became isolated in researches whose originality was prejudicial to their realisation in practice. the heads of the industry, at the same time, content to repeat at small expense the currently accepted models, held firmly to rou- tine. at the turin exhibition in 1911 the french section showed a general survey of modern art opposite the special pavilions erected as a homage to the styles of the 18ih century and the empire. the splendours of the past still lay heavy on the e‘foris of the present. the art of the past remained, for the industrials, the true source of inspiration, the goal of artistic discipline, and the surest road to enduring prosperity. but certain countries, less burdened by the extortionate de- mands of past glories, were striving to open the markets to contemporary creative efforts. in germany the werkdund, the league of crafts, had established a link between art and craft, and made into a reality the conceptions of ruskin and morris, though modified by the mechanical advances of modern days. the new society, founded under state auspices in 1907 and backed by powerful resources, selected, in all the arts and in all parts of the country, the men most qualified to collaborate. the result of this disciplined effort was made unmistakably clear at the brussels exhibition of 1910. nor did it fail to make a lively impression on the french public on the occasion of the exhibition at the sulon d@’ automiue by the munich group of artists. a great exhibition planned.—to reply to this effort, which had outstripped her own, france began, in 1911, to draft the plan of an international exhibition of decorative art. it was projected for rgrg, but the war postponed it for ro years. rom its inception, its success was conceived as being dependent upon a previous understanding between factories and studios. lore than ever did this'seem indispensable. the decorative artists, for lack of any extensive market, found themselves faced by the gravest financial difficulties. the industrial side was threatened by dangers of another sort. on the one hand, they were forced to reckon with new tastes and aspirations among a section of their clients; on the other, foreign competitors were beginning to market for themselves works in reproduction of the old styles, having decided to cut themselves free from the useless tribute which they paid to french manufacture. something else had perforce to be sought. interests which previously had been in opposition were now tending to close their ranks, and the need for undertaking propaganda in common was to make them see eye to eye. in 1922 active negotiations ended in an agreement which was the veritable charter of modern decorative art. this agreement fixed the principles of future collaboration. it recog- nised the right of the signature of the artist and his sole author- ity in authorising any modification of the work, and allowed the contract between designer and factory to follow forms of extreme flexibility. . this collaboration gives modern decorative art its true char- acter. no longer does it appear as a protest against the old for- mulae; no longer does it pursue novelty into the jungles of the bizarre. our decorators are modern, just as, in their own day, were the contemporaries of francis i., louis xiv. or louis xy. far from denying the past, they continue it; for the claim to debussy —diecorative art adapt the background of life to the aspirations of one’s time is in itself a fidelity to the spirit of tradition. the art of the house, the street or the stage is now becoming, as it was in former times, the reflection of a society. the strange discordance, noticeable throughout 100 years, between scientific development and the stagnation of all the industrial arts, at last reached its term. j. a general survey decorative art to-dity.—henccforth decorative art covers the whole field of social :fe. the exhibition of 1925 bore a close resem- blance to a universal exhibition. with its 37 classes it surveyed the most diverse aspects of life—the house and its furnishings, clothing and its ornaments, the town with its thoroughfares and gardens. there were few problems touching public or domestic life which it was not called upon to deal with, if not to solve. modern art stands no longer classified in show-cases, expressed in useless and cosily playthings, in objects created for show rather than use. art is no longer an accessory, a superfluous element, a pretty lace trimming stitched to the clothing of life. it is met with everywhere, without seeking it or thinking of it, in the shape of a hood, in the outline of a lock, in the curves of a plate or the lines of a steam racator. as in all the great epochs, every object is an object of art, so soon as its form accords with its function and its material. whatever their variety, they reflect a common tendency. the maxim of buffon that “‘ the style is the man ”’ applies, not only to the expression of thought in writing, but to plastic expression as well. the decoration of 1900 had sought its renaissance in a return to nature, in the analysis of the forms of flowers and ani- mals, in the graceful and cunning spirals of metallic architecture. the theories of galle and the influence of japanese art fostered this tendency; the ornamental experiments of sculptors had de- veloped its themes. henceforth it seems as if science, the creator of a new world order, has imposed its influence on artists. how could they remain indifferent to this neo-mechanical world, with its latent, intimate omnipresence, the vehicle of mankind's interdependence—steamships, locomotives and acro- planes assuring the mastery over continents, oceans and seas; the aerials and receivers which capture the human voice over all the surface of the globe; cables marking out the roadways awak- enced to a new life; visions of the whole world projected at high speed on to the cinematograph screen? must not all this confused secthing of universal activity leave its marks on the brain of the artist? machinery has fashioned all the forms of labour anew. work of the architect—it was in architecture that this influ- ence first macle itself felt. this art owes its greatest advance to the researches of engineers. the exhibition of 1889 had been, as it were, the consecration of architecture in metal. this has given place to-day to that of reinforced concrete. this material has solved the problems of wide arches and spacious openings which the gothic builders tried to realise with the aid of the ogive arch and the flying buttress. the architect of the present day, with this mastery as his starting-point, is able to open up immense naves in which the walls are no more than partitions independent of the structure of the edifice. concrete, run and dried in moulds, imprints on our edifices the characteristic form of a cubic box, in which vari- ety emerges only from effects of light, from projections and in- dentations, where the right angle reigns supreme, to the exclusion of the curve, familiar to the architects of the end of the 19th cen- tury. the flat roof, attempting to supplant the sloping roof of tiles or slates, has led us far from traditional ideas. just as stone construction calls for the carvings of sculpture, so concrete seems to call for that facing with mosaic or marble which in former times enhanced the splendour of rome, byzantium or venice. the beauty of the facings of the porticoes was one of the at- tractions of the galleries of the exhibition. from this sprang the expansion of the scope of ceramic decoration. in the hands of architects, mosaic no longer produces its effects only from the variety of colour, but also from that of forms. geometrical pat- terns, and conventionalised animals, form panels, the joins of which, of variable thickness, compose a subsidiary tracery com- decorative art >. pt | va hd tte (fis ii (44 pt od ‘all a «the chase’ 1 t nrer dy wario cam] avila, by permission oot th decorative art parable with the leaded joins of the stained-glass window. the attempts made by the sevres manufactory to fashion panels of stoneware, of earthenware and of porcelain take on, in this light, a significant value. furniture.—the same causes and the same effects appear even more strikingly in the art of furniture: unified surfaces, straight lines and ornament laid on. our epoch’ makes its own inexorable demands: the current price of building land tends to diminish the cubic capacity of the domicile; low ceilings, furniture made hori- zontal rather than vertical, beds reduced to the divan with a wooden frame. the chest of drawers has replaced the mirroreil wardrobe; the mirror is in the interior of a folding toilet table; ’ chairs are low and deep; the sideboard has no pediment, any more than the cornice has mouldings. marble and metal do not add their polished coldness to the wood. their virtue is comprised entirely in the surface covering taken from the most precious tropical woods, from their most intricately veined boles, from their richest freaks, cut in thin veneer and applied in layers which follow the formulae supplied by the aviation industry. thus do advances in mechanical process respond to new social demands. the exigencies of modern life act not only on the form but on the distribution of furniture. apartments of a former day were divided by thick partition walls, impossible to shift, and the rooms were again subdivided in order to provide nooks for the lamp and the fireside. the tendency to suppress the focus of distribution of light or heat derived from one single and external source has modified the conditions of the problem and at the same time facilitated the removal of all partitions whose exist- ence is no more essential to the solidity of the rooms than the paper walls of the japanese house. rooms are no longer exclu- sive or restricted in function. the bed shuts up into a different | form; screens, which form wall panels during the daytime, can be taken down at night to form enclosed rooms, in combinations at once ingenious, invisible and interchangeable. we are return- ing to the medieval conception of the common hall, renewed in our own epoch by the studio or living-room; and it is here that scope is found for the inventive gifts of the decorator in the crea- tion of an ensemble, which is the aim of our modern furnisher. the artist who can carry out the ensemble has inherited powers which belonged to the upholsterer, but under very ditlerent con- ditions. he becomes a kind of chief engineer for the interior of the house. he will decide the shape of the piano, the distribu- tion of the lighting apparatus, the binding of the books, the out- lines of the card-table. he imposes his conception on his client, who henceforth becomes subordinate to its demands. other forms of decoratton.—analysis reveals a similar evolu- tion at work in the numerous and varied elements of modern decoration. workers in ceramics are subordinating ornament to material. ornament is born from the material, and unites with its support as flesh with bone. it is from the composition of the glass, from the juxtaposition of the layers in the infinite variety of all the aspects of the clay, that daum and marinot seek their most beautiful results. stuffs and carpets show us designs of geo- metrical inspiration, akin to the berber style; and here, too, the material itself plays the essential part, and the amazing varicty of dyeing processes allotvs a high degree of flexibility. the batik industry, borrowed from the javanese, has enjoyed wide popularity. dress itself has shed all useless frills and fur- belows; it hangs straight, without folds, conforming with the form of the body itself, and giving liberty of movement. no more ceremonial toilettes to make one stiff and embarrassed; grace and beauty lose nothing from these more genuine forms, so much more adapted to everyday life. jewellery aims at empha- sising the worth of the stone itself; fine cutting and worthy mounting become the artist’s goal. the complex forms inspired in 1900 by the return to nature have completely disappeared: no more hooks or tentacles, no more medusas or sirens, seahorses or gorgons, no more pine needles, no more thistles. the stone with sparkling facets is valued only forits brilliance. the trans- parency of diamonds, the whiteness of pearls, are wedded with the colour of jade or onyx or coral. book production.—in book production, too, there is the same 835 striving towards simplicity, where harmonious characters strike the keynote. our publishers, like the decorators, aim for the ensemble, bringing the press work, the illustration and the bind- ing, into one harmonious whole, the decorative quality of which borrows its value from the quality of the material, its geometrical design being often accompanied by fine tracery of gold and silver set in a delicately tinted leather. the poster is legible from a distance, its design strongly accentuated, and its composition cutting a clear pattern on the uniform whiteness of the back- ground. it is associated with the bright lighting wherewith pub- licitv is transforming the appearance of our streets, illuminated by lamps fewer in number, placed higher and of increased power. the theatre likewise can show us decorative schemes which pro- duce their effect by what they suggest rather than what they reproduce. the subject-matter of the scenery counts less than the distribution of light, thus tending to give stress to the per- sonality of the actor against the sobricty of the background. russia, bringing us the renaissance in scenic decoration through bakst and his ballets, points out the way we must follow towards the intensified movement of the figure grouping; scenic setting is no longer merely a support. (see ballet; stage.) essentials of modcrn art—from whatever angle one surveys modern art one discovers its common character. this is, as it were, a reduction to a scheme, indicating the essential lines with- out much heed to the detail. the artist is concerned less with reproduction in exact imitation of nature than with setting down its essential character, leaving detail on one side. this reaction against the excesses of the photographic conception of art has sprung from the extreme manifestations of cubism itself. paint- ing turns more and more to seek decorative harmony, and sculp- ture sets itself to the representation of mass and volume; and the same tendency appears even in the figuration of the modistcs’ figures, which, freed from the banality of the old wax dummies, tend no longer to show a resemblance, but to hint at a gesture or to show off the draping of the material. but while it is permissible to trace a tendency common to such various aspects, it would at the same time be foolish to exagger- ate the universality of a formula. one style does not supplant another ina day. art is not a meteorite, and has never indulged in processes of spontaneous combustion. tor the most part our modern decorators are obliged to furnish houses which are not new. a house is not razed in order to modify a suite of its rooms. among decorators themselves there may be affinities, but there are also differences. men like chareau, francis jourdain and mallet-stevens have broken deliberately with the existing tra- ditions; but groult has never shaken off the forms of the 17th century, ruhimann those of the empire, sue or mare those of louis-philippe. moreover, dates are not infallible oracles. art- ists such as lalique and dufresne are very different from what they were in 1900. but nevertheless they are themselves; they have been modified, not metamorphosed. regional art in france-—on the other hand, it is certain that the evolution takes on a different form in every province of a country. in france the capital tends to adopt a mode of uni- form construction based on reinforced concrete. does this mean that other regions will totally abandon their local traditions? the exhibition of 1925 proved that there is no ground for suppos- ing so. berry or brittany, alsace or normandy, provence or franche-comte, all give evidence of certain local traditions which none the less can be reconciled with the innovations. there exists an unmistakable renaissance of regional art. the drift toward paris is doubtless more pronounced than ever it was, but it does not preclude the idea of return; between paris and the provincial centres there is a constant interchange of ideas. a powerful contribution toward this was made by the creation, during the war, of a network of committees of the applied arts covering every part of the country. this neo-regionalism is in no way a reversion to the fetish of the useless ornament. it is an effort to create forms appropriate to the needs of the modern world, making use of local materials and local processes. the achievement of the painter lemordant in brittany offers a striking example. the exhibition made it 836 plain that, in all countries, the character of modernity, interna- tional as it may be, does not imply the disappearance of national traditions. thus it was that poland transferred into her pavilion the decoration of her rustic scenes, from which mme. stryjen- ska had drawn the essential themes of the decoration of the salon @honneur. the tapestries and rugs which adorned the main hall of the czechoslovakian building were a glorification of the country in its soil, its products and its crafts. side by side with the very boldest conceptions of its futurist architecture, soviet russia exhibited the varied picture of its work-people. slovaks, slovenes and serbs gave a prominent place to women’s woven products. throughout infinite local diversities there exists a common tendency very sharply defined. middle class needs.—the organisers of the exhibition of 1925 have often been reproached for not having contrived to make the creations of modern decoration accessible to the middle classes, but in this connection the increased cost of materials must be taken into account. morcover, in any case, models have at all times been created in the first instance for an elect minority, and to-day the court still leads the town in its train. but however great the proportion, too large, perhaps, of products reserved for the patronage of the wealthy few, nevertheless a considerable number of interiors were designed for middle-class needs. the palace was less prominent than in the past, but there were many more shops, shop-fronts and counters. the demonstration was not confined to furniture meant for show. numerous types of kitch- ens and bathrooms gave token of more immediate requirements. covering materials and domestic appliances showed obvious ad- vances. wooden houses in sections, perfectly well adapted to permanent habitation, certain sets of furniture at low prices, such as that shown by the primavera establishment, pointed the path to be followed. special pavilions brought together all the methods of lighting by gas an< of electrical distribution. a group of architects made a happy assemblage of all the ele- ments of a village, a trifle theoretic perhaps, and bereft of local roots, but supplied with all the typical elements which modern life has at its command: the church and its graveyard, the town- hall and offices, workshops for the weaver, slonemason and cob- bler, the inn, the pharmacy, the baker’s oven, fish-market and the wash-house—all simple edifices, inviting, with forms at once practical and gracious, in coloured materials, with simple and stout furnishings. it is to be regretted that types of this kind were not more frequently adopted in the course of the re- construction of the french devastated regions. the experiments made in the workmen’s centres of the nord railway co. were isolated examples. machinery and tis influence-—these tendencies are an augury of an auspicious future. the time is past when morris and rus- kin, the apostles of the artistic renaissance, denounced the use of machinery, and saw salvation only in the return to the traditions of the mediaeval craftsmen. to-day machinery imposes its own laws upon us. uniform manufacture seems to be indispensable, there is no other formula which can assure the expansion of the necessary production and the lowering of the net cost. it would be vain to overlook the influence of mechanical discoveries on the development of the industries of art. the use of woodcutting machinery, the process of acetylene and electric welding, ad- vances in the chemistry of dyeing, have profoundly influenced the transformation of our industries in the domains of furniture- making, ironwork and the manufacture of textiles. but however perfect the technical accomplishment, this is valuable only through the creative imagination which guides it. the participation of important artists, such as the exhibi- tion witnessed, in the production of certain subsidiary equip- ment of the dwelling-house, until then restricted to the current commercial models, window-fastenings, locks, door-handles, is a striking example of the influence of creative ideas on forms. more- over, it is in no way a question of specialists. one of the suc- cessful exponents of these models of ironwork, m. lebourgeois, founded his reputation on work carried out in wood. a man who has made a name for himself in stufis or in large mural paintings finds fresh talents in ceramic designing. 11 might be said, in this decorative art sense, that the exhibition was the work of an infinite minority. phe necd for training.—it is equally clear that the evolution of decorative art, in every country, is dominated by scholastic teaching. the poverty of invention, disclosed from the middle of the roth century by all the critics of the different exhibitions, had shown the urgent need for artistic instruction. for the first time the vienna exhibition of 1873 reserved one class for educa- tion. drawing inspiration from the british example, paris pre- pared for the foundation of a museum of decorative art on the model of the south kensington museum; it was inaugurated in 1885. after the exhibition of 1878 national or municipal schools of art were set up throughout the whole of france, and at the same time the teaching of drawing was made obligatory in the ~ lycees and primary schools. tor 20 years the instruction has definitely turned in the direc- tion of decoration. the 1925 exhibition developed a series of practical programmes, adapted so far as possible to each region, and all the schools of the beaux-arts took part with distinction. a random glance at the programmes shows: at bordeaux, a restaurant; at dijon, a grocer’s shop; at lille, a chapel; at lyon, a silkmercer’s; at nantes, a villa; at nimes, a workman’s dwell- ing; at rouen, a ship’s cabin. paris offered a complete and illus- trative scheme of professional and primary instruction. the most modern and most original parts of their exhibits can be attributed 1o the schools of decorative art. the facilities for comparison of the schools in different coun- tries provided most suggestive comparisons. alongside the schools of arts and crafts of london, birmingham, brighton, cardiff, sheffield and swansea, several of which were originally organised as medels, and the activities of which remained so diverse, stand the schools of switzerland, nowadays turning, like the french schools, more and more towards practical appli- cations: clockmaking at the chaux de fonds, ceramics at berne, graphic arts at zurich. in the netherlands the three schools of amsterdam, haarlem and rotterdam point in three quite differ- ent directions, the two first inclining towards a more theoretic art, thelast more closely allied with maritime and colonial life, and by that circumstance more given over to a practical modernity. austria, under the direction of joseph hoffmann, has multiplied and brought up to date its instruction in all the decorative arts in vienna, in building construction at graz, in woodworking at hallstatt, in ironworking at waidhofen. poland and czecho- slovakia have made far-reaching changes in the ground plans of their instruction. at warsaw, cracow and zakopane, just as at prague, the programmes have turned towards modern creations. it can be said that in every country the existence of decorative art is linked with that of the school. it is this art which, by rea- son of its permanent contact with industry, has the power to maintain the quality of the professional formation which, under the old dispensation, was acquired in the close corporations. to unite, for one and the same work, the imagination of the artist and the hand of the craftsman would seem to be the essential law and the essential condition for the progress of modern decora- tive art. (sec exuibition.) (p. ly.) il. decorative art in great britain in great britain the tendency of decoration has been much in the same direction as on the european continent, but in accord- ance with the characteristic british temperament there has been a slower and more deliberate development. repeating patterns were based almost exclusively, at the beginning of the century, on natural forms and built up with mathematical formulae to secure such variety as was possible within the severe restrictions imposed by these conditions. textiles and wall papers, to take the two chief examples, have moved away from these limits. on the one hand, plain colour has come into favour, either without pattern of any kind or in panels relieved with vertical bands of simple ornament. on the other, masses of broken col- our, irregular in form and superficially devoid of rhythm or appar- ent design—the so-called ‘‘ jazz’ patterns—have had a consider- able vogue, responding to the feeling of unrest and rebellion against formalism which is one of the legacies bequeathed to the decorative art plate ii. | ; ~ 2 t ~~ — a3 —— = ee = — | 2 examples of american industrial art as shown in the ninth annual exhibition, 1925, at the metropolitan museum of art, new york city prate ii. decorative art fic. 1. design for bedroom at the ambhassade francaise, by andre groult. fic. 2. pendant, of carved crystal, onyx and brilliants. design by a. bagge. [f1g. 3. pendant; carved crystal mask, with emeralds and brilliants. fie. 4. ceiling design, by george p. bankart. fic. 5. design for mosaic, by gentil and bourdet. (figs. 1 & 5. exhibition of decorative art, paris. courtesy of m. paul leon. figs. 2 & 3. courtesy of m.g. fouquet, paris. fig. 4. photo, lewis & randall, birmingham.) dedeagatch—de filippi arts by the world war. in the latter movement roger fry may be referred to as a pioneer of the new design. similarly, the delicate tints of walter crane and his school have been replaced with strong, often crude colour, violently contrasted, barbaric in general elfect, but by no means unsatisfactory as decoration when used in appropriate environment. a retrograde afovement.—side by side with these efforts to- wards originality must be recorded a retrograde movement, one directly due to the influence of the museums and the growth of the cult of the collector. this has been manifested in the recru- descence of the historic styles, especially of the late 17th and 18th centuries. a large section of the public, whose education in taste has progressed only far enough to secure condemnation of victorian types but has not yet so far advanced as to develop individual judgment, has welcomed the comparative securily and undoubted efficiency of queen anne, chippendale, adam or wedgwood models, where the newer patterns have scared, even shocked it. in mural decoration, the tendency, again, has been in the decoration of a scheme of vertical lines, with plain panels relieved with occasional bands of ornament; the latter throwing back, in character, mainly to the late ‘tudor or early english renaissance style. good work has been done in plaster, especially by the late ernest gimson and g. p. bankart. for the finest decoration in colour of our period, we have to thank the untiring genius and marvellous facility of frank brang- wyn, r.a., whose great decorative painting in oils, “‘ king john signing magna charta,” done for the new court house of cleve- land, ohio (1912), may be selected as a specimen of his treatment of a historical subject in a technique thoroughly individualistic. the same artist’s series of 16 decorative panels, in pure egg tem- pera, for the chapel of christ’s hospital, west horsham, repre- sents another phase of his art; the last subject, ‘‘ let the people praise thee, o god,” being perhaps the most representative example that could be chosen of a reverent but essentially mod- ern treatment of a rcligious theme. the decorative work carried out by robert anning bell, r.a., in the ifouses of parliament at westminster and his mosaics in westminster cathedral, while more scholarly in style, are also far removed from mere con- vention. (leet. s.) ill. decorative art in tie united states a refreshing rejuvenation of the spirit of decorative design and a liberal infusion of that renewed spirit into the complicated machinery of manufacture and distribution may be considered leading characteristics of the present state of decorative and industrial art in the united states. still wrestling with prob- lems following in the wake of a mechanistic century, america has found at last that the cargo of quantity production cannot be brought to port without the compass of design. the destruc- tive influence of the machine has now been fully recognised by manufacturers and public alike as self-inflicted, the misuse of complex and cunning tools whose marvellous ability had seemed automatic, this has led to a serious consideration of decorative design as an element not only in portable commodities but in all the arts that contribute to a more pleasurable existence, and we find progress in this regard not only among those who manufacture, but also among those who scll and those who use objects of deco- rative and industrial art, thus reaching producer, retailer and consumer. to meet this increased interest we note decided modifications and a re-study of the methods of art teaching in the schools, a rapid growth in the number of museums of art and in their specialised educational work, a heavy increase in the number of shops selling objects of decorative art, a studious use of museum collections by manufacturers and designers as an aid in preparing their current material, an increase in the number of exhibitions of decorative art, both public and other, and, finally, a definite preference for better designed things by the purchasers who patronise leading shops in large cities. stylistic trends are still mainly historical, running in cycles of old motives applied to new uses and expressed in new materials. 837 yet there is discernible a triad of elements upon which reliance may be placed. there is, first, the appearance of a small group of thinkers and writers on the subject. secondly, from the ruck of mass production we noie the emergence of a limited number of manufacturers in small quantity whose products may be regarded as representative of the new organised craftsmanship which must set the pace for modern manufacture. finally, and most recently, we record a new note of courage which can come only from conviction based on serious study, a willingness to use historic motives as the alphabet which itself has many forms, changing with time but serving to make always new words and languages. no doubt this last is due in part to the general spirit of revolt which underlay the exposition in paris in 1925; but it is due more certainly to the fact that the united states as a nation has arrived at a point of cultural awakening, finding historic form a handmaid and not a copybook, realising fundamental values in early american art as the beginning of a national culture, quick- ening to the consciousness of a throbbing life of to-day, which must express itself in its own way and yet must cleave to that line of stylistic continuity which is the standard of its progress and the assurance of its reasonable growth out of the realities of american life. (r.f.b,) dedeagatch (sce 7.917), a port on the north coast of the aegean sea, west of the mouth of the river maritza, and the natural outlet and inlet for the trade of the maritza basin. its population is about 4,000. the natural advantages of the port are few. it is an open roadstead with shallow water inshore. on the other hand, its geographical situation renders it of great im- portance to bulgaria, since the upper valley of the maritza covers a considerable portion of the total area of the bulgarian state, while the railway connecting central europe with constan- tinople via sofia sends a branch down the western bank of the maritza, which reaches the sea at dedeagatch. as a result of the balkan wars of 1912-3, dedeagatch fell to bulgaria; but under article 48 of the peace treaty between the allied powers and bulgaria, which was signed at neuilly on nov. 27 1919, bulgaria was compelled to cede to the principal allied and associated powers the greater part of western thrace, con- taining her entire sea-board on the aegean, including dedeagatch. bulgaria undertook to accept whatever disposal of this territory the powers might make. on the other hand, the powers under- took to ensure the economic outlets of bulgaria to the aegean sea. on aug. ro 1920 the powers signed a treaty under which they retransferred the ceded territory to greece, and after this they withdrew their own troops and allowed the greek govt. to occupy and administer the territory. meanwhile, their pledge to ensure the economic outlets of bulgaria remained unfulfilled. during the lausanne conference this question was raised by the then bulgarian prime minister, m. stambolisky, and the conference appointed a sub-commis- sion to deal with it. the sub-commission proposed that a per- manent international commission should be set up with exten- sive powers for improving dedeagatch as an international free port, and supervising the administration both of the port and of the railway, as far as the bulgarian frontier. this proposal was rejected by the bulgarian delegation on the ground that satis- factory economic facilities could not be secured unless dedeagatch were removed from the political control of greece. m. veniselos then offered a bulgarian free zone at dedeagatch on the same lines as the yugoslav free zone at salonika, but this, too, was unacceptable to the bulgarians, and since then the question has remained in suspense. see.—admiralty handbook of macedonia, pp. 463-4 survey of international affairs, pp. 338-40 (1920-3). (a. j de filippi, filippo (1869- ), italian scientist and ex- plorer, was born in turin april 6 1869. after graduating in medi- cine at the turin university, he became assistant in the surgical clini¢ and lecturer in operative surgery in the university of genoa, where he pursucd researches of great value in physiological and biological chemistry. in 1897 he took part in the expedition of the duke of the abruzzi to alaska as scientific observer and (1920); sal) 838 ascended mount st. elias. although he did not accompany the duke to the ruwenzori in central africa in 1906, dr. de filippi wrote the report of the expedition, which produced the first de- tailed map of the higher part of the range. in 1909 de filippi joined the duke’s expedition to the western himalaya and kara- koram mts., where a point 24,600 ft. high was reached on a ridge of the bride peak close to k2, which established a record of alti- tude unsurpassed until the exploits on mt. everest (1922 and 1924). he later (1913-4) organised and led an important scien- tific expedition to the karakoram range in central asia, under the auspices of the indian and italian govts., and for valuable researches was created in 1916 an hon. k.c.i.e. during the world war he served in the italian army medical service. he published the ascent of mount st. elias, alaska, by w.r.1. prince luigi amedeo di savoia, duke ef the abrusst (1900), ruwenzor? (1909), karakoram and western itimalaya, (1909) 2 vol. (1912), and sforta della spedisione scientifica thaliana nel ilimelata, curacoriim e turchestan cinese, 1913-1914 (1924). de forest, lee (1873- ), american inventor, was born at council bluffs, ia., aug. 26 1873. he was educated at the sheftield scientific school, yale, receiving b.s. in 1896 and ph.d. in 1899, and continued his studies at the armour institute of technology, chicago. his earliest employment was with the western electric co., chicago, in their experimental telephone laboratory. ele was the first to use the alternating current gen- erator and transmitter, which were later universally employed in wireless transmitting sets. he designed and installed the first five high-power radio stations for the u.s. navy. ‘the most im- portant of his inventions was the audion amplifier, which made possible long-distance telephony. his other inventions include the oscillating audion, or three-electrode tube, and the four-elec- trode tube. after 1921 he devoted himself to the development of the so-called phonotilm talking motion picture, involving the synchronising of sound and motion by the photographic repre- sentation of sound waves. . degas, edgard (1834—10917), french painter (sce 7.931), to- ward the end of his life, when he began to go blind, retired into private life, and gave up exhibiting in the salons. the influence of his infirmity soon showed itself in his work; yet though his style lacked its former precision, it may be said to have gained in breadth of outlook. he now produced pastels, such as groups of dancers, which were remarkable for their plasticity, and modelled silhouettes of women and horses which were not cast in bronze until after his death. his engravings consist of etchings, copper- plates and lithographs. a special room in the luxembourg collection, paris, is given up to his paintings. degoutte, joseph (1866- ), french soldier, was born april 18 1866 at charney (rhene). he entered saint-cyr in 1888 and joined the 4th zouaves in 1890. after service in madagascar, he distinguished himself in the chinese expedition of 1900, was made a lieutenant-colonel in rgr1 and sent to morocco to take charge of the depet at casablanca. during the world war he became general of brigade in 1916 and led the moroccan div. during the somme, champagne and verdun campaigns. in the summer of 10918, at the head of the vi. army, he helped mangin to carry through the counter-olfensive against the german flank. iie was made major-gencral on the staff of the king of the belgians in the same year, and entered brussels after the armistice at the head of the allied troops. from oct. 191g to oct. 1924 he was commander-in-chtef of the french armies on the rhine, and in 1920 became a member of the supreme army council. de gubernatis, angelo, count (1840-10913), italian man of letters (sce 12.667), published in his later years a series of lectures on italian poetry, la poesie amourcuse et la renaissance italienne (1907), and a dictionnaire infernational des ecrivains dit monde latin (1905-6). he died at rome feb. 26 1913. dehmel, richard (1863-1920), german poet, was born in wendisch-hermsdorf, brandenburg, on nov. 18 1863. he was educated in kremmen, berlin and danzig, and in 1882 began to study philosophy, natural sciences and social economy, and also became editor of a provincial newspaper. from 1887-95 de forest—delaware he was secretary of the union of german fire insurance compa-__ nies. in 1891 he published his first volume of poetry lrlesiungen. this was followed by jlber die liebe (1893), and werb und welt (1896). from 1899 until 1902 he travelled in italy, greece, switzerland, holland and england, and afterwards lived in blankenese, near hamburg. in collaboration with his first wife, paula dehmel, he published some books for children including fitzebutze (19007). ile wrote a novel in lyrical form, zwei menschen in 1903, the epic composition die verwandlungen der fenus in 1904 and also dramas and pantomimes. he took part as a volunteer in the world war, and in r9t9 published his diary, zwischen kreig und meuschheit. amongst his dramas, die mensch- enfreunde (1917) was successful. ilis collected works, 10 vol. began publication in t906. his vigorous lyric poetry was dis- tinguished by deep thought and power of imagery, having for its main themes erotic and social questions. he died at blank- anese feb. 8 1920. see selected letters, 2 vol. (1922-3); e. ludwig, richard dehmel (1913). delagoa bay, portuguese east africa (see 7.942), is commonly known by the name lourenco marques, the port on its northwest shore. (see lourenco marques.) de la mare, walter john (1873- ), british poet and novelist, of [luguenot descent, was born on april 25 1873, at charlton, kent, and educated in london at st. paul’s cathedral choir school. from 1889 to 1908 he was employed in the anglo- american oil co., but he had already printed poems and prose, writing as “ walter ramal ” in the cornhill and other maga- zines, and in toor his songs of childhood appeared, his novel henry brocken following in 1904. a grant from the privy purse enabled him to devote himsceli fully to literary work, and he gradually found a growing audience for his delicate and highly individual work. the listeners and other poems (1912), peacock pie (1913), jfotley and other poems (1918) brought him to the front rank of his contemporaries, and his collected poems, tg0t-1918, appeared in 1920. a fairy play, crossings, was published in 1921, and also further poems, 7e veil. his long novel, afemoirs of a midget (1921), showed his prose gifts at their highest; somewhat short of that came two books of tales, the riddle (1924) and broomsticks (1925). deland, margaretta wade (1857- ), american writer, was born at allegheny, pa., feb. 23 1857. she studied in private schools and at cooper union in new york, and for a time was a teacher of drawing. she attracted wide attention with her first novel, joh ward—preacher (1888), which dealt with rcligious and social questions after the manner of mrs. hlumphry ward. her numerous works include sidey (1890); the story of a child (1892); philip and his wife (1894); the awakening of helena richie (1906); the iron woman (1911); the rising tide (1916); and the vehement flame (1922). de la rey, jacobus hercules (1847-1914), boer soldier (see 7.944), who was concerned in the rebellion headed by col. maritz (see sout africa), was shot dead by a police patrol near johannesburg sept. 16 rota. delaware (sce 7.947).—in 1920 the population of delaware was 223,003, 4s compared with 202,322 in 1910, an increase of 20,681, or 10:-2%. the number per sq. m. in 1920 was 113-5; in 1910, £03. in 1920 the urban population exceeded the rural for the first time in the history of the state. of the total population in 1920, 77°5°% were native whites, 8-9% foreign-born whites and 13-6°% negroes. of 10,508 illiterates in 1920, 4,700 were negroes, 3,373 foreign-born whites, and 2,427 native whites. the population of the chief cities and towns in 1920 was as fol- lows: wilmington, 110,168; dover, the state capital, 4,042; new castle, 3,854; milford, 2,703; laurel, 2,253; newark, 2,183; seaford, 2,141; lewes, 2,074. manufactures.—the intense industrial activity of the world war period intluenced delaware greatly, especially wilmington and its environs. the outstanding phase of this activity was the part taken by the du pont powder interests in supplying the needs of the allics and the u.s. army. in rg1g the principal industries were leather, pulp goods, cars and general shop con- delbruck—delhi struction and repairs by steam railway companies, iron and stecl, canning and preserving of fruits and vegetables, and foundry and machine-shop products. agriculture—after the passage of the agricultural extension act (1911) the most significant movement was the development of co-operative associations, and especially (1918~21) the rapid growth of the farm bureau movement. in 1920 the number of farms was 10,140 as compared with 10,836 in 1910, a decrease of 696, or 6-4%. the preceding decade had shown an increase of 1,149 or 11-9°%. of the farms 6,010 were operated, in 1920, by their owners, 144 by managers and 3,986 by tenants. all land in farms in 1920 amounted to 944,511 ac., being 75-1 ° of the total land area of the state; 653,052 ac. were improved land, or 69°1°% of the farm land. the value of all farm property in 1920 was $80,137,614, an increase of 26-89% over the figures for 1910. the value of all crops in 1919 was $23,058,906. the total value of cereals was $9,638,010, of hay and forage crops $4,366,174, of vegetables including potatoes $6,271,714 and of fruits and nuts $2,566,807. the total value of cattle, sheep, swine, horses and mules in 1919 was $7,373,260; of dairy products, excluding cheese, $2,442,253. the estimated total acreage in 1924 was 461,000. tducalion.—d uring the period beginning in 1910 there was a distinct advance made in the field of education. better facilities for the training of teachers were developed, and new school build- ings erected in many parts of the state. in 1913 the women’s college was founded and affiliated with delaware college in newark, with the same administration and in part the same faculty, but entirely separate in buildings, classes and student organisations. in 1921 the two colleges were incorporated as the university of delaware. the internal relations between the colleges, however, were icft as before. the value of the university property in 1924 amounted to $1,986,000, the income for the fiscal year, 1923-4, was $506,000, and the total attendance in 1925 was 363 men and 293 women. increased federal appro- priations under the purnell act to the agricultural experiment station, also affiliated with the university, made possible greater expansion of education in better agricultural methods. an out- standing phase of educational development was the erection of school buildings in various parts of the state, made possible by gifts approximating $4,000,000 by mr. pierre s. du pont to an or- ganisation of citizens known as the service citizens of delaware. finances and taxation.—the cash receipts from all sources, including sales of highway bonds, during the fiscal year ending june 30 1924 amounted to $9,137,563. the two largest sources of revenue were the franchise tax and the corporation fees, the latter amounting to $736,191. other important sources of revenue were the motor vehicle licence, motor vehicle fuel tax, income tax, the so-called filing fee, property tax, railway, in- surance, inheritance and corporation taxes, merchants and manufacturers licences, and reimbursements for the highways in the form of aid from the federal govt., the counties and private sources. the total amount of expenditures for the fiscal year ending june 30 1924 was $7,870,969. of this amount over $4,000,000 were expended upon the state highways and $2,000,000 were appropriated for schools. a state banking dept. was created (1919), with a banking commissioner and a deputy, whose duty it is to examine every bank at least once a year. in 1921 a budget plan was adopted for the state government, which became effective in 1923. history.—the passage of a considerable number of modern and progressive laws and the post-war reconstruction work were the two dominant phases in the history of the state in the period from 1910 to 1925. in this period there were two progres- sive governors, charles r. miller and john g. townsend. dur- ing the administration of the latter a number of important statutes were enacted, including a child labour law (1917), a workmen’s compensation act (1917), laws for the regulation of labour for women, an income tax law (1917), a direct in- heritance tax law (1917) and a thorough revision of the school laws, known as the new school code (1919). in 1923 the child welfare commission and the tuberculosis commission were combined with the state board of health. after 1910 the 539 republicans maintained their control of state executive offices, electing the following governors: simeon s. pennewill (1909-13); charles r. miller (1914-7); john g. townsend (1917-21); wil- liam d. denny (1921-5); and robert p. robinson (1925- je much of the time, however, the democrats controlled the house of representatives and also the senate after the bien- nial elections of 1922 and.1924. in 1922 the democrats elected thomas f. bavard to the u.s. senate and william h. boyce to the house of representatives, but in 1924 gen. t. coleman du pont was elected to the senate by the republicans to succeed dr, l. heisler ball; and robert g. houston, also a republican, defeated mr. boyce for the house. in the presidential election of 1912 the democrats carried the state; in 1916, 1920 and 1924 the republicans won by a considerable margin. a third char- acteristic of the period was the interest shown by public-spirited citizens in the advancement of education and the building of highways. ‘the work of pierre s. du pont for education in del- aware had its counterpart in the building of a highway by senator t. coleman du pont, upon which he expended upward of $4,000,- ooo, and which he formally presented to the state on july 4 1924. bibliography.—j. thomas scharf, [story of delaware (2 vol., 1888); henry c. conrad, /fistary of delaware (3 vol., 1908); edgar dawson, “ public archives of delaware,” in the annual report of the american llistorical association, vol. 2, pp. 129-48 (1906) ; adelaide r. hasse, index of economic material in documents of the states of the united states, delaware, 1789-1904 (1910); amandus johnson, the swedish settlements on the delaware (2 vol., 1912); delaware school code (1920); laws of delaware, vol. 27 to 34, inclusive (191-1925); fourteenth census of the united states; clunual reports of state treasurer, (g. ee. r.) delbruck, hans (1848- ), german historian (see 7.952). from 1899 to 1920 prof. delbriick edited the preissische jahrbiicher, the most important political magazine in germany. in the years directly preceding the world war he was emphatic in his warnings of the disastrous consequences which would en- sue if germany precipitated herself into a european conflict, and argued that national idealism, if carried too far, very soon de- generates into national fanaticism. during the early part of the war, however, he put up a strong defence of germany’s attitude. after the armistice he endeavoured to prove that germany could not be made solely responsible for the outbreak of hostilities. he was one of the delegates sent to the peace conference at ver- sailles to draw up a statement of the german case. in 1923, as one of the three experts in the reichstag enquiry committee appointed to investigate the causes of the german defeat, he strongly criticised ludendoriff’s 1918 offensive. delcasse, theophile (1852-10923), french statesman (see 7.953), emerged from retirement to censure the defective organ- isation of the navy after a series of disasters, and in tg09 pre- sided over a commission of enquiry appointed by the chamber. in march 1909 he became minister of marine in the monis cabinet, retaining this position in the cabinets of m. caillaux (june r9r1—jan. rot2) and of m. poincare (jan. 1912—jan. 1923). on aug. 24 1914 m. vivianit appointed him minister for orcign affairs in his reconstituted ministry. during the summer of 1915 delcasse’s schemes for winning bulgaria over to the side of the allies failed utterly to mature, and in oct. he resigned, retiring from politics altogether in to919. m. delcasse, who played a considerable part in the evolution of the anglo-french extenie, was possibly one of the greatest foreign ministers of the third republic, and rendered inestimable serv- ice both to france and to europe. he died at nice feb. 21 1923. delhi, india (see 7.954), had a population in 1921 of 301,420. the planning and laying-out of a new delhi has been in progress since 1912, as the outcome of the official transfer of the capital of british india from calcutta, announced by king george v. at the coronation durbar on dec. 12 1911. two inaugura- tion stones were laid by the king-emperor on dec. 15 tort. the first step was the appointment of a town-planning com- mittee, and a site to the south of the old city was chosen. new cantonments to the west were occupied in 1923, and a temporary city, housing the official secretariats, has been built to the north. the focal point of the new city is on raisina hill, and the buildings of the government centre are arranged symmctrically 840 about what is practically an east and west axis connecting the focal point with the north-western, or talaki, gate of the olcl fort of indrapat, or purana kila. the two great blocks of secretarlats are situated to the north and south of this focal point, with government court between them. westward from government court, a raised platform, or forum, connects raisina hill with the high ground of the southern ridge, so that the whole government centre appears to be built on a spur of the ridge itself. this raised forum is known as the viceroy’s court and at its western end is situated government house. at the intersection of these roadways with the east and west axis of the court is the jaipur column surmounted by the star of india. below the eastern facade of the secretariats a forecourt, known as the great place, is laid out. eastward again is a park known as the central vista, on either side of which are the houses of the members of council. a second principal avenue of the city inter- sects at right angles the central vista about midway in its length. in the four angles formed by this intersection were planned four large buildings, to accommodate, amongst other institutions, the imperial record office, the ethnological museum, the medical research institute, the library and the war museum. on oct. 1 1912, by proclamation, there was constituted the administrative province of delhi, taken entirely from the old delhi district of the punjab. delhi will be the seat of government from october to may; the hot weather will be spent at simla, as in the past. it is proposed completely to occupy the new city for the first time in oct. 1926, and it is anticipated that the houses for the officials and the secretariats will be ready by that date. government house, however, and the great circular build- ing for the chamber of princes, the legislative assembly and the council of state will not be finished until the following march. the roads were metalled and planted with trees and the sewage and water-pipes and electric cables laid by 1924. old delhi was again visited by plague in 1918, and in ro1g there were riots in the city. a room in the mogul fort is now an archaeological museum. (ov jick. hd delisle, leopold victor (1826-1910), french bibliophile and historian (see 7.964), published, in 1909, his edition of the rouleau mortuaire du b. vital, abbe de savigny, and also les actes de henri it. (vol. 2 appeared in 1916). iie died at chan- tilly july 21 igrto. see r. l. poole, leepold deltsle (1911); xn. delisle, lettres de leopold deliste (ig11-4). delius, frederick (1863-— ), british musical com- poser, was born at bradford, yorks., jan 29 1863, the son of julius delius, a german, who, in 1860, became a naturalised british subject. he was educated at bradford grammar school and the international college, isleworth, london. declining the business carcer offered him in bradford he went to florida as an orange planter, but devoted his spare time to such musical study as he could obtain from the books in his possession. in 1886 he jeft florida for leipzig and there underwent a more or less regular training from jadassohn and came under the in- fluence of grieg, then living in that town. in 1893 his fantasia- overture over ihe hills and far away was done by dr. haym at elberfeld. the work was ultimately recast and produced in london in 1907 by theo. szanto. tis first concert of his own works was held at st. james’s hall, london, in 1899. in the intervals of opera composing delius produced purely orchestral works or works for chorus and orchestra. a mass of life (1905), produced in london in 1909, is generally considered his finest achievement. h{[e also composed incidental music to j. e. flecker’s tassan, produced at his majesty’s theatre, london, in 1923.",
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