CYPRUS

the population of the island at the 1921 census was 310,709, about 19°4% being mahommedans. on the outbreak of war with turkey on nov. 5 1914 cyprus was formally annexed to the british crown and became an inte- gral part of the british empire. in the proclamation then 1s- sucd, it was announced that every ottoman subject residing in the island would become a british subject unless he notified in writing within a stated period his desire to retain his ottoman nationality. with the exception of a few non-cypriote turks temporarily residing in the island, all accepted british national- itv, the greek-speaking inhabitants with enthusiasm and their turkish-speaking compatriots without demur. the change of status of the island, from being a dependency of the ottoman empire administered by great britain to being an integral por- tion of the british empire, was effected quietly and without incident of any kind, and involved no material alteration in administration. the so-called “ turkish tribute’ of £92,800 a year continued to be borne by the revenue, being termed the ‘ cyprus share of the turkish debt charge.” the annexation was recognised by turkey in the treaty of cy renaica—cytology lausanne, 1923. following the cyprus (legislative council) order in council of feb. 6 1925, the island was formally elevated to the status of a colony on may 1 1925; the high commissioner was to be known after that date as the governor. in the legisla- tive council the non-moslem representation was increased to 12, the council thus consisting of nine official and 15 elected members. the greek-speaking cypriotes for many years clamoured for cyprus to be united to greece, which they consider as their mother country; but greece has not shown any great desire to encourage the agitation, and the british govt. does not recognise the claim as well founded. the island’s finances were placed on a sound basis in 1911 by fixing an annual grant-in-aid of {£50,000 from the imperial govt. in substitution for the unsatisfactory arrangement pre- viously in force, whereby the imperial govt. had year by year made good any deficit that might occur between revenue and expenditure. during the world war cyprus was used as a convalescent camp for the troops taking part in the gallipoli operations, and it supplied large quantities of firewood and agricultural products, and numbers of mules to egypt. <a large prisoners of war camp was also founded towards the end of the war, accommodating thousands of turkish prisoners from palestine and elsewhere. economic history —the history of cyprus during the period 1910 to 1925 was one of slow but continuous progress. under british administration, education and agriculture have made great strides. commercially the island prospered, not only owing to its large export of caroub beans, agricultural produce and livestock, but also from its minerals. asbestos is exported in large quantities, and the old phoenician and roman copper mines are worked chiefly for the by- products of copper, which, when exported on a large scale, form a oe commodity. the railway which was built in 1907 from the arbour of famagusta through the mesaoria plain was extended in 1915 to evrykhou at the foot of the western hills, and the island has been covered with a network of roads most of which are suitable for motor traffic. reafforestation has been actively taken in hand by the administration, and legislative measures have been introduced for protecting the young trees from the ravages of goats, which in the past have been the cause of the destruction of an incalculable num- ber of young trees. the forests are under the charge of a special department, with a staff of forest guards to protect the trees, pre- vent or deal with forest fires, ancl generally see that the sy!van prod- uce of the island is developed to the best advantage. the hills in the western part are covered with valuable forests of pine and cedar, and roads are cut to hitherto almost tnaccessible parts in order to facilitate the extraction of their valuable timber, a mail service is maintained between egypt and cyprus by subsidisect steamers of the khedivial steamship company, the voyage between port said and the island taking about 18 hours. these steamers connect at port said with the peninsular and oriental co. and the journey from london to cyprus can be performed in about seven days. bibliography.—c. w. j. orr, cyprus under british rule (1918); h. c. luke and d. j. jardine, the handbook of cyprus (1920); w. h. flinn, cyprus, a brief survey of its listory and development (cyprus, 1924); annual reports of h.m.’s high commissioner. (co avs j) cyrenaica (see 7.702) has an area of about 230,000 square miles. the population (1925 estimate) is 250,000, including 12,000 europeans. the capital and chief seaport is benghazi (popula- tion about 40,000). when in 1912 italy succeeded turkey in the sovereignty of the vilayet of benghazi, it was officially styled ‘‘ cirenaica,’’ by which name the region had commonly been known from ancient times. it was made a colony distinct from the adjoining vilayet of tripoli (tripolitania), but up to 1gr4, owing mainly to the opposition of the senussi, the italians had occupied little more than the coast region. during the great war italian occupation was reduced to the ports of benghazi and derna and a few other places on the mediterranean, but from 1919 onward italian authority was gradually extended. by an agreement concluded in dec. 1925, egypt ceded to italy the oasis of jaghbub, and the possession of that oasis, which the italians occupied in feb.1926, enabled them to strengthen their hold on the hinterland. the people—arabs and berbers—rear large numbers of cattle, sheep and camels, and there is considerable trade in livestock with egypt. excellent barley is grown, and is usually exported to great britain, where it is used for making whisky and beer. the total value of the external trade in 1923 was about 783 £1,000,000. the greater part of the country is a barren desert. there were in 1924 20 m. of railway, part of a projected line to join benghazi and derma. (see senusst.) breltography.—a tandbook to libya (1917), a british admiralty publication and l. h. hurst, keport on the trade of cyrenatca (stationary office, london, 1925). cytology (sce 7.710).—the effect of the work done in cytol- ogy up to 1910 may be summarised as follows:— the bodies of animals and plants are made up of units termed cells, which may be compared to the bricks in a wall. each cell is composed of a viscid, semi-fluid material termed protoplasm, sur- rounded by an elastic membrane termed a cell wall. ‘this wall is composed of cellulose in the case of the vegetable cell, and may ac- quire considerable thickness and firmness; in the animal cell it is almost always very thin, and never consists of cellulose, but appears to agree in composition with the protoplasm, of which it may be considered a condensation. there is reason to believe that in most, if not all, cases the cell wall is porous, and that adjacent cells are connected with one another by bridges of protoplasm. formss of cellular activity the activities of living cells are manifested in four ways, viz.:— (1) by movement, which takes the form of alternating contrac- tion and expansion. (2) by secretion, 7.e., by the production of definite substances which accumulate in the protoplasm, but which are finally extruded from the cell. (3) by the transmission of stimuli, so that shocks or stimuli of various kinds applied to one cell result in movement or secretion in a different cell. (4) by reproduction, which takes the form of the division of the cell into two daughter cells. all these activities are dependent for their continuance on the con- sumption of a certain portion of the protoplasm; and if life is to per- sist and if the cells are to increase in number this waste must be repaired. this is effected by the taking in and assimilation of food; and this assimilation can only be carried out if there exists in the protoplasm a specially differentiated portion termed the “nucleus, ” which appears to be of rather different composition from the rest. for this reason it is customary to use the term ‘‘cytoplasm’”’ for the extra-nuclear protoplasm. cells may be specialised for rapil movement or for the reception and transmission of stimuli or for secretion. locomotor cells may be provided with freely projecting filaments, termed “cilia” or “ fla- gella,” which are capable of rapid vibration, and act the part of oars in propelling the animal, or their cytoplasm may contain threads termed “myonemes” or “ muscular fibrils’? which are capable of thickening and contracting; and these threads may be simple or cross-striped, 7.e., composed of alternate disks of singly and doubly . refracting material; cells provided with these threads are termed “ muscle-cells.” cells devoted to the reception and transmission of stimuli are known as ‘“ nerve-cells ’ or '‘ neurones.”” those which are situated at the free surface of the animal, and which are provided with stilf processes of various kinds which are easily affected by stimuli, are known as ‘‘ sense-cells.’””, those which are more deeply situated have, in place of the stiff processes, one or more root-like branching proc- esses, known as “ receptive dendrites.” stimuli when received are transmitted by outgrowths of the neurone known as “ axons,” and these axons, after preservation by fixing fluids, are seen to con- sist of a series of delicate fibres, the ‘‘ neurofibrillac.” the axon ends in a brush of root-like processes called ‘ terminal dendrites’; these dendrites are in contact either with the receptive dendrites of another neurone to which they hand on the stimulus, or with a muscle-cell in which they cause contraction, or with a secretory cell in which they initiate secretion. in the case of secretory cells the secretion may be fluid and poured forth at a free surface only, from which it is washed away by the currents of the circumambient medium. of this type are the mucous cells, which give rise to the slime which lubricates the skin of carth- worms, or the similar cells which produce the mucus inside the human mouth cavity. on the other hand the secretion may take the form of fibres or of another form of solid material and may be extruded from the entire surface of each cell so that the cell becomes in this way separated from its neighbours by masses of the secretion or, as it is now termed, the intercellular substance. cells of this kind are known as ‘‘ connective-tissue cells '’ and give rise to the various supporting tissues such as fibrous tissue, cartilage and bone. the reproductive cells or “ germ cells * are, as their name implies, cells which have the capacity of giving rise to a mass of cells out of which the body of a new individual is built up. they occur in many forms amongst the lowest grades of animals, 7.e., the protozoa, but amongst the higher animals, or metazoa, they are remarkably con- stant in general characters, exhibiting practically the same forms throughout the whole range of animals from the sponges to the human race. they appear under two types, viz.:—(1i) a small, motile male cell, which consists mainly of a head, which is a con- — 734 densed nucleus, to which is added a vibratile flagellum termed the tail; and (2) a much larger motionless female cell or egg, in the cytoplasm of which there are deposits of food matcrial known as yolk. normally a male cell must unite with a female ceil before development can be initiated, but the eggs of many animals can develop without this union and are then termed ‘ parthenogenetic.”’ in other cases where union with a male cell normally takes place eggs can be stimulated to develop without previous union witha male cell, and these cases are termed “ artificial parthenogenesis.”’ lhe nucleus.—turning now to the consideration of the nucleus, we find that this ts frequently invisible in the living cell, but when it can be made out, it appears either as a clear vesicle (as in many eggs) or as a slightly more granular portion of the protoplasm (as in amoeha). when, however, it its fixed and stained it exhibits a characteristic structure. it then appears as a vesicle containing a fluid termed the “ nuclear sap,”’ and bounded by a membrane termed the ‘nuclear wall.’’ the sap is traversed by a network of threads known as “jinin fibres,’ and adhering to these fibres—suggesting the arrangement of beads on a necklace—are a number of granules termed “ chromatin ’’ because they attract and retain the colouring matter of the staining fluid so strongly. in addition there are usually one or two rounded bodies termed ‘ nucleoli,” which also attract stain strongly, but these are apparently not composed of exactly the same chemical substances as the chromatin granules, and it is possible by the use of certain stains to colour them differently from the tint assumed by the chromatin. we have already scen that assimilation or the building-up of fresh protoplasm is impossible in the absence of a nucleus. this is proved by dividing a uninucleate amoeba into two, when it is seen that the non-nucleate piece, though capable of movement, cannot digest or assimilate food and, after a short period of activity, cles. the division of the nucleus always precedes the division of the cell, and this division is occasionally direct, z.e., by the process of simple constriction into two, or much more frequently indirect, by the process termed “ karyokinesis ”’ or ‘' mitosis.”’ in this method the chromatin grains were believed to become aggregated into a con- tinuous spirally coiled thread termed the ‘‘ spireme,’’ which then became segmented into a definite number of segments called “‘chro- mosomes.” the chromosomes always appear in the same number in the same species at every division of the nucleus. meanwhile the nucleolus or nucleoli disappear, apparently dissolved in the cell sap; and the nuclear membrane becomes dissolved, so that the cell sap is mingled with the cytoplasm; and then a small body termed the “centrosome,” lying at the side of the nucleus in the cytoplasm, be- comes discernible. the centrosome can occasionally be demon- strated lying at the side of the resting nucleus, but when it becomes visible in the process of mitosis it is seen to be in process of division into two. | the chromosomes at the same time appear to be split longitudi- nally, whilst from the daughter centrosomes, as they move apart, a series of filamentous rays are developed, some of which (“' astral fibres ’’) extend out to the periphery of the cell, whilst others (‘' man- tle fibres ’’) become attached to the halves of the split chromosomes, one fibre from each centrosome going to a corresponding half of the chromosome. when the centrosomes have reached positions at opposite ends of the nucleus the mantle fibres proceeding from them have constituted the mitotic spindle; certain other fibres appear running directly from one centrosome to another in the axis of the spindle, which are termed “ spindle fibres,”’ whilst the split chromo- somes, under apparent tension of the mantle fibres, have assumed positions lying at right angles to the axis of the spindle, and con- stitute what is called the “‘ equatorial plate.” by a continuance of the apparent tension of the mantle fibres the two halves of each chromosome are dragged apart from one another, and eventually one set of half-chromosomes becomes massed together in the vicinity of each pole of the spindle, that is, close to each daughter centrosome. each of such sets of chromo- somes constitutes a daughter nucleus. the chromosomes become longer and thinner and more entangled with one another until the initial stage of a linin network with adhering chromatin granules is re-established, and round this a new nuclear wall is formed. the stages leading to the segmentation of the spireme thread and the solution of the nuclear membranes are termed the “ prophases of mitosis '’; those leading to the establishment of the equatorial plate are termed the ‘' metaphase.’’ the stage involving the separation of the halves of the chromosomes is termed the ‘‘ anaphase,” whilst the steps leading to the reconstitution of the daughter nuclei are termed the “' telophases '’ of mitosis. in the fertilisation of the egg it is penetrated by the head of the spermatozo6n, which carries with it a segment of the tail termed the middle-piece. the middle-piece is distinguished by its diamcter from the thinner more distal part of the tail and it includes a centro- some which has been derived from the centrosome active at the last division of the sperm mother cell. sometimes the distal part of the tail is left behind at the surface of the egg—sometimes it penetrates with the rest of the spermatozoen. in the latter case it remains assive in one cell of the embryo and is absorbed and is without influence on the hereditary potencies of the embryo, since it is never distributed to any but the one cell. all the paternal influence must be carried by the head, which is a condensed mass of chromatin; cy tology hence is derived the strong belief that not only is the nucleus the bearer of hereditary powers but that the chromatin is the element of the nucleus in which they are concentrated. the spermatozo6n head, once immersed in the egg, swells up and assumes the characteristic structure of a nucleus: it acquires nuclear sap and a nuclear wall and its chromatin becomes resolved into the same number of chromosomes as are present in the egg nucleus. it is then known as the ‘ male pro-nucleus,’”’ whilst the egg nucleus is termed the “‘ female pro-nucleus.”’ the centrosome derived from the middle piece gives rise to an enormous aster with radiating rays which is termed the ‘‘ sperm-aster '’; the two nuclei approach each other, and the sperm-aster then fades out and is replaced by two asters each radiating from one of the daughter centrosomes which become con- nected by a spindle. the chromosomes of both nuclei are arranged side by side on the equatorial plate of this spindle: so that when the compound or ‘ zygote ’’ nucleus divides, equal portions of maternal and paternal chromatin are distributed to the first two cells of the embryo, and the same thing follows at every subsequent division of the growing embryo, so that paternal and maternal chromatin is distributed in equal amounts to every cell of the body. the ripe germ cell consequently possesses only one-half the number of chromosomes which the ordinary body cell possesses. this number is termed the haploid number, whereas the normal number found in the ordinary cells of the body is termed the dip/o7d number. at some time therefore in the history of the germ-cell, a reduction of the diploid to the haploid number must take place. the older view was that this occurred at one of the ripening divisions in consequence of the spireme becoming segmented into half the usual number of pieces: each of these pieces then exhibited a transverse split, which was re- garded as an indication of the belated appearance of the full number: at the first maturation division, these halves were, however, supposed to be distributed to different cells, so that each daughter cell received only half the original number of chromosomes—this division was known as the ‘‘ reduction division,"’ or ‘‘ meiotic division.” since the chromosomes are usually invisible during the resting stage of the nucleus the question has been raised whether they re- tained their individuality throughout the whole growth cycle. various considerations lead to the conclusion that their individuality is retained. in some cases where the number is very small, as in the cells of the nematode worm ascaris, the chromosomes or at feast their ends can be detected in the resting nucleus: moreover the chromo- somes are not all alike, but differ in size and shape from one another, and to each paternal one there is a corresponding maternal one of similar size and shape, and it seems unlikely that, if they vanished in the resting stage, they should reappear in exactly the same form at the subsequent mitosis. it has been surmised that this individual- ity in form and size was an indication of a difference in function in distributing the hereditary qualities, and boveri's discovery that, when an echinoderm egg was entered by two spermatozoa, one alone fused with the female pro-nucleus whilst the other acted as an inde- vendent nucleus, so that at the first division the egg was divided into four cells, led to the same conclusion. for boveri showed that under these circumstances an abnormal spindle was formed con- necting all four daughter nuclei, and on this spindle the chromosomes were irregularly distributed: and that if the four resulting cells were separated and allowed to develop separately they developed abnor- mally; whereas driesch had previously proved that it was possible to rear any of the first four cells into which a normally fertilised egg divides, if such a cell were separated from the rest, into a perfect larva of diminished size. since an unfertilised egg has also been induced by appropriate stimuli (see embryology) to develop into a perfect larva, the conclusion is inevitable that one complete set of chromosomes (maternal or paternal) is essential to the normal development, and that cells receiving fewer chromosomes than these cannot grow into normal embryos; hence every kind of chromosome has its appropriate function to play in growth. progress since iqi0 we now turn to the great advances made since rgro. about 1899 ilardy published his first paper in which he showed that the effect of the usual preservatives used in killing cells was to produce fibrous networks which had no counterpart in the liv- ing protoplasm, for exactly the same effect could be produced by the use of these same fluids on dead proteid: that in fact all col- loid solutions, which he termed “ sols,” could be easily induced to pass into a semi-solid or “gel” phase in which the molecules were arranged in strings. from such networks the intervening fluid could be easily forced out, but by gently heating colloid solutions a different form of “gel” was produced, from which a pressure of several atmospheres failed to force the fluid out. in the first case the fluid contents were called the continuous phase, and the fibres the disperse phase—but in the second case the fluid is locked up in tiny droplets inside the semi-solid gela- tine and then the fluid was the disperse phase and the gelatine the continuous phase. cy tology this discovery led to great scepticism as to the existence in life of the various structures seen in stained protoplasm. fresh attention was given to the study of protoplasm in the living state and a most ingenious instrument designed by kite was used with effect by chambers for this purpose. this was an excessively fine needle point of hard glass, bent at right angles to the glass tube from which it was drawn, fixed so that the point projected into a glass cell from the roof of which in a hanging drop was sus- pended the living cell or cells it was desired to explore. the needle could be manipulated by screws and the glass cell was mounted on the stage of a microscope. it was discovered that, generally speaking, the cytoplasm of a cell was a sol which was sometimes very thick and viscid and sometimes more fluid, but that the outer layer next the cell-wall was a gel, of which indeed the cell-wall might be regarded as an intensification. the various inclusions contained in the central cytoplasm, such as coloured granules, oil drops, etc.—could be freely pushed about by the needle. when, however, the nucleus of the cell approached mito- sis, a change took place, and the astral rays were found to be strings of semi-solid material, as was also the mitotic spindle but no “ mantle-fibres ’’ could be detected in the living cell: the astral rays became connected with the peripheral gel surrounding the cell. on the other hand no centrosome could be detected in the living cytoplasm, but the sphere surrounding the centrosome was found to consist of tluid material which chambers supposed to be squeezed out from the cytoplasm during the process of gela- tinisation of the astral rays, and from it proceeded fluid rays visi- ble as clear streaks in the living cell which alternated with the astral rays. when the spindle divided, its centre passed into the sol state, and this change propagated itself toward the poles as the two daughter cells separated from one another. examined in the same way, the cross-striped myonemes char- acteristic of the muscle-cells of arthropods and vertebrates turned out to be composed of alternate discs of gels of different consis- tencies; but no trace could be made out of neurofibrillae in the living nerve fibre, and the nerve-cell, z.e., the body of the neuron containing the nucleus, when examined in the living condition, exhibited brownian movement—.c., the granules pulsated under the impact of freely rolling molecules—a circumstance which proves it to be in the sol condition. on the other hand it should be recorded that chambers found that the cytoplasm of the gan- glion cells from the central nerve-cord of the lobster was a very viscid substance which could be pulled out into long threads without undergoing essential change. when pulled away from the nucleus a clear empty space appeared on the side of the nu- cleus in the direction of the pull, which was only slowly filled by inflow of the plasma from the two sides. it will be observed that in living protoplasm the change from the sol to the gel condition is reversible and very frequently takes place and many of the phenomena exhibited by living cells will find their explanation in this circumstance. the brownian movement affords a criterion of whether protoplasm is in the condition of a sol or a gel, although not an absolute one, for chambers has shown that a sol may be so thick as to prevent this movement, and yet it may be possible to move particles in it freely by means of the glass needle. bayliss has shown that the actively moving pseudopodia of amoeba show a vigorous brownian move- ment, but that when they are caused to retract by electric shocks the movement ends, showing conversion of the material into a gel. side by side with these observations on living protoplasm have gone renewed observations on its structure by means of more re- fined fixatives and stains. it has been shown that many of the older preserving fluids which were used to differentiate the nu- cleus and especially the chromatin of the nucleus from the cyto- plasm, had a destructive effect in dissolving out many of the constituents of the cytoplasm. a more refined technique has demonstrated the existence of bodies in the cytoplasm termed “ mitochondria,” which take the form of fibres or, less frequently, of small oval granules. what their function in the life of the cell is has not been fully determined. meves supposed them to be bearers of heredity, like the chromosomes, and described them as dividing into two at the division of the cell, the halves being distributed to the two daughter cells. later researches by gatenby have failed to con- 785 firm this. fle finds that the mitochondria are irregularly dis- tributed at all divisions. besides the mitochondria another ele- ment of the cytoplasm known as the “ golgi apparatus ”’ has come to light. it is so called because it was first described by golgi in nerve-cells. to see it properly it 1s necessary to use preserving fluids which contain osmic acid, followed by treatment with salts of silver. in young cells this apparatus takes the form of a wreath sur- rounding the centrosphere, or area of clear cytoplasm, which envelops the centrosome in the young ccll—.e., in the cell just after it has originated by division of the mother cell. during the growth of the cell this wreath dissolves into smaller elements which become scattered throughout the cytoplasm interspersed amongst the mitochondria. these elements in their typical form consist of disc-like bodies made up of a substance which stains faintly, edged for half or more of their circumference by a rim that stains intensely black with the reagents which are used to dit- ferentiate the golgi apparatus. the earlier observers failed to note the disc-like form of these clements and fixed their atten- tion solely on the deeply staining rim, which they regarded as a rod, and to which they gave the name “‘ dictvsome,”’ but bowen has brought out clearly the real structure of these bodies. the fact that the golgi apparatus reacts strongly with osmic acid has been held to prove that it must be partially made up of a sub- stance allied to lecithin, which contains a fat group in the molecule. the most interesting fact about both mitochondria and golgi apparatus is that the elements of both increase in number by transverse division, and hence they cannot be regarded as food reserves, or temporary deposits of excreta, but are in some sense elements of the living cytoplasm. considerable evidence has been adduced to show that the golgi apparatus is a secretory organ. in nerve-cells, it forms a network permeating the cytoplasm, but nerve-cells once formed never undergo division. in other cells, as already mentioned, it is at first concentrated round the centrosome adjacent to the nucleus and becomes dispersed throughout the cytoplasm as the cell grows older. now nassonov has shown that the fixing agents which are used to demonstrate the golgi apparatus stain also the walls of the pulsating vacuoles found in freshwater protozoa. the vacuoles, as is well known, continually secrete and expel to the exterior a clear fluid. wheeler in the egg of the dab and nath in the eggs of scorpions have shown that the golgi ele- ments are closely allied to certain peculiar yolk globules which grow in connection with them. it seems clear that the golgi ele- ments secrete this kind of yolk which is termed golgi yolk in order to discriminate it from other kinds of yolk. the function of the mitochondria is less clear, but they also appear to be connected with secretion. in the egg of ciona, harvey has found that the yolk globules stain like mitochondria. bram- bell has shown that in the eggs of the molluscs, imnaea and pa- tella, the mitochondria swell up and secrete a kind of yolk sharply distinguished by its staining reactions from golgi yolk. in the formation of the spermatozoa of insects and molluscs the mitochondria and the golgi apparatus play a very definite part which has been elucidated by gatenby. the former give rise to a sheath surrounding the base of the tail which forms the middle-picce of the spermatozoen; the jatter becomes largely metamorphosed into the “acrosome” or pointed structure which is attached to the front of the head of the spermatozoen, and plays the part of a spearhead when the spermatozoen reaches and penetrates an egg. the remnant of the golgi apparatus mi- grates round the head and eventually forms a bead projecting from the tail which is eventually rubbed off. the middle-piece penctrates the egg, but undergoes no growth there: it remains embedded in one cell of the embryo and is eventually absorbed so that the mitochondria can have no function as bearers of heredity. in living cells particles resembling mitochondria and golgi discs in their shape have been observed, oscillating in the typical brownian manner, whence it is inferred that these bodies really exist as such in living protoplasm and are not merely arte- facts produced by preserving reagents. 786 nuclear structure—as regards advances in our knowledge of nuclear structure, we may note especially the demonstration of the presence of sex chromosomes in many animals. already before 1915 the fact was known that in certain cases an odd chromosome was present in the ripening germ cells, that is, a chromosome which in one of the ripening divisions of the germ cells passed without dividing to one pole of the mitotic spindle. but wilson showed that not only are such odd chromosomes found in the developing sperm cells of certain insects but that their presence is apparently related to the determination of sex. the odd chromosome sometimes divides longitudinally at the first maturation division, but at the second passes undivided to one pole of the spindle. sometimes it migrates to one pole in the first division and divides longitudinally at the second: in either case its presence causes the formation of two types of germ cell, one possessing one more chromosome than the other. in the case of these insects the ripening eggs are all found to possess the same number of chromosomes: and this number is equal to that found in the sperm cells which have the larger number. it is clear, therefore, that when the eggs are fertilised with the sperm, two types of fertilised egg should be found; one characterised by having one more chromosome than the other, and these eggs should give rise to animals all of whose cells should have nuclei with a number of chromosomes equal to those found in the fertilised egg from which each one arose. if we now examine the cells of the males, it is discovered that they have nuclei with the smaller number of chromosomes, whereas the cells of the female enclose nuclei with the larger number of chromosomes. therefore it is clear that the male has been pro- duced by the fertilisation of an egg by a spermatozoon devoid of the odd chromosome: whereas a female arises when an egg is fertilised by a spermatozoon containing this chromosome. wilson showed further that sometimes the odd chromosome has a mate with which it pairs, but which is much smaller than itself. this mate is denominated by wilson the y chromosome, whereas the large one which alone is present in the case of many insects is termed the x chromosome. in some cases, however, as in the fly, drosophila, which has been the subject of so many genetic experiments, the y chromosome is as large as the x chromosome and difiers from it only in shape. the male germ cell which receives the y chromosome gives rise to a male when it fertilises an egg, whereas that containing the x chromosome gives rise to a female. still other modifications, which lack of space prevents us entering into, are recorded by wilson. there has been a diligent search for these sex-chromosomes in the germ cells of other animals, and enthusiastic investigators have an- nounced their discovery in the spermatids of echinoderms, ver- tebrates and even of man himself, but these cases cannot yet be taken as fully proved. the earlier conception of the preparation for the mitotic divi- sion of the nucleus has been that the chromosomes became ar- ranged in a continuous thread termed the spireme, which then became transversely segmented into the characteristic number of chromosomes. this conception has gradually been superseded by a much simpler one, viz., that the chromosomes persist as long looped threads during the resting stage of the nucleus and that these long, u-shaped filaments become shorter and thicker as mitosis approaches. to this change of view many workers have contributed, especially agar and hogben. the free ends of these u’s are attached to a spot on the nuclear wall immedi- ately outside which lies the centrosome. in the preparation for the reducing division of the germ cells, when the chromosomes first become distinguishable they are said to be in the “ lepto- tene’”’ stage. these leptotene threads then approach one an- other in pairs, and these pairs are termed “ zygotene ” threads. each pair fuses to form a single thicker thread known as “ pachy- tene,” and in this way the number of chromosomes becomes re- duced to one-half. the interpretation, however, of the fusion of the lepotene threads to form thicker pachytene threads, as the process by which the diploid number of chromosomes is reduced to the haploid number has been disproved by the researches of walker cytology on the developing eggs of the newt. by adopting the precaution neglected by agar and hogben of simultaneously observing mitotic division in somatic and germinal nuclei he has shown that leptotene and pachytene threads occur in them all, that in the telophase of somatic mitoses each chromosome splits longi- tudinally preparatory to the next division, and that in the resting stage the nucleus contains fowr times the haploid number of chromosome threads. in the prophase of the next division these threads unite in pairs and restore the diploid number, but it is only much later when the chromosomes have become much shorter and thicker that the diploid number of so-called ‘‘ mono- valent ’’ chromosomes fuse with one another to form the haploid number of “ bivalent ”’ chromosomes. this second pairing is the real “ meiosis ” or reduction. in meiosis it is true that the first union of two sister chromosomes often appears to take place by their ends (metasyndesis). the union of two sister chromo- somes in the prophases of the reducing division is frequently termed “ synapsis.”’ we have avoided this term because it has also been used to denote the bouquet contraction of the chromo- somes, but subsequently the connected pair swing round so as to be parallel with one another, and side-by-side union (para- syndesis) then takes place. hogben has shown that in the egg of the cockroach, formerly cited as an instance of the occurrence of metasyndesis, parasyn- desis really takes place. in the pachytene stage the chromo- somes become contracted and are often bunched together at one side of the nucleus so as to form a characteristic bouquet. each chromosome is in the form of a loop, the two ends of which are attached to the nuclear wall on the side adjacent to the centro- some. the nuclear wall is then dissolved and the chromosomes fly apart—a process known as diakinesis. it is after diakinesis that true meiotic pairing takes place. the conjoined pair then begin to separate from one another as the prophase of the meiotic division passes into the metaphase, and this separation usually takes place first in the middle, so that the conjoined pair assume the form of a ring. each half of the ring corresponds to one of the two original chromosomes, and these halves are dragged apart in the ensuing mitotic division. most frequently each half shows a constriction in the middle of its length, which was formerly interpreted as a precocious appearance of the longi- tudinal division of the chromosome which is consummated in the second maturation division. for this reason the name “ tet- rad ’’ has been bestowed on the shortened, thickened and par- tially split chromosome. agar has shown, however, that in the vast majority of cases this constriction has no relation whatever to the splitting of the chromosome in the second maturation division, some modern theories of heredity assume that a chromosome consists of a linear series of rudiments, each of which has its particular part to play in the up-building of the embryo. a side-by-side pairing enables us to see how corresponding rudi- ments belonging to maternal and paternal chromosomes could be brought together: an end-to-end pairing would of course render such a process impossible. artificial theories of this kind, however, receive no support from detailed study of nuclear di- vision, for they demand that when two chromosomes pair, each should be capable of breaking in a complicated way so as to ex- change pieces which “ cross over ” with its fellow. such a process might have been conceivable when leptotene threads were re- garded as chromosomes; it is inconceivable when it is recognised that in the real meiosis the chromosomes are short, thick rods. moreover chambers has shown that in life the chromosome is a gelatinous elastic rod, which cannot be conceived to be capable of breaking in the way in which the “ cross over ’’ theory pos- tulates. in the ripening of the egg very peculiar phenomena occur which have only recently received an explanation. the unripe female germ cells or odgonia show nothing peculiar in their mi- tosis, but during the prophases of the first ripening division an enormous increase in size of the egg cell takes place. the lepto- tene threads are at first clearly visible and can be seen to pass into the pachytene stage, but then they fade from view. the cytology nucleus becomes very large and gorged with nuclear sap, from which circumstance is derived the name, ‘‘ germinal vesicle,” which the older authors bestowed upon it. the nucleolus be- comes large and conspicuous. at the close of the growth period the nucleolus has been :ompletely dissolved; the nuclear wall clisappears and the nuclear sap mingles with the cytoplasm; then the chromosomes can again be detected as minute tetrads which begin to arrange themselves on the mitotic spindle of the first ripening division. now by the examination of specially favour- able cases it has been shown that during this episode of growth the chromosomes swell up, become pressed against the nuclear wall and almost lose their capacity for absorbing stain. it seems to be clear that a chromosome consists of at least two substances —a framework which does not stain and an embedded material which stains intensely, and to which alone the name chromatin is, properly speaking, applicable, and that during the growth of the egg cell the framework swells up enormously. de baehr has shown that in the male germ cells of the annelid saccocirrus, a similar growth period exists, though it is of very much shorter duration than the corresponding period in the life of the female germ cell; but, short though it is, it is long enough to cause the chromosomes to swell up and temporarily fade from view. the nucleolus or “ germinal-spot ” of the older authors, which is so conspicuous a feature in the unripe egg, has formed the subject of some most interesting researches. hogben has shown that in the cockroach periplancia the nucleolus becomes vacuo- lated and that portions of it are extruded and that these can be recognised by their peculiar staining properties, scattered in the nuclear sap and even in the act of passing through the nuclear membrane. they can also be detected in the cytoplasm outside the nucleus. there seems to be no reasonable doubt that it is by this process of vacuolation and emission of pieces of itself that the nucleolus ultimately disappears. gatenby and hogben have shown that in certain cases these emitted fragments may assume the appearance of nuclei, since they seem to secrete round themselves both nuclear sap and a nuclear wall. ultimately they all disappear. though it has not been possible to connect them directly with the formation of yolk spheres, yet it is an interesting fact that the beginning of this emission from the nucleolus often coincides with the first appearance of yolk spheres, and as we know by experimental evidence that the nucleus presides over assimilation, it is a rea- sonable hypothesis that the absorption of these pieces of nucleo- lus in the cytoplasm leads directly to the synthesis of yolk. nath by the comparison of the eggs of two genera of scorpions (euscorpius and palamnaeus) one with abundant yolk and the other with only scanty yolk showed that yolk formed by the golgi apparatus is common to both, but that in palamnaeus, where no nucleolar extrusion takes place golgi yolk alone is present, whereas in the more heavily yolked eggs of euscorpius additional yolk of a different character makes its appearance after the fragments of the nucleolus have passed into the cyto- plasm and been absorbed. in these eggs no relation between what we may term nucleolar yolk and mitochondria has been traced. it has recently been asserted by carleton that in ordi- nary tissue cells where the same disappearance of the nucleolus occurs as the cell grows, this is not complete—that a small kernel remains which can be stained in certain silver salts—and that this kernel takes its place on the mitotic spindle at the next di- vision of the cell. this ‘‘nucleolinus,’ as carleton terms it, becomes equally divided into two and the halves pass into the two daughter cells. if these observations should be confirmecl we should have in the nucleolinus a part of the nucleus as per- manent as are any of the chromosomes, the function of which was to form a centre for the synthesis of a mass of chromatin which constitutes the nucleolus and is destined to be emitted into the cytoplasm, where it no doubt profoundly affects me- tabolism and determines formation of cytoplasmic structures. parthenogenesis.—we have seen that the egg cell normally undergoes two ripening divisions, at the first of which the chromo- somes are reduced in number by one-half. when the egg is fer- tilised by the spermatozoin ro‘ only is the full number of chromo- 787 somes restored by the addition of those brought in by the sper- matozoen but the division of the egg is initiated by the centro- some which is carried into the cytoplasm of the egg along with the head of the spermatozoen. an interesting question now comes as to what happens in the case of those eggs which develop without fertilisation—or, as it is termed, “ parthenogenctically.” now parthenogenesis may be either artificially induced or it may be a natural event in the history of the species. if we take the case of “ naturally ” parthenogenetic eggs first, we find that a great deal of light has been thrown on the subject by the in- vestigations of de baehr. he took for his subject the plant-louse aphis palmae, the eggs of which develop without the aid of the male throughout the summer. he shows that in these eggs the preparations for the reducing division occur. out of the appar- ently irregular chromatin network leptotene threads differentiate themselves. these pair so as to form thicker pachytene threads —but then after diakinesis no further pairing takes place and the diploid number of chromosomes remains. then the period of growth supervenes and the chromosomes become indistinct, but when they reappear in the metaphase they are in the full number and only one maturation division takes place at which all the chromosomes are longitudinally cleft. from these facts de baehr draws the conclusion that the reducing division 1s sup- pressed and only the second maturation division takes place. a somewhat different case is presented by the egg of the bee. the egg if fertilised gives rise to a female but if unfertilised grows into a male. in the latter case, of course, the resulting animal has in all its nuclei only the reduced number of chromo- somes. when the male produces germ cells, the reducing divi- sion is suppressed. the nucleus of the spermatocyte enters on the prophases of mitosis and the cell divides, but one of the daughter cells is devoid of a nucleus and dies. the nucleus in the other cell goes back into the resting stage; and then, like the egg in .lphis, it enters on a single maturation division in which the chromosomes are divided longitudinally, and the spermato- zoon has therefore the same number of chromosomes as that possessed by the nuclei of the tissue cells of the male, which is the reduced number as compared to the number in the nuclei of the cells of the fertilised female. in still other cases, as in the eggs of the small crustacea. aricmia, the two ripening divisions may occur, but the first one can give rise to a nucleus which is not extruded as a polar body but remains in the egg and, reuniting with its sister nuclcus, restores the full number of chromosomes. parthenogenesis can, however, be brought about in eggs which normally require fertilisation by the application of external stimuli. this stimulus in the case of the frog’s egg may take the form of a prick with a needle. under these circumstances an immense development of astral fibres takes place, centring on a particle lying adjacent to the egg nucleus, apparently a centro- some formed from this nucleus. this aster is speedily trans- formed into a short spindle with a radiating aster at cach end of it. if this spindle lies near enough to the surface of the egg to initiate a division-furrow, parthenogenetic development may begin. it is interesting to observe, however, that the mitotic spindle formed by the nucleus of the unfertilised egg is only 45 of the length of the spindle formed by the fertilised egg; the size of the spindic is directly related to the number of chromosomes. in the sca-urchin's egg the primary stimulus, which is usually momentary immersion in a fatty acid (such as butyric), only produces an aster on which the chromosomes are distributed, but which is unable to metamorphose itself into a spindle. if, however, the eggs are subsequently immersed in “ hypertonic ” sea water—that is, sea water in which the percentage of salt is raised above the normal amount, then one or more accessory asters are formed in the cytoplasm. whence the particles arise which act as centrosomes for these asters has never been ascer tained; that they have previously been emitted from the nucleus is a pure assumption. if only one accessory aster has been formed a mitotic spindle is formed between it and the aster which arises round the egg nucleus. on to this spindle migrate the chromo- somes. a regular equatorial plate is formed, and division of the 788 nucleus and of the whole egg ensues and development is initiated. as the accessory aster is usually smaller than the primary egg aster, the two blastomeres into which the egg divides are of un- equal size, and we thus iearn that the size of the daughter cells into which a given cell divides is related to the relative sizes of the asters at the two poles of the spindle. it is indeed the growth of these asters that determines the division of the cell. when a sea-urchin’s egg is broken into fragments not only the fragment containing the nucleus but also those devoid of the nucleus may be entered by a spermatozooen, and, under certain circumstances, will develop into an embryo. chambers has, however, shown that this is only possible if the fragmentation of the egg takes place after the nuclear membrane of the egg is dissolved and the cytoplasm has become permeated by the nu- clear sap and that pieces of cytoplasm not reached by this sap will not develop even when entered by a spermatozoen. conclusion from the foregoing sketch the reader will gather that the science of cytology had attained in 1925 an extremely interesting stage of development. new discoveries had poured in, the exact significance of which was not vet fully understood, and although we had glimmerings of light they serve rather to pose than to answer questions. the yolk, for example, which we had been accustomed to regard as much the same kind of substance wher- ever it was found, is seen to be a name for a series of complex substances formed by different cell-organs which differ from one another in their staining reactions and, in all probability, in their chemical composition, and which are present in different proportions in different eggs. what is the meaning of the centrosome, and how is it related to the formation of astral rays? it cannot be detected in the living cell and yet the study of stained cells would lead us to regard it as a permanent cell-organ—typically outside and inde- pendent of the nucleus and, like the nucleus, handed on by di- vision from a cell to the daughter into which it divided. yet, as we have seen, it can be formed de xovo in the cytoplasm by the action of hypertonic sea water—and lillie has shown that it can be formed de nove from the nucleus. in the fertilisation of the eggs of the annelid nereis the spermatozoen penetrates the egg membrane but slowly. lillie centrifuged eggs in which the head had penetrated but in which the middle-piece with the centrosome were still left outside and he succeeded in tearing away the middle-piece altogether. after the cessation of the centrifugal force the mutilated head completed the penetration of the egg and developed a new centrosome by the emission of a particle from itself which was just as effective in forming the first spindle as the original centrosome. the astral rays and the mitotic spindle are formed by the ge- lation of the cytoplasm; yet their formation is dependent on the activities of the chromosomes; for an unfertilised egg responds to stimulation not only by the production of an aster but by the resolution of its chromatin into chromosomes, and the iength of the spindle which is formed is dependent on the number of chromosomes. the nucleus must, in some way, control the growth of the cytoplasm, and genetic experiments suggest (see genetics) that each type of chromosome has a particular function to play in the building-up of the embryo; yet the only emission from the nu- cleus which has so far bcen detected has been that of nucleolar material. finally, the constitution of living cytoplasm seems to be nor- mally that of a thick colloid solution, which at times changes to that of the gel condition. it baffles our imagination, however, to conceive how a solution can be the seat of internal structure and how in particular a nerve cell, with all its inherited and acquired aptitudes or “‘ engrams,” can be in life nothing more than a thick syrup. bibliography,—a. brachet, “ l’ocuf et les facteurs de l’onto- genese,”” encyclopedie scientifique (1917); w. e. agar, cytology, with special reference to the metazoan nucleus (1920); l. doncaster, an introduction to the study of cytology (1924); e. b. wilson, the cell in development and ileredity (1925). czegh lifera lore references.—w. a. hardy, “ structure of cell protoptasm,”’ journal of physiology, vol. 24 (1899); h. driesch, ' die isolirten blastomeren des echinidenkeimes,’’ archit f. entwicklungsmechanik, vol. to (1900); e. b. wilson, ‘‘ studies of chromosomes: i. the behaviour of the [diochromosomes in hemiptera,” jour. exp. zool., vol. 2 (1905); ‘“‘studies of chromosomes: ii. the patred micro- chromosomes, idiochromosomes, etc., 1n hemiptera,’ tbid., vol. 2 (1905); ‘ studies of chromosomes: iii. the sexual differences of the chromosome groups in hemiptera,” 1d¢d., vol. 3 (1906); th. roveri, ‘‘ die entwicklung dispermer seeigeleier,” zellenstudien, no. 6 (jena, 1907); f. meves and j. duesberg, “‘die spermatozyten- teilungen bei der hlornisse,”’ archie f. aftkroskopische anatomte, vol. 71 (1908); f. meves, ‘‘ die chondriosomen als trager erblicher anlagen,” 7bid., vol. 72 (1908); w. agar, ‘ the spermatogenesis of lepidosiren paradora,” quar. jour. aficr. se., vol. 57 (1911); w. agar, ' transverse segmentation and internal differentiation of chromosomes,'’ quar. jour. micr. sc., vol. 88 (1912); g. l. kite and r. chambers, “‘ vital staining of the chromosomes and the function and structure of the nucleus,’’ setence, vol. 36 (1912); f. b. lillie, “ studies on fertilisation in nercis,’’ i1]. and [v., jour. exp. zool., vol. 12 (1912); f. w. mott, ‘' the bio-physics and bio-chemistry of the neurone,” brit. afed. jour. (sept. 1912); g. l. kite, “‘ studies on the physical properties of protoplasm,’’ american jour. physiol- ogy, vol. 32, no. 2 (1913). for a full account of recent work see a. brachet, “ l’oeuf et les acteurs de l’'ontogentse,” encyclopedie screntifique (paris, 1916); r. chambers, “ micro-dissection studies: it. the cell aster,’ jozr. exp. zool., vol. 23 (1917); j. b. gatenby, ‘ the cytoplasmic inclusions of the germ cells,’ oquar. jour. micr. sc., vol. 62 (1917); m. r. lewis and w. h. lewis, ‘‘ mitochondria in tissue culture,”’ amer. jour. anat., vol. 17 (1917); r. chambers, ‘' report on re- sults obtained from the micro-dissection of certain cells,” travzs. roy. soc. (canada), vol. 12, series 3 (1918); v. b. de baehr, ‘* la spermatogenese et l’'ovogentese chez le saccocirrus major," le cellule, vol. 30 (1920); v. b. de baehr, ‘‘ recherches sur la matura- tion des oeufs parthenogenetiques dans l’aphis,’’ la cellule, vol. 80 (1920); w. bayliss, ‘‘ the properties of colloidal systems: tv. re- versible gelation in living protoplasm,” proc. roy. soc. (london), series b, vol. 91 (1920); r. h. bowen, ‘‘ studies on insect spermato- genesis: i. the history of the cytoplasmic contents of the sperm in hemiptera,” biol. bulletin, vol. 39 (1920); h. m. carleton, ‘‘ obser- vations on an [ntranucleolar body in columnar (male) epithelial cells of the intestine,’ quar. jour. micr. se., vol. 64 (1920); j. b. gatenby, ‘ the cytoplasmic inclusion of germ cells: vi. on the origin and probable constitution of the germ cell determinant, etc.,’’ oquar. jour. micr. sc., vol. 64 (1920); l. t. hogben, “ studies on synapsis: ii. parallel conjugation and the prophase complex in periplaneta,”’ proc. roy. soc., series b, vol. 91 (1920); j. b. gatenby, loc. ctt., “ on the origin of the golgi apparatus on the middlepiece of the ripe sperm of cavia, etc.,”” quar. jour. after. sc., vol. 65 (1921); l. t. hogben, ‘‘ studies on synapsis: it]. the nuclear organisation of the germ cells in libellula depressa,” proc. roy. soc., series b, vol. 92 (1921); f. w. rogers brambell, ““ the nature and origin of yolk,” brit. jour. of exper. zool., vol. 1 (1923); dimitry nassonov, “ kontraktile vacuolen der protozoen als homologon des golgischen apparats der metazoenzeiten,”’ arch, mikr. anat., vol. 103 (1924); j. f. g. wheeler, “* the growth of the egg in the dab (pleuronectes limanda),’”” quar. jour. micr. sc., vol. 68 (1924); vishwa nath, “ cell inclusions in the odgenesits of scorpions,” proc. roy. soc., vol. 98, series b (1925); a. s. rau, f. w. r. brambell and j. b. gatenby, ‘ observations on the golgi bodies in the living cell,’’ proc. roy. soc. (london), series b, vol. 97 (1925); c. e. walker, ‘‘ the meiotic phase in triton (molge vulgaris)” proc. roy. soc., series b, vol. 98 (1925). (e. w. macb.) czech literature (sce 4.133).—the political efforts to vindicate and consolidate the national spirit were accompanied in the ’seventies and ’eighties of last century by a no less impor- tant endeavour to secure for the czechs all the progressive ac- quisitions of western europe in the sphere of thought and cre- ative art. accordingly, to the writers of pronounced national tendencies—like neruda, cech, sladek and jirasek in bohemia, hviezdoslav and hurban vajansky in slovakia—were added those who pursued purely artistic aims and who manifested a european outlook. the new group and its leaders —that the members of this group, whom their opponents dubbed cosmopolitans by way of reproach, advocated the principle of ‘‘ art for art’s sake ” was only a temporary self-deception; that by their predilections for the cultures of france, italy and england they liberated czech literature from the long tutelage of german influences was an undeniable service; that they extended the scope of subjects, ideas and imagery was a token of their artistic powers. they derived new inspiration from the sea, from graphic art, from feminine beauty; they learned to absorb the cultures of foreign czech literature or exotic countries and of bygone ages and to imitate the met- rical forms employed by them; they enriched the czech poetical style with unprecedented verbal resources and obtained musical effects which had not hitherto been achieved in czech verse. julius zeyer (1841-1901), the elder of the two leaders of this group, was permeated by the gothic spirit of the english pre- raphaelites. in novels, short stories, epics and dramas, he evoked the exotic colours of the east and the romantic tales of the middle ages. his younger companion, jaroslav vrchlicky (emil frida, 1853-1912) occupied two positions of equal significance in the literature of his nation. as a literary scholar of unrivalled erudition and as an adept at translation, this tireless worker made accessible to the czechs all the chief products of romance poetry from the time of the renaissance onwards. as a poet with the prolific qualities of a lope de vega, he was the author of a whole library of lyrics and epics as well as of dramas and stories. by nature he was a hedonist with predilections for classical antiquity and the renaissance, but life awakened in him an instinct for suffering, sorrow and the christian scale of values. as a pupil of victor ilugo he dreamed of a huge epic of humanity, conceived on evolutionary and humanitarian lines, half picturesque, half rhetorical in style, but this gigantic task was carried out only in fragments and in feverish haste, its progress having been interrupted by his lyric compositions, the melodious utterances from the depths of a spirit overwhelmed but also purified by the visitations of destiny. the incisive in- fluence of vrchlicky left its traces on the whole of czech poetry during the eighties and nineties of the 19th century and his followers were numerous. of them may be mentioned jaroslav kvapil (b. 1868), a master of stagecraft, who as a poet is distin- guished by beauty of form. a violent reaction from yrchlicky is represented in the early works of scholarship and criticism produced by t. g. masaryk, who later devoted himself wholly to politics. the new tendency was given the not altogether appropriate name of realism. against the cult of personality it placed the social consciousness, against the charm of art the serious occupation with public questions, against the interest in form the exclusive criteria of ideas and subject matter. it continued the process of emancipa- tion from german iniluences, but it preferred the english and the russians to the french. it disregarded the renaissance and identified itself with the religious reformation. it imposed upon authors the duty of studying the life around them, not merely on the surface, but in accordance with the ideas underlying it and of expressing the results of their observations in plain, con- cise language without adornment or rhetoric. the chief poet who followed these principles was josef svato- pluk machar (b. 1864). he began with love poetry and politi- cal or social verses, the pitilessly analytical spirit of which is provocative rather than satisfying. his striving after an objec- tive altitude led him to a versified epic of mankind. this con- sists of fragmentary poems, the best of which are concise and graphic, but the general tone of the work is dry and didactic. to his influence can be traced the work of a great political poet, petr bezrue (vladimir vassek, b. 1867), the author of only one book, the fiery spokesman of the silesian miners, who is equally sincere whether enunciating the anguish of a dying race or rally- ing the victims of social injustice to defiance. realism and the reaction.—realism in czech prose was satis- fied mostly with the search for human documents and with the depicting of remarkable types. more rarely it illuminates the complex questions affecting the social structure. this applies particularly to the village novel, which was then much in vogue. two writers of the older generation must be mentioned here. the slavophil author josef holetek (b. 1853) returned, by way of his interest in the yugoslav heroic legends and russian ortho- doxy, back to the czech peasant, from whose stock he himself was descended. in a novel which consists of several volumes and which is written with great verbal skill, he depicted the old czech peasant virtues in an idealistic light. tereza novakova (1853-1912), a very complex feminine personality, achieved an understanding of the spirit of the pconle slowly, but she then 789 discovered that the moody highland peasants, whom she knew, were, at bottom, animated by a moral and religious fervour which attained an almost tragic intensity. in her stories the idealism of the conception is coupled with a realism of treatment. jan herben (b. 1857) and alois mrstik (1861-1924) wrote chronicle-like narratives, rich in incident, from which an invalu- able knowledge of moravia can be obtained, and the racy tales of martin kukutin (m. bencdar, b. 1860) render the same service for slovakia. they are surpassed by karel v. rais (b. 1859) whose sensitive sketches from the krkonose (giant mountains) district are distinguished by the economy of their structure. considerable success was attained by the novel of city life, no- tably with a prague setting. ignd4t herrmann (b. 1854) re- vealed a richly humorous vein in his descriptions of lower middle- class life in prague. m. a. sim4eek (1860-1913) gave first-hand accounts of factory-life, for the sociological aspect of which he showed a sound instinct. f. x. svoboda (b. 1860), who was of rural origin, but who became acclimatised to prague, handled feminine psychology with poetical understanding, and his novels, written with an abundance of impressionistic imagery, generally centre upon some phase of moral or family tradition. all these authors, however, were thrown into the shade by the crude naturalist k. m. capek-chod (b. 1860). with an unbridled instinct for grotesque effects and pessimistic mockery, he por- trays present-day prague in a wealth of ruthless but faithful detail. from the beginning of the zoth century there was a manifest decline in realism. this transition to a more spiritualised art is associated with the name of f. x. salda (b. 1867), the creator of modern czech criticism and a scholar who is, fundamentally, a poet. the change was first exhibited in lyric poetry which has always formed the leading feature of czech literature. in the case of antonin sova (b. 1864), a master of mclody and meta- phor, his whole work reflects the reactions of an altogether un- usually sensitive temperament to the solitude of nature, to its own emotions and to the social phenomena of modern life. this sensitive reaction to the internal and external world is found also in the work of such diverse pocts as jifi kardsek ze lvovic (b. 1871), who has written elegiac verses of impec- cable form and decadent subject-matter, stanislav kh. neumann (b. 1875), eloquent and barbaric in his advocacy of unfettered instincts, who extols rustling forests, flowing waters, amorous women and turbulent multitudes and karel toman (antonin bernaeek, b. 1877), admirably concise and suggestive in his mel- odious, profoundly emotional verses. this sensitiveness forms only one of the elements in the personality of otakar brezina (vaclav jebavy¥, b. 1868), whose lyric poetry is prompted by a cosmic consciousness and exhibits a unique inventiveness of metaphor. in hymn-like poems, which are remarkable on ac- count of their elaborate design and brilliant imagery, the poet, whose life is spent in philosophical seclusion, extols the flight of the soul through the universe to god and its return thence to the everyday world, clutched by myriads of praying and toiling hands. his influence is seen in the work of otakar theer (1880— 1917), who in the end subordinated his sensual temperament to fertile ideas concerning will and suffering, eternity and god, patriotism and moral liberty. viktor dyk (b. 1877), a poet who occupies a place apart, is closely attached to his nation as a living entity which has uplifted him from nihilism and im- parted a fervid charm to his simple and epigrammatic diction. prose fiction.—in prose fiction the new sensitiveness made its appearance as a strengthening of the picturesque element, and later as an enhanced feeling for the subtleties of psychology, together with a close and sometimes exaggerated cultivation of style. it was on such lines as these that vilem mrstik (1863- tg12) dealt with the unfettered destinies of youth, riizena svo- bodove (1868-1920) with the sorrows, yearnings and dreams of modern women, karel sezima (karel kola, b. 1876), with the tragic aspect of everyday life in small towns. here also a reference should be made to frana sramek (b. 1877), ecstat- ically revelling in the beauty of the world and celebrating in luminous prose the grief and enchantment of youth. more 790 recently, however, the tendency of the czech novel has been towards a simplification as regards style and emotional content and it shows signs of becoming richer in ideas. inspiration is also being derived from the facts of science, and there is an obvious return towards realism. thus, anna maria tilschove (b. 1873) is remarkably precise in analysing the decadence of urban society, while karel capek (b. 1890), a whimsical philos- opher of the commonplace, combines phantasy with warmth and delicacy of sentiment. drama.—although the drama has always formed the height of czech literary ambitions and although the handsome na- tional theatre, ever since its establishment in 1883, has been regarded as the supreme artistic institution, czech drama did not thrive in the desired manner. several of the authors who have already been mentioned tried their hands at writing for the stage. vrchlicky produced scenic poems, the subject-matter of which was derived from myths and history; jir4sek dramatic chronicle-plays from czech history or based upon legends and village life; f. x. svoboda realistic dramas from the life of the contemporary bourgeoisie. but it is only quite recently that the czech drama has developed greater briskness and a sense of reality, both as regards the problems chosen and the language in which they are treated. jaroslav ililbert (b. 1871) and frantigek langer (b. 1882) are skilful psychologists in the modified realistic manner. arnost dvofak (b. 1880) handles historical subjects with picturesque elaboration, karel capek is a bold contriver of scenic utopias beneath whose satirical grimace is concealed the heart of an humanitarian. scholarship.—in czech scholarship the closest connection with literature was maintained by writers on linguistic and his- torical subjects ever since the time of the national revival. in the ’eighties and ’nineties a new direction was given to czech grammatical research by jan gebauer (1838-1907), who con- structed a systematic history of the czech language upon the strictly logical basis of the extensive material which he had col- lected. frantisek bartos (1837-1906), a moravian, supple- mented this structure by compiling and analysing the moravian dialects. midway between philology and history stands jaroslav vitek (b. 1860), the founder of modern literary history and par- ticularly successful in tracing the ideas underlying the age of enlightenment. in history jaroslav goll (b. 1846), an expert in critical method, trained three distinguished figures in the realm of historical research: josef peka¥ (b. 1870), who exhibited origi- nality of mind whether he investigated economic history, the problem of popular legends or the question of the national re- vival; josef susta (b. 1874), whose main subject was the history of western europe, on the background of which he outlined the development of the czechs in a new light; and finally, vaclav novotny (b.1869), who is profoundly versed in the religious reformation. b31b1.10graphy.—jan and arne novak, prehledne dejiny literatury ceske (3rd ed., 1922); f. chudoba, a short survey of czech literature (1924). clie now) czechoslovakia (ceskoslovensko or crskoslovenska republika), an independent republic in central europe, which took over the heritage and continues the tradition of the ancient kingdom of bohemia (see 4.121), came into existence as a cesult of the revolutionary action of the czechoslovak people during the world war and the break-up of the austro-iungarian monarchy. the frontiers of the republic were fixed by the peace treaties of versailles, st. germain and trianon, and by the decision of the conference of ambassadors on the question of teschen (q.v.) in july 1920. area and population.—the territory of the republic extends along the 5oth par. of lat. n. and between the 12th and 25th deg. of long. e., in a long strip bordering on germany and poland in the w. and n., rumania in the e., and hungary and austria in the south. it embraces the lands of the old crown of bohemia (bohemia, moravia and part of silesia), the slovak territory of former hungary, and the autonomous territory of carpathian ruthenia. the area of the republic is 54,877 sq. m., of which bohemia covers 20,333 sq. m., moravia and silesia 10,438 sq. m., slovakia 19,148 sq. m. and carpathian ruthenia 4,958 square miles. czechoslovakia the population of the republic in 1921 was 13,617,172 (bohemia 6,670,582, moravia and silesia 3,335,152, slovakia 3,000,870, carpathian ruthenia 606,568); 8,760,937, or 65-51% of the inhabi- tants, were czechs and slovaks; 3,123,568 (23:36°4) germans: 745,431 (5:°57°%o) magyars, and 461,849 (3:45°%) ruthenes: the re- mainder (2-11%) being composed of jews (180,855 or 1-35°v), poles (75,853 or 0-57 %) and others (0-19 %). i. constitution the czechoslovak state is a democratic republic with an elected president at its head. the territory of the republic forms a single and indivisible unity, within which the territory of carpathian ruthenia is granted the widest possible autonomy compatible with the integrity of the republic. territorial changes require a sanction of a constitutional law which, like an amendment to the constitution, or declaration of war, has to be passed by three-fifths of all members of both houses of parliament. parliament.—legislative authority is exercised by parliament elected by universal, equal, secret and compulsory suffrage, based on the principle of proportional representation, and consists of two chambers, a chamber of deputies of 300 members, elected for six years, and a senate of 150 members, elected for eight years. the franchise for the chamber of deputies is open to all citizens without distinction of sex who are over 21, that for the senate to all citizens over 26; all citizens are eligible to the chamber of deputies when they have reached the age of 30, and to the senate when they have reached 45 years of age. members of both chambers possess parlia- mentary immunity, but may be handed over to the ordinary courts by resolution of the house to which they belong. parliament must sit twice a year. cabinet ministers, who need not be members of parliament, may participate in the meetings of either house and on the request of either hlouse must attend its session. both chambers enjoy the right of initiative, and government bills may be first introduced in either house, only finance and army bills must be introduced first in the chamber of deputies. a measure passed by the chamber of deputies becomes law despite an adverse decision of the senate if the chamber of deputies adheres to its original decision by an absolute majority of all its members. it is also the chamber of deputies alone that by a vote of no-confidence can compel the resignation of the government. thus the chamber of deputies, as the more fully representative of the popular will, possesses great powers, being enabled in certain cases to carry through its legislation in face of the opposition of the senate. the senate plays the part of an organ of supervision, and acts as a check on too hasty or too loosely drawn-up legislation. during the period when parliament is not sitting, a permanent commission of 24 members (16 from the deputies and 8 from the senators) sits to enact urgent measures which have temporarily the force of law. they lose their validity unless confirmed within two months by the parliament which subsequently meets. powers of president.—the president of the republic is elected ina joint session of the two chambers. his period of office is fixed at seven years, and he may be re-elected at the end of his first term for a second period of seven years. for a third term, however, he cannot be elected until after the expiration of seven years from the conclusion of his second term of office. this restriction does not apply to the first president —president masaryk. he lresident, as head of the state, represents the state in its relations with other states, negotiates and ratifies international treaties (some of them after the affirmation of parliament), receives and appoints diplo- matic representatives, declares war with the previous consent of par- liament and submits to parliamentary approval treaties of peace; he is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the republic; he appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers, and convokes, prorogues and dissolves parliament; he signs all laws enacted by parliament and has the right to return with his comment any measure enacted by it; such a measure can become law only if repassed by an absolute majority of members of each of the two houses, or by three-fifths of all the members of the chamber of deputies. he appoints higher officers and officials of the state, exercises the right of reprieve and is not answerable at law for his official acts. he is amenable to taw only on a charge of high treason, in which case he can be impeached by the senate upon an indictment found against him by the chamber of deputies; if found guilty his only punishment is the joss of his office and permanent disqualification for presidency. law and civil rights.—the judiciary is separated from and inde- pendent of the administration. the judges are independent in the exercise of their functions and are bound only by law; they are appointed permanently and cannot be recalled. in respect of civic rights the constitution guarantees all citizens of the republic full equality before the law and equal civil and political rights, whatever be their race, language, or religion; no privileges due to sex, birth or occupation are recognised; the con- stitution further guarantees full personal freedom, inviolability of domestic rights and of the mails, freedom of the press, the right of free assembly and association, and of the expression of opinion by word, writing or print, freedom of scientific research, of instruction, of conscience and religious creed; all religious confessions are equal before the law; wedlock, family and motherhood are placed under special protection; special provisions of the constitution protect the czechoslovakia rights of language, religious and racial minorities, to whom it guar- antees the maintenance of their schools, and prohibits every manner of forcible denationalisation. all persons resiling in the republic are guaranteed complete and absolute security of life and liberty without regard to origin, nationality, language, race or religion. all these guarantees and rights are protected by the supreme admin- istration court, which enforces the legality ot public administration. a constitutional court decides whether laws promulgated by parlia- ment are in harmony with the character of the constitution. an electoral court decides upon the validity of disputed elections or forfeiture of seats and other questions relating to parliamentary or elected bodies. administration and justice.—for the purposes of political ad- ministration the republic has been divided into administrative sub- districts, the heads of which are appointed by and directly respons- ible to the central government. local civil government is carried on by parish, district, urban and municipal councils elected by pop- ular vote. the tribunals of the republic are the supreme court of justice, which sits at brno and is the court of final appeal both in civil and criminal cases, two high courts sitting at prague and brno respect- ively, 33 provincial courts and 410 district courts, all of which possess jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases. commercial cases are dealt with by the ordinary courts, except at prague, where a special commercial court sits. litigation in mining matters 1s con- ducted before special benches attached to the district courts in min- longitude east \8 of greanwi ing districts. in large industrial centres there are also industrial courts to deal with disputes between employers and employees. (j. c1.) il. rise of the republic czechs and slovaks in the dual moeonarchy.—the political frontiers of europe at the beginning of the 2oth century con- cealed the previous history, the actual life and the natural tendencies of the small nations in central europe, as well as the whole of the long cultural process by which these nations arrived at their racial consciousness in the course of the 19th century. the problem of nationality in central europe, and particularly in austria-hungary, became more and more acute as the process of national revival advanced, notably in the revolutionary period of 1848. the poles and czechs awoke to the knowledge of historical state rights and all nationalities felt the right to self- determination, the right to an independent existence with political autonomy which would ensure a free development of national individuality. the leading german circles in austria endeavoured to maintain their hegemony over the non-german nations in the empire and neglected the possibility of solving the nationality problem in the spirit of federalism with equal justice for all. they arrived at an agreement only with the magyars (1867) on the basis of dualism, the purpose of which was to secure domination over the slav-latin majority for the austrian germans in the austrian 791 portion of the empire and for the magyars in hungary. to ensure this it was necessary that the dual monarchy, ruled over by an aristocratic german-magyar minority, should ally itself with german imperialism and become the aider and abettor of its plans. in spite of the honest endeavours of the austro-hungarian nations to reach a settlement within the framework of a federal- istic and democratic austria, in spite of the fact that even the habsburgs on several occasions acknowledged the czech state rights, in spite of several attempts to make the nationality problem in austria-hungary an international problem, in spite of the great cultural and economic advance made as the result of resolute efforts on a small scale, ancl in spite of certain suc- cesses of the positive policy in linguistic and political matters, the czech nation, though possessed of a political consciousness, and with it also the other central european nations, entered the 2zoth century subjected to a foreign regime, the domination of the germans, the german-austrians and the magyars. other nations were still the vassals of the absolutist eastern empires of russia and turkey. it was partly the wars of liberation in the balkans, but especial- czechoslovakia english miles 60 80 kilometres , a a ee a a | © 20 40 60 80 100 provincial boundaries main railways ch ly the world war, which brought about a radical improvement in this state of affairs and caused revolution in the whole central european zone of small nations, thus bringing the political aspect of europe more in accordance with its ethnographical aspect, and completing in that zone the profound internal pro- cess which had been in preparation for centuries. the outbreak of war 1914.—the czech nation, which tn con- sequence of the thirty years war had been deprived of its political independence, had never abandoned the idea of recover- ing it, and in the roth century did much to remove the far- reaching traces which the severe anti-reformation regime of the ilabsburgs had left in its organism. itlaving successfully withstood the absolutist pressure of germanisation in bo- hemia, moravia and silesia, while its slovak kindred were slowly succumbing to the magyarising endeavours of the hungarian state, it clearly saw that the outcome of the world war would have a decisive effect upon its existence. by its tra- ditions, its sympathies and its whole political outlook the czech nation was on the side of western european democracy and slavonic russia and serbia against the central autocracies for whom the czechs were called to fight. open protest or revolution was impossible owing to the presence of great numbers of german and hungarian troops on czech territory, and also to the clear knowledge of the hopelessness of any direct revolution- ary action, and direct political action was equally impossible 792 wing to the suspension of the austrian parliament, of which the fear of the czech attitude was one of the main causes. the opposition of the czech nation, therefore, assumed the form of passive resistance, the passing over of czech troops in great numbers to the allies, and secret organisations, the purpose of which was to prepare for the decisive moment. the brunt of the czechoslovak revolutionary movement was, however, borne by the political exiles who, having escaped abroad at the beginning of the war, began to carry on in the allied and neutral countries an extensive anti-austrian action of a diplo- matic propagandist and military character, which aimed at achieving independence for the czech and slovak territories. prof. masaryk and the western powers.—the necessity for systematic action abroad, and mainly in western europe, was soon realised by prof. masaryk, the leader of the small realist party, who, as a member of parliament and of the austro- hungarian delegations, had for many years past—especially during the bosnian annexationist crisis—been an opponent of reactionary austria and especially of its provocative and dis- honourable foreign policy. as early as the autumn of 1914 it was clear to him that the war would not be decided on the russian front, but in the west, and that it would last longer than was imagined by those who, guided by slavonic sympathies, relied mainly on the strength of russia. apart from friendly relations with france, and relations and sympathies with russia which had developed before the war as a result of the political, eco- nomic, but mainly cultural co-operation with the slavonic nations expressed in the neo-slavism of dr. kramaf, czech political leaders had no concrete arrangements with forcign countries for the eventuality of war. prof. masaryk could therefore only make use of the modest bonds of sympathy and friendship with the countries in westcrn europe. accordingly in 1914 he got into touch with his french and english friends in the course of two journeys to holland, of which he availed himself for supplying the earliest information to official, especially british, circles. elis journey to italy in dec. 1914 was also intended to be of an informative character. being warned on returning by way of switzerland, where he continued to study the situation, that the austrian police had orders to arrest him on his return, masaryk decided to remain abroad and to organise the czech campaign against austria-hungary, keeping, as far as possible, in continual touch with the under- ground activities at home concentrated in the “ maffia,” a secret society which originated from the clandestine meetings of czech politicians and their friends. the aim of his action was to make known to public opinion and political and official circles in the entente countries the claims of the czechoslovak nation, and to make the czechoslovak question a subject of diplomatic negotiations on the part of the competent official circles of the entente, which would effect its solution on international lines. organisation ontside clustria-hungary.—for this purpose masaryk proceeded to organise czechoslovak settlers or residents abroad in order to make use of their resources and their influence in favour of his programme, and particularly to obtain a financial basis for his action and for direct armed intervention against austria in the ranks of the entente. when the czechoslovaks abroad were joined by a large number of czechoslovak soldiers who crossed over to the allied side, it was possible to consider the formation of special military units and a separate czechoslovak army within the framework of the allied armies. in all the entente states there were spontancous organisations of czechs and slovaks for the purpose of actively supporting the allies in the struggle against the central powers. in russia, at the very beginning of the war, there came into existence what was known as the czech brigade, a body, however, which was more propagandist than military in character. in france large numbers of czechs joined the foreign legion and many czechs entered the army in england and canada. in the latter country they consisted largely of volunteers from among the czecho- slovak settlers in the united states, which were then still neutral. but the czechs and slovaks of america soon had an opportunity czechoslovakia of doing important work, particularly in taking upon themselves the major part of the financial burden of the campaign. this had great moral significance, because it made the czechoslovak movement independent of financial help from the allies. matters were made easier by the circumstance that russia and france very soon adopted a relatively favourable attitude to the czechoslovaks, who nominally were subjects of an enemy state, and by this concession they gained freedom of movement and organisation. the struggle against austrophilism.—there were, however, certain obstacles. ‘these were due partly to the fact that the number of capable workers abroad was very small; then, too, it became more and more difficult to keep in touch with the czechs at home, as the severity of the persecution carried on by the austro-hungarian govt. increased. one extremely serious obstacle was the circumstance that the european public as a whole was unacquainted with austro- hungarian conditions in general and the czechoslovak problem in particular, and also that at the beginning the czechoslovak revolutionary movement did not mect with sufficient com- prehension on the part of official circles in the fntente states. in the political public opinion of western europe <austria- hungary was regarded as an element in the maintenance of turopean equilibrium. the czechoslovak problem was looked upon as being an internal problem of the dual monarchy, which certain circles in the entente were unwiiling to alienate by formulating the final and extreme war aims, endeavouring rather to isolate austria-hungary from germany and thus weaken the latter, who was regarded as the sole culprit in bring- ing about the world catastrophe. up to the moment when austria-i]ungary collapsed it was necessary to fight against austrophilism, which was powerful both in the neutral states as well as in the allied countries and russia. it was also necessary to struggle against the intensive austrophile propaganda, by revealing the pseudo-constitution- alism and minority rule which were the true foundations of austria-hungary. the formation of foreign committeces.—the vear t91§ re- sulted in a mobilisation of resources and the distribution of work for the czechoslovak movement abroad, rather than in any positive successes. masaryk inaugurated an open struggle against austria-hungary in the spirit of humanitarian and demo- cratic ideals on the occasion of the hus celebrations in switzer- land, and he prepared for further activities in the press and by lectures. up to the arrival of dr. bencs in the autumn of rors the headquarters of this work were in switzerland, but after the arrival of dr. benes’ and of the agrarian deputy josef durich, who left bohemia with the knowledge and support of czech political circles there, masaryk chose london as his seat of ac- tion, while benes as secretary of the central foreign committee proceeded to paris with stefanik, the slovak scientist, who served as an aviator in the french army. durich was entrusted with the task of concentrating the work that had hitherto been accomplished in russia by means of a unified czech committee. steps were very soon taken to form a czechoslovak foreign committee for the purpose of carrying on a united struggle against austria. this idea was indicated by masaryk in a circular ad- dressed in march rors to a number of persons in the czecho- slovak settlements abroad and on nov. 14 1915 the committee issued a manifesto, signed by masaryk and durich, by the leaders of the czech colonies in the entente states and notably also by the czechs and slovaks in america. this was the first official pronouncement by the czechs abroad against austria- hungary, in favour of the entente, and of the independence of the czechoslovak state. this manifesto, which had also the approval of the czechs in austria-hungary, was issued at a mo- ment when not only was the result of the war not decided but the situation for the allied states was not altogether favourable. at the beginning of jan. 1916 the foreign committee was trans- formed into a national czech council, the president of which was masaryk, the vice-president josef durich, and the gencral secretary was dr. bene’. the slovaks were represented on czechoslovakia this council by gen. stefanik. the first political success of the campaign came on feb. 3 1916, when masaryk obtained a verbal promise from m. briand, the french prime minister, that france would support the czechoslovak endeavours to secure state independence. the czechoslovak legions.—considerable success and marked progress were achieved by the czechoslovak movement in jan. 1917, when the allies in their reply to president wilson’s note on the peace conditions included the liberation of the czecho- slovaks from foreign rule among their chief war aims. in russia the czech brigade, referred to above, had in the meantime made further developments and, what was equally important, the diverging tendencies among the czechs there achieved a single- ness of purpose in aug. 1916 by the agreement at kiev which recognised the national council in paris as the supreme authori- ty, durich becoming its representative in russia. in june 1916 the tsar consented to the release of the slav prisoners of war, but at the instigation of stiirmer, supported by the tsaritsa, the consent was withdrawn at the beginning of august. in oct. an independent czechoslovak division in the russian army was sanctioned but scarcely a month later this concession was also withdrawn. the russian revolution of march ror7 did not bring any immediate advantage to the czechoslovak movement there, and in particular it did not facilitate the recruiting of additional troops for the czechoslovak brigade from among the prisoners of war. the russian general staff at first gave permission for this to be done, but this was soon afterwards revoked.. it was not until the czech regiments distinguished themselves at zborov on july 2 1917 that kerensky was induced to restore the con- cession which had been revoked. unfortunately the russian army was already in a state of collapse and the government of the march revolution was only short-lived. as early as march 1g17 negotiations were opencd with france for the transport of czechoslovak soldiers and prisoners of war to i’'rance. an agree- ment to this eflect was concluded between the french govt. and the czechoslovak national council, and by a decrce signed by president poincare on dec. 19 1917 an independent czechoslovak army was established in france; its constitution was completed on feb. 7 1918 by a special agreement signed by dr. benes and m. clemenceau. in russia, where in the meantime masaryk had taken charge of the czechoslovak movement, having licft england in may 1917, the establishment of the first independent czechoslovak body was reached during the interim government in oct. 1917, while in aug. 1917 the russian branch of the czechoslovak national council floated a revolutionary loan of 20,000,000 francs to carry on the czechoslovak movement. developments within the dual monarchy—in bohemia in 1916 the austrian persecution reached its culminating point and in june of that year dr. kramaf, dr. rasin and their associates were condemned to death. under the military and_ police pressure no public political life was possible there. it was not until towards the close of 1916 that an attempt was made to unite the czech parliamentary deputies and parties in a czech league and in the national committee. after the death of francis joseph, which strengthened the position of the in- dependence movement, this solidarity on the part of the czech politicians was particularly eflective. it was however still impossible to issue any public manifestos, and any that existed could not show any disloyalty to the dynasty. for this reason the official manifesto of the czech league on the occasion of the allied reply to president wilson’s note could be used by the austrophile propaganda abroad. the effect of the russian revolution was that the later mani- festos of czech circles, while still very cautious, were of a more open character. thus the may manifesto of the czech authors and the proclamation of the czech deputies on may 30, at the first meeting of the reichsrat in vienna, demanding the trans- formation of the austro-hungarian monarchy into a fedcrative state with equal rights for the various nationalities, are indications of this tendency. the latter proclamation contained a claim for a czech state and slovakia, and it was signed by all the czech 193 deputies, especially the czech social democrats, whose repre- sentatives at the socialist peace congress at stockholm in june 1917 advocated the right of self-determination and a demand for a sovereign czechoslovak state within a danubian federation. the czech legtons in siberia.—the autumn bolshevik re- volution, the armistice following it and, above all, the peace of brest litovsk, complicated the situation of the czechoslovaks and the recognised czechoslovak units of the russian army (an army corps with two infantry divisions including a reserve brigade and two brigades of artillery). masaryk had already announced the czechoslovak policy there as one of neutrality and non-intervention in russian affairs, and on oct. 9 1917 he had obtained a promise from gen. dukhonin that czechoslovak troops would not be used for the internal affairs of russia. on the principle of armed neutrality it was arranged with the bolsheviks that the czechoslovak troops should be transported via vladivostok to france and the first detachment was des- patched at the beginning of november. in france in feb. 1918 the national council had organised among the czcchoslovaks therea system of general conscription for the czechoslovak legions. at the same time the representatives of the czechoslovak armies left france for italy, where in april 1918 an agreement was reached between orlando and gen. stef4nik for organising legions among the numerous czechoslovak fugitives there on the russian model. the nucleus of the czechoslovak army in russia withdrew from the ukraine towards the cast, covering its departure by means of successful encounters with the germans, notably at bachmach (may 1918). at that time the czechoslovak army corps in russia had already been proclaimed as a part’ of the french army, and from muraviev, the soviet commander-in- chief, it received a guarantee of armed neutrality and un- hindered passage to france. this clear relationship between the czechoslovak command and the bolsheviks conditioned by the rejection of any plans aiming at intervention against the bol- sheviks, was complicated by the lack of loyalty shown by the bolshevik govt. which during the transport of the czechoslovak divisions demanded their partial and even their complete disarmament. the branch of the national council in moscow vainly endeavoured to avoid a conflict, which was rendered more acute by the incident at chelyabinsk with the local soviet in the second half of may 1918, by the internment of the representatives of the national council at moscow and the instruction issued by the sovict authorities and trotsky for the forcible disarmament of the czechs. at the end of may hostili- fies began between the czechoslovak troops and the bolsheviks. gen. gajda’s division succeeded in gaining possession of 1,700 versts of the long railway track between chelyabinsk and marinsk. ceeek’s western division at the same time occupied penza, samara and ufa, and at the beginning of july joined gajda’s eastern division, which soon afterwards occupied the whole of the railway line as far as irkutsk and gained possession of the baikal and chita railway. towards the end of aug. the main siberian line, measuring over 8,000 km., was in the hands of czechoslovak troops, who also had taken ekaterinburg, as well as simbirsk and kazan on the volga. masaryk, who in march 1918 left russia and arrived in may in america, opposed all idea of armed inter- vention in russian affairs, for which some of the allied statesmen would have used the czechoslovak legions. when, however, what was intended to be a peaceful march towards the sea was thus, contrary to the wishes of the czechoslovaks, transformed into armed conflicts with the bolsheviks, and the front was once more turned westward against bolshevik russia. ~ masaryk was obliged to take advantage of his stay in washing- ton to ask america and the rest of the allies for military and material help for the siberian legions, who were suffering especially from lack of equipment. the entente promised its support for this plan and on aug. 2 the japanese govt. issued a declaration of military intervention in favour of the czechoslovaks, while the day afterwards the allied govern- ments decided at washington, notably by an american-japanese 794 agreement, to grant the military and material assistance asked for by masaryk. the military help promised by the entente was not forthcoming, with the exception of a small japanese contingent, but abundant quantities of supplies and equipment were given. the victory of the czechoslovak troops on the volga and in siberia caused a sensation in the allied states, so that the czech success had a considerable moral significance and denoted the strengthening of the czech cause. what made the czech achievement particularly valuable was that it had prevented the soviet govt., and thus also germany, from ob- taining the keenly desired contact with the siberian supplics of raw materials and foodstuffs, and also that the vast numbers of german prisoners of war in the siberian camps could not be used for strengthening the german army. as an example of the appreciation which the work of the czechoslovak iegions met with among the allies, reference may be made to a telegram of lloyd george on sept. 11 1918, in which he thanked the national council for the inestimable services rendered by the legions to the allies. recognition by the powers.—great britain had previously, in a pronouncement of lord robert cecil on may 22 1918, officially recognised the right of the czechoslovak nation to complete independence. when on may 29 1918 the govt. of the united states approved the anti-austrian resolution passed by the congress of oppressed nations in rome, which had been or- ganised in april of that year by dr. bene on the initiative of prof. denis, the war council at versailles associated itself with this american proclamation, while the prime ministers of france, england and italy, and indeed of all the allied nations, declared their sympathies with the czechoslovak and yugoslav aims for liberation. at the same time the british govt. an- nounced its willingness to recognise the national council as the leading body of the czechoslovak movement and also of the army that was fighting on the side of the entente. the first country to grant actual recognition in this sense was france (june 29 1918), the government of which recognised the right of the czechoslovak nation to independence, and the national council as the supreme body controlling general interests and as the first basis of the future government. on june 30 president poincare with the representatives of the french cabinct handed over the colours to the 21st czechoslovak regiment at darney, and on the following day the british govt. expressed its agreement with the speech made by president poincare on this occasion. about the same time a second, supplementary agreement was reached with italy concerning a czechoslovak army within the framework of the italian army and the government of the united states in its pronouncement identified itself with the complete liberation of all branches of the slav race under german and austrian domination. congress then passed an amendment to the emigration law which guaranteed the czecho- slovak legionaries in the united states an undisturbed return there as american volunteers in the allied army. about 50,000 czechs and slovaks then offered themselves as volunteers for the army of the united states, apart from those in the canadian army andin france. by a declaration on aug. g the government of great britain recognised the czechoslovaks as an allied nation, the three czechoslovak armies as a single allied army carrying on regular warfare against austria-hungary and germany, and the national council as the supreme body con- trolling national interests, a trustee of the future government and the supreme authority over the army. on sept. 3 1018 the british govt. recognised the future czechoslovak govt. upon the basis of the national council and negotiated a con- vention with the national council concerning an army and diplomatic relationships on the basis of the analogous inter- national position of serbia and belgium. on the same day a similar recognition was obtained from the american govt. (recognition of a state of war between czechoslovakia and germany and austria, the national council a de facta govern- ment directing the military and political affairs of the czecho- slovak nation; government relations with this de facto govern- czechoslovakia ment for carrying on warfare against the common enemy), and on sept. 9 1918 the recognition of the japanese govt. in the same sense was obtained. the success of this intensive diplomatic struggle for inde- pendence, carried on partly from paris by the headquarters of the national council, partly by masaryk at washington, and achieved to a considerable extent through the merits of the czechoslovak legions, was promoted in no small degree by the resolute action of the czech political leaders in austria-hungary itself. important in this respect are the manifestos of the czech deputies on may 6 1918, the vow made by representatives of all sections of the nation on april 13 1918 that the struggle for czech independence should not cease until the final victory, the may celebrations of the national theatre at prague which were attended by representatives of other oppressed nations in austria, especially the yugoslavs, poles and italians—all this enhanced the movement abroad, which in the autumn of 1918 was reaching its final goal. on sept. 28 1918 the french govt. reached an agreement with the national council with re- gard to the position of the czechoslovak nation in france and bound itself to establish a czechoslovak state within the historical frontiers. on oct. 1 1918 great britain entered into direct diplomatic relationship with the national council as a czechoslovak governing body. on oct. 3 orlando issued a parliamentary proclamation in favour of czechoslovak in- dependence. declaration of independence—finally, on oct. 14 dr. bene notified the entente states of the establishment of an interim czechoslovak govt. in paris in accordance with the decision of the president of the national council on sept. 26, and dr. bene§ as minister for foreign affairs was appointed the first czecho- slovak minister to the entente states. this interim czecho- slovak govt. was recognised by the french govt. on oct. 15, and by the italian govt. on oct. 24, while on oct. 18 1918 the interim govt. itself proclaimed the independence of the czecho- slovak nation by a declaration dated at washington. on the same day president wilson rejected the austro-hungarian peace offer of oct. 7 on the ground that since the issue of his four- teen points (g.v.) on jan. 8 1918 the govt. of the united states had recognised a state of war between the czechoslovaks and austria-hungary, and intimated to the austrian govt. that it should apply to the national council which had already been recognised as the de facto govt. of the czechoslovak nation. by a manifesto of the emperor charles on oct. 16, announcing the transformation of cis-leithan provinces into a union of national states on the basis of nationality, without, however, touching upon the question of the non-magyar nationalities in hungary, austria-hungary vainly endeavoured to meet wilson’s reply. in bohemia even before this reply had been published the socialist parties, especially in the rural districts, had attempted to proclaim a republic on oct. 14. wilson’s reply was published in austria-hungary on oct. 21, and within a week, notably through the collapse of the army, all the conditions were furnished for the capitulation of austria-hungary which took place in the night between oct. 27 and 28. on oct. 24 the czech deputies had already obtained permission from the emperor to proceed to geneva for the purpose of conferring with dr. bene there. the national committee at prague, however, did not await their arrival, but drew its own conclusions from the austrian capitula- tions and on oct. 28 by its first law proclaimed the independence of the czechoslovak state, taking into its hands the administra- tion of the czech territories without encountering any con- siderable opposition from the army or from the authorities. two days later, on oct. 30, by a manifesto of the slovak na- tional council at tureansky sv. martin, slovakia pronounced itself in favour of czechoslovak unity. oct. 28 remains the symbol of the national liberation from the centuries of habsburg bondage, although the actual transfor- mation was carried out early in the subsequent days by an agreement between the government of the czechoslovak state in paris and the national committee, which took over all the commitments of the former. the conferences at czechoslovakia geneva also gave the renewed state its definite form of a democratic republic. on nov. 13 the national committee issued an interim constitution and a day later there was a meeting of the czechoslovak national assembly constituted in accordance with the proportional numcrical strength of the individual political parties, containing 256 (later 270) members, of which 44 were slovaks. there were no germans among them, the german representatives having refused participation. at this first meeting of the national assembly masaryk was unanimously elected the first president of the czechoslovak republic and on the basis of the interim constitution the national assembly elected its first government. the prime minister was dr. kramaf, the foreign minister dr. benes and the minister for war gen. stefanik. on dec. 21 the president returned to prague, and his inaugural message pronounced in the national assembly on the following day and containing a concise survey of the czechoslovak movement for independence abroad and a plan for the further consolidation of the republic, concludes the revolutionary period and begins the constructive period of the state. the peace conference had yet to define’ only a few details of the relations of czechoslovakia to its neighbours and to the other members of the comity of nations. (t. g. m.) il. the political history 1918-1925 the kramd? ministry —the first czechoslovak ministry consisted of 17 members, of which four belonged to the agrarian party, three to the czechoslovak (national) socialists, three to the social democrats, three to the national democrats, one to the people’s party and one to the slovaks. mm. benes and stefa4nik were non-party. during its eight months of office, the government had to maintain the integrity of the national territory, to keep the administration working and to defend the interests of the country at the peace conference. further, it had to face the problems arising out of the economic difficulties of the period, especially as regards provisioning, and out of the international situation of the new state. it dealt with all these tasks successfully. first, it quickly put down the attempted insurrections in the german-speaking districts of bohemia and moravia, which had attempted to unite with austria. in slovakia there were grave difficulties owing to the departure of most of the hungarian bureaucrats, the hostility of the magyar and magyarophile elements of the population and to the fact that the frontiers were not yet regulated. on dec. to 1918 the government passed a law authorising emergency measures to be taken in slovakia, and sent further srobar as minister of state with plenipotentiary powers to maintain order. on feb. 1 1919 the slovak govt. was formally installed at bratislava. after the communist party came to power in hungary (feb. 4 1919) there were further grave complications. the hungarian communist troops invaded slovakia, which czech troops were occupying. they were repelled with the help of the allies, who, as a result of this episode, fixed a provisional line of demarcation which was main- tained without great change when the frontier was finally traced on june 12 1919. similarly in tesin (teschen) the situation was grave owing to the conflict with the poles, who had occupied part of this territory. the czech govt. in its turn occupied tesin and there were conflicts attended by bloodshed. the peace conference had to intervene. an armistice was concluded on feb. ro and the dispute was referred to diplomatic negotiations (see teschen). financial and social legislation—the population was ex- hausted after the war, and the dismemberment of austria- hungary gave rise to further difficulties. the government was obliged to purchase grain and flour for the population abroad; and to contract loans for this purpose. rasin successfully ac- complished the task of rendering czechoslovakia fiscally in- dependent of austria-hungary at the earliest possible moment. the law of feb. 25 1919 ordered the bank notes in circulation to be stamped, a banking office to be established, and a loan in gold, silver and foreign currency to be raised to forma reserve of metal as a basis of the new currency. it was thus possible to carry 795 through quite smoothly a currency reform which saved the country great crises and accelerated its economic and financial recovery. two further important reforms of strongly democratic tend- ency were carried through by the kramafe cabinet. the local franchise act gives all citizens, without distinction of sex, who have passed their 21st year and have been settled for at least three months in their community the local and municipal franchise. the agrarian reform was designed 1o satisfy the land hunger of the small peasants and at the same time to stop emigration and repair to a certain extent the injustice inflicted by the wholesale confiscations of landed property, and dis- tribution to a foreign nobility, after the battle of the white mountain, 1620. the parliamentary commission entrusted with working out this reform completed its work on april 16 1g19. the law in its final form (see land tenure) was the result of a compromise between the socialists and the other parties. it was followed by a certain number of legislative measures, notably the act of may 27 1919 which laid down the distribution of the ground to small holders. the social legislation passed during this period shows very clearly the influence of the socialist groups (the two socialist parties and the progressives forming a bloc for this purpose). socialism was very strong at the time throughout europe, and the socialist bloc exercised great influence in the national assembly. among the principal social measures may be men- tioned the eight-hour day, which was adopted on dec. 19 1918 and came into force jan. 13 1919, the act on unemployment benefit (dec. 10 1918), the act on insurance against sickness (may 10 1919), the act on the protection of tenants (dec. 27 1918) and various measures dealing with the housing crisis, etc. in the sphere of public instruction great care and considerable credits were devoted to education, particularly in slovakia, where it had to be completely reorganised, since formerly it had been merely a docile instrument in the hands of the hungarian govt., which used it to denationalise the slovak popula- tion. the material and legal status of the body of teachers was ameliorated (act of may 23 1919 which places the status of the teachers on a par with that of civil servants); popular in- struction was developed (act of feb. 7 1919 on free popular courses). in higher education, the act of jan. 20 19109 established a second czech university at brno (briinn) which the czechs had often demanded unsuccesslully from the austnan govt. and the act of june 27 established a university at bratis- lava. the question of the separation of church and state was not solved; a slep was taken towards laicising all education by the act of april 10 1919, which laid down that the office of teacher is open to any citizen without distinction of creed. the act of feb. 20 r919 forbade the use of the authority of the church for political agitation. the krama cabinet stood for good will and tolerance among the parties and in fact accomplished important social and democratic reforms. yet the rise of socialism at the time in czechoslovakia, as in the rest of europe, strengthened the moral position of che socialist bloc in the national assembly, and made apparent the disproportion which existed between the number of socialist representatives in parliament and the real force of socialism in the country. the realisation of this dispro- portion troubled relations between the socialists and the bourgeois parties and led the former to agitate for immediate municipal elections which would allow the two camps to measure their true forces. this discontent further provoked trouble in may trorg in prague and in the provinces on account of the high cost of living, and led to the resignation of the two national democrat members of the government, which brought with it that of the entire government. the first tusar cabinet—the municipal elections of june 15 1919 clearly showed that the composition of the government and of the national assembly did not correspond with the real numerical importance of the different parties. thus, the national democrat group which had hitherto had 46 deputies and four ministers only obtained 256,336 votes or 12% of all votes 790 cast, while the social democrat party obtained 934,801, the czechoslovak socialists 484,743 and the agrarians 637,013. the cabinet accordingly resigned and on july 8 rorg president masaryk appointed a second cabinet under m. tusar, a leader of the social democrats. the new government represented a coalition of the parties which had been most successful in the elections. besides tusar (minister president) it included three other social democrats, four czechoslovak socialists, four agrarians and two slovaks, m. bene§ retaining his portfolio. the government, in presenting its programme, declared its intention of carrying on the policy of the preceding cabinet and pursuing the work of national consolidation especially in slovakia where order had to be re-established after the invasion of the magyar troops. further, it would attempt to create conditions which would make it possible for the czechoslovaks to collaborate with the racial minorities in general and the german minority in particular; it would carry forward the cconomic policy of the preceding government by developing good commercial relations with foreign countries, by balancing the budget and making important fiscal reforms, notably by instituting a capital impost; and it would pursue a progressive educational and social policy. it laid especial weight on the necessity of carrying through the agrarian reform, setting up workmen’s chambers and establishing a complete system of social insurance. in general the new government reflected the advanced tendencies of the czecho- slovak and european labour movement of the day. during the period of oflice of tusar’s cabinet czechoslovakia consolidated her international situation. the interests of the country were successfully defended at the peace conference. on sept. 10 1919 the treaty of st. germain with austria had been signed and on the same day the so-called “ little treaty ” of st. germain, which guaranteed the rights of minorities in czechoslovakia. under the guidance of m. benes commercial relations were developed between czechoslovakia and her neighbours. the relations between austria and czechoslovakia soon became fricndly and the ground was prepared for future political agreements. the economic consolidation of the country was still impeded by great difficulties, which obliged the government to have recourse to fresh loans. by the act of april ro 1919 the govern- ment was authorised to contract a loan of 179 million dollars from the united states, 54 million dollars of which were devoted to the purchase of foodstuffs and roo million to currency reform. on oct. 4 1919 a second internal loan of 880,000 crowns was voted and in teb. 1920 a third internal loan (lottery) to revive production. by the act of oct. 7 1919 the government read- justed the payment of civil servants; thus involving an ex- penditure of 600 million crowns. this new burden, to which others were soon added, (grants to the unemployed, to war invalids, etc.,) made clear the necessity of proceeding without delay to an extensive fiscal reform, and in particular of carrying through an extraordinary impost on capital. this question, which had been the subject of bitter struggles in the preceding cabinet was only definitely settled in april 1920; when the levy on capital and on increases of capital was imposed. the state budget for 1920 provided for 10,416,175,920 crowns expenses, and 7,750,770,773 crowns revenue, a deficit of 2,665,405,147 crowns. the tusar cabinet pushed forward the agrarian reform actively. the act of july 11 ror19 established a “ land office ”’; other measures regulated the principles of the methods of reform, especially the distribution of the expropriated lands, which, since they were not devoted solely to the benefit of private proprietors, but also to that of co-operatives, thus showed a compromise between the agrarian and socialist points of view. as regards social policy, the government passed an act on children’s labour; an act granting a credit of 500,0c0 crowns for cripples and the survivors of deceased soldiers; an act which gave workmen employed underground a share in the control and profits of mining enterprises; a further law set up local and works councils in the mining industry and thus marked the first stage in a whole branch of new legislation dealing with the share czuchoslovakia of workers in the control and profits of industrial enterprises. this act was soon supplemented by others on courts of arbitration in the mining industry, on the regulation of wages in the metallurgical industry and on home work. in other fields may be mentioned legislation dealing with public libraries, the organisation of the so-called ‘‘ economic ”’ popular schools, marriage-law reform, the abolition of the prohibition of married women teachers and military organisation. the most important task of ‘tusar’s cabinet was the elabora- tion of the constitution. in view of the attitude adopted by most of the german population it was resolved that this should be voted by the revolutionary national assembly, rather than by a nationally elected parliament. a special commission elaborated its general principles and its text. several points— the question of a second chamber, of the separation of church and state, of the system of military organisation and especially of the incorporation of the language laws in the constitution gave rise to vehement debate before the constitution was finally adopted on feb. 29 1920. the chief question which tusar’s cabinet left unsolved was that of the german minorities, which remained in unrelenting opposition to the state. nor were all the problems which arose in slovakia wholly settled. early in r919 the people’s (catholic) party jed by father hlinka developed tendencies hostile to the state. the internal situation was further troubled by a grave crisis within the social democrat party. in jan. 1920 an op- positional group, the “‘ marxist left ” formed within this party, and, yielding more and more to the influence of communist propaganda, opened a violent campaign against the govern- mental policy of the right wing. the efforts of the social democrat party to check this movement failed. and the campaign grew in violence after the return of m. smeral, the leader of the dissentients, from moscow in the spring of 1920, the general elections —the general elections were held on april 18 1920 for the chamber of deputics and on april 25 for the senate. the number of deputies was fixed in accordance with the constitution at 300, and of senators at 150. elections were not held in the districts of tesin, the frontiers of which were not yet definitely regulated, and of uzhorod in sub-carpathian russia, which was not yet fully in occupation of czechoslovakia. accordingly, only 281 deputies and 142 senators were elected. the czechoslovak parties obtained rog seats in the chamber of deputies and 102 in the senate (social democrats 74 and 41; agrarians 40 and 20; catholic people’s party 33 and 18; czecho- slovak socialists 24 and 10; national democrats 19 and 10; small traders six and three; independent socialists three and none); the german parties 72 seats in the chamber and 37 in the senate; the magyar and mixed magyar-german parties ro and three respectively. the czechoslovak parties obtained 68-6°% of the votes cast, the germans 25-6°% , the hungarians 0-5 %, the german-magyar 4%, the jewish parties 1-3%. of the czechoslovak votes cast 50°6% went to the socialist and 49-4 °% to the ‘f bourgeois ” parties. the second tusar cabinet—the results showed that the socialists and agrarians commanded a majority in the country. tusar therefore again received a mandate to form a cabinet. the new ministry was completed on may 25 (although remod- elled before the autumn session). it was composed of seven social democrats, including the premier, three czechoslovak socialists, three agrarians and two non-party specialists (englis for finance and ifotowetz for commerce); dr. bene&, who again took the portfolio of foreign affairs, was elected on the list of czechoslovak socialists. assembling in may, the new national assembly, in joint session of both chambers, re-elected m. masaryk as president of the republic by 284 votes out of 411. on june 1 the new cabinet read its programme, which envisaged an advanced democratic and social policy. appealing to the german re- presentatives, m. tusar declared that if the two nations had hitherto failed to co-operate, this was not due to the fault or the wishes of the czechoslovak majority, but to the attitude of the germans themselves. the reply of the german bourgeois czuchoslovakia parlics, however, which was repeated in a modified form by the german socialists, showed their intention of persisting in their negative policy towards the republic. the german problem remained as far as evcr from a solution. tusar’s second cabinet had a difficult task, since its majority was very weak (144 votes out of 281 in the chamber). it was opposed on the left by the communist elements of the social democrat party, and on the right by the national democrat party and by the conservative wing of the agrarians. the national democrats criticised the cabinet’s policy in its handling of the tesin policy and the bill on the conversion of the austro-ihingarian war loan bonds, which the government proposed to honour up to 75° of their nominal value, while the conservative agrarians chicfly opposed the government’s action in maintaining state control over the sale of the principal foodstuffs. the bill on the austro-hungarian war loan was finally adopted by a small majority, while the harvest was commandeered for the benefit of the state by virtue of a decree. the cabinet secured the adoption of a treaty with austria which made provision for the protection of the minorities and regulated the question of rights of citizenship. parliament then adjourned until october. before it reassembled, important changes had taken place in the political situation. the crisis in the social democrat party reached its climax. a party congress had been convoked for sept. 25; the left wing, which was coming more and more under the influence of the third international, opened a violent campaign in the hope of securing the majority in the party and of obtaining the adhcrence of the congress to the communist international. in view of this assault, the executive committee of the social democratic party met on sept. 14 and it was decided that the party’s representatives in the government should tender their resignation. this decision was due both to the fact that the social democrat ministers now rep- resented only a fraction of the party, and to the necessity of re- storing to the group its entire liberty of action in view of the impending struggle. the resignation of the social democrat ministers was approved and that of the cabinet was accepted by president masaryk on sept. 15 1920. the cern$ cabinet—on the same day m. cerny, the head of the provincial administration of moravia, was entrusted with the formation of a cabinet which could continue the policy of the resigning government. mm. benes, englis and hotowetz re- tained their portfolios in the new government, the rest of which was composed of high public officials. this temporary arrange- ment was unavoidable in view of the composition of the national assembly, as it was not possible to form a majority without the social democrats. the only solution was, then, a non-parly cabinet, backed by the czechoslovak groups, including the majority of the social democrats. the last-named party had in fact determined on a radical solution of the communist difficulty by forcing the extremist elements to leave the party and form an independent group. this division of the party brought with it a split in its parliamentary representatives, 26 members of which formed a new group. the strength of the opposition thus rose from 82 to 108 deputies, while the bloc of the partics of the old majority was reduced to 118 and the total of the czechoslovak national parties to 173. this new division showed that government was not possible without the support of all the czechoslovak groups. the cerny cabinet then prepared the way for a stable parliamentary government which was to follow it after the end of the year, resting like it on this larger majority. a new organisation, the council of five (petka), composed of the leaders of the five czechoslovak parties of the coalition (social democrats, czechoslovak socialists, national democrats, agrarians and people’s party), was formed to ensure contact and organise collaboration bet ween the government and the majority. the mission of the petka was to reconcile the divergent interests of these parties and to bring them into line with the interests of the whole. thanks to this institution the situation of the cabinet, which had been coldly received by public opinion, was alleviated, and it was able to carry through its most im- portant and urgent tasks. 797 the chief obstacle in the way of the cerny govt. was the communist party, which had launched out on a violent cam- paign of agitation among the working classes, and was attempt- ing to create trouble in the country. the government took strong measures to ensure public peace and order. in dee. 1920 the communists, on the pretext of the restoration of the people’s house, of which they were in occupation, 1o its legiti- mate proprietors, the social democrats, proclaimed a general strike, which was to prove the commencement of graver troubles. the government did not hesitate to put down the movement with all the necessary severity. this policy had good results. the communist party, which towards christmas had given its open adhesion to the third international, understood the lesson and attempted no further disturbances. from this moment onward the communist movement in czechoslovakia began to wane, a fact which was due partly no doubt to general inter- national influence, but partly to the firmness of the cerny government. the budget for 1921 was adopted sa tiont difficulty. it was less easy to regulate the question of fiscal reform, but it was essential to do so if the equilibrium of the budget was to be attained. the problem of victualling the country was equally complex. it was only in june, after long and difficult conver- sations, that it was finally solved. to carry through the fiscal reform the government proposed to increase the rate of the turnover tax, to introduce a succession duty and a duty on water power, to raise the rate of the income tax and the tax on profits. the representatives of industry and commerce and the national democrat party raised numerous objections to the various measures proposed, particularly to the increase of the turnover tax. all efforts to overcome this opposition failed. mf. engli§, the author of the proposed reforms, resigned on march 4 rg2t. ile was succeeded by m. hanacik, whose efforts, however, were no more successful. this parliamentary session lasted, with certain breaks, from the end of may to the beginning of august. a number of bills were adopted by parliament—homologation of foreign insurance companies; a commercial and customs agree- ment with yugoslavia; an increase of unemployment benefit; a convention with germany regarding rights of cilizenship, etc. the opposition of the germans in czechoslovakia grew more and more violent, and led finally to their leaving parliament and declaring their intention to abstain in future from any collabora- tion in the work of the legislature. meanwhile the fiscal reform, after many vicissitudes, had at last been adopted by the pe etka. it was passed quickly through the chamber in the last days of the session, simultancously with the law of expropriation of the properly of the habsburgs and a bill relating to the organisation of industrial works councils, which satisfied socialist claims. m. benex’ government.—the cerny cabinet lost its raison d‘ttre as the communist danger grew less, and with it the necessity of a close contact between parliament and the govern- ment. further, if the delays incurred in treating various prob- lems were in part attributable to the diversity of interests in the parties forming the majority, it appeared that these divergences could be better reconciled by a parliamentary government. in sept. 1921 the czechoslovak social democrat party, after a year of work and internal consolidation, declared itself ready to re- sume the responsibilities of government. the cerny govt. therefore retired, and on sept. 27 the decree was issued or- dering the formation of the new government. the govern- ment majority included the five great czechoslovak parties, and also enjoyed the support of the minor czechoslovak parlia- mentary groups, so that it could thus command a secure majority of 180 votes in the chamber against the 78 of the national minorities and the 25 communists. ©. benes’ became premier, his cabinet included three social democrats, three agrarians, two czechoslovak socialists and one national democrat. the premier, who also acted as l’oreign minister, and the ministers of finance, the interior and slovakia, were non-party men. m. bene’ appointment was in general well received; the german press and deputies regarded it as a hopeful symptom, the programme of the new government, which was first 798 announced on oct. 18, was one of firmness, consolidation, economy and administrative reforms at home and abroad; the gencral principles of preceding governments were to be carried further. in the debate which followed, father hlinka, the leader of the slovak catholics, declared his confidence in the government. the germans maintained their attitude of opposition, but their spokesman hinted at a possible future collaboration. the government remained in oflice from sept. 26 1921 to oct. 7 1922. the forcign situation during this year was par- ticularly full of incident, including the second attempt at restoration (oct. 20 1921) of the ex-king charles in hungary, as a result of which czechoslovakia commenced mobilisation (sce huwncary), the conclusion of a political convention with poland (nov. 6 1921), which, however, remained unratified (see little entente), of a treaty of guarantee and arbitration concluded on dec. 16 1921 at lany (lana) with austria (sce ausrria), the conference of genoa in march and april 1922, the negotia- tions for the expansion and strengthening of the little entente and the difficulties arising out of the fresh financial collapse in austriain 1922. these questions preoccupied the attention of the government somewhat to the exclusion of internal affairs. the internal economic situation was difficult and the cost of living high, both for general reasons and owing to the sudden rise of the czech crown. there were serious labour troubles, such as the miners’ strike of feb. 1922 and the strike in the metal industry in may 1922. the position of the petka in regard to the government caused difficulties, now that the abnormal situation which had justified its establishment had passed away; and a further difliculty was caused by the desertion of the 12 representatives of the slovak catholics to the opposition on account of the government's refusal to open three new catholic high schools in slovakia. as regards the question of the racial minorities, benes’ cabinet achieved no more than an indirect result by provoking a split within the german bloc, which divided it into a number of heterogeneous parties. the government passed, however, numerous licgislative measures, including the acts for the en- couragement of building, for the suppression of the foreign trade ofiice, for the revision of cost of living bonuses to state employces ‘and those dealing with co-operative socicties, the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquors to young persons, emigration, pre- vention of venereal disease, the teachers’ status, ete. among economic measures may be mentioned the british loan of jan. 1922, the purchase of the rakovnik-louny railway company, the modification of the,customs tariff, the act on the source of the pre-war public debt, the recasting of the duty on sugar, the act on the issue of subsidiary coinage. of special importance were the agreements reached with foreign countrics, including the convention with austria relative to the demarcation of the austro-czechoslovak frontier, the commercial and naviga- tion treaty with italy, the agreement respecting czechoslovak traffic via the port of trieste, the economic negotiations with germany, the commercial treaty with austria and the con- vention with germany for mutual judicial assistance. the good results of the work of the benes cabinet were shown in the in- crease of czechoslovakia’s prestige, the rise of her currency from ro to 17 silver centimes—at which rate it was stabilised—and the internal consolidation, which was attested by the calm with which the country received the mobilisation of oct. 1921. the history of the bencs cabinet so conclusively proved the feasibility of a concentration cabinet that when it resigned, on oct. 5 1922, the system was maintained on an even broader basis. the new ministry was formed on oct. 7, its head being mm. svehla, leader of the agrarian party and one of the most influential members of the petka. . the svehla cabinet.—the new cabinet consisted of five agrarians (including the premier), five social democrats, three czechoslovak socialists (including m. benes, who retained the portfolio of foreign affairs), two members of the people’s party, and two national democrats (including m. rasin, who again took the ministry of finance). its programme was presented on oct. 24 in the form of three exposes by m. svehla, m. bence and czechoslovakia m. rasin respectively. it proposed to retain, not only the gcneral principles but also certain concrete points of the pre- ceding ministry. its financial policy was to stabilise the ex- change, to assure a good financial administration, and to balance the budget by means of reduction of expenses. the tax on coal was to be reduced; the impost on increases of capital alleviated; the fiscal regime reformed; public works undertaken to combat the housing crisis; the agrarian reform completed; a system of social insurance and a number of economic measures carried through. the budget was voted without much difficulty in the autumn session. the government then presented a bill dealing with the salaries of public officials. based on the hypothesis that the stabilisation of the currency would result in a general fall of prices, this bill envisaged an increase of the basic rates of pay- ment but a reduction of the various bonuses. it became law on dec. 15, but was destined to involve the government in grave difficulties, as the economic situation, and especially the main- tenance of the level of prices, upset the calculations underlying it. on jan. 5 1923 m. rasin was assassinated by an unbalanced young man of anarchistic tendencies. among the consequences of this crime, which shook the country, was the resignation of the government on feb. 18. the gulf between the government parties and the communists grew wider than ever. a bill for the protection of the republic became law on march 6. the autumn session of 1923 was devoted mainly to the dis- cussion on the budget, which, thanks to the adoption of -numerous economies in matters of public finance, showed a re- duction of 3,000,000,000 crowns on that of 1922. the tax on coal was reduced, as promised, and the impost on capital below 50,000 crowns was lowered. in consequence of a violent campaign opened by the com- munists against the government coalition regarding the manage- ment of the government distillery, the majority parties brought forward a bill during the spring session of 1924 to the effect that cases of slander by the press should be transferred from the competence of the civil to that of the criminal courts. the debates on this bill provoked violent scenes. finally, a bill amending the press law was brought forward and carried. other measures passed during this session included an act re- ducing the peace establishment of the army; an anti-profitcering act; an act abolishing entails; and another on the institution of a national bank. the question of agricultural tariffs —the chicf object of parliamentary discussion in 1924 was, however, the question of customs tariffs on agricultural produce. the agrarian party demanded that these tarifls be reintroduced, and attempted to make the question dependent on that of the social insurance bill which had been introduced by the government in 1923 and had now passed the committee stage. in order to ensure success, it obstructed the ratification of the commercial treaties. the divergence of opinion on the tariff question between the agrarians and social democrats for a while endangered the existence of the coalition. on sept. 16 1924 the social insurance bill was voted by both chambers, and the question of the tariffs on agricultural produce was postponed in the hope of reaching a compromise between the parties. the budget for 1924, in which revenue and expenditure balanced, was passed; but the conflict on the tariff question broke out afresh. in april 1925 it provoked a real crisis in the governmental majority. the social democratic deputies refused to allow this question priority of treatment, demanding a debate on the bill to establish social insurance for independent workers, on which the application of the social insurance acts already voted depended. on april 24 they declared that they would not oppose the application of protection to agricultural produce in cases where the price of such produce was lower than the costs of production. this formed a platform for future settlement. on june 13 the executive committee of the social democratic party accepted this principle in a resolution which, for the first time, envisaged the possibility of an appeal to the country. the bill for the establishment of social insurance for independent workers was brought forward on may 22 and adopted by both chambers. czechoslovakia a fresh crisis was caused by the departure of the apostolic nuncio, mgr. marmaggi, on the day of the national festivities in honour of jan hus, and by his action in protesting to the government on account of their participation in these festivities. the czechoslovak socialist party now brought up again the question of the separation of the church and state, in which it was opposed to the other groups of the coalition. one of the czechoslovak socialist ministers resigned, thus complicating the situation and making the idea of new elections more probable than ever. the chamber met on sept. 18 to discuss the budget estimates, which, for the first time, provided for a surplus of revenuc. the budget was passed (the germans abstaining), but the cham- ber was unable to carry through a bill which introduced a slight amendment in the electoral system (dividing prague into two constituencies). it was obliged to abandon the rest of its programme. the two chambers were dissolved on oct. 16, and new elections for both fixed for nov. rs. second svehla cabinet and second cabinet of officials —the re- sults of the elections brought about a considerable rearrangement of the strength of the parties of the coalition. the people’s party gained greatly, the agrarians to a lesser extent, the social democrats were weakened, mainly because communist candidates split the labour vote. the national democratic party was also weakened. in general, however, the five coalition parties did not lose their ability for government, especially as they were joined by the traders’ party as a sixth member, which almost made up for the losses which they had sustained. the detailed results were as follows: agrarians 45 deputies and 23 senators, communists (comprising all the nationalities) 41 and 20, czechoslovak people’s party 31 and 16, czechoslovak social democrats 2g and 14, czechoslovak socialists 28 and 1g, slovak people’s party 23 and 12, national democrats 13 and seven, traders’ party 13 and six. of the german parties, the nationalists elected to and five representatives respectively to the two houses, the agrarians 24 and 12, the social democrats 17 and nine, the national socialists seven and three, the christian socialists 13 and seven; four and two magyar christian socialists were elected and one polish representative, while two jewish parties failed to obtain a mandate. on dec. 9 svchla’s second cabinet was formed, its con- stitution being as follows: agrarians four, social democrats three, czechoslovak socialists three, czechoslovak people’s party three, traders’ party one, national democrats one. two places were occupied by non-party ministers, one of these being dr. englis, the minister of finance. this coalition govern- ment, however, resigned on march 16 1926 owing to differences between the social democrats and the agrarians, chiefly on the outstanding question of agricultural tariffs. on march 18 another government of officials came into power. of the former cabinet, office was still held by dr. englis, and dr. bene, who was thus able to maintain a continuity in his important office as foreign minister. as in the case of the first government of officials, ihe prime minister was j. cerny. (hk. s.*) iv. economic history distribution of population.—39-56% of the population of czechoslovakia are occupied in agriculture; 33-87% in industry and 10-66% in commerce; the remainder in the civil and mu- nicipal services: liberal professions, etc. the percentage distri- bution by provinces is as follows:— ee industry agriculture bohemia 40-99 29°69 moravia ae 38°15 35:27 slovakia. : ; | 17°60 60-60 ruthenia » & 10°56 67-64 agriculture—the climate of czechoslovakia occupies a position between the moderate maritime climate of western europe and the extreme continental climate of eastern europe. the annual rainfall of about 25 in. is advantageously distributed 799 throughout the seasons, a full two-thirds occurring in the spring and summer months. the following table shows the division of the total area of the country in 1924: ny hectares ‘arable land . ; , . 42-04 5,907,000 permanent meadows . 9°87 1,385,000 (,ardens and orchards 1-05 147,000 vineyards ; , ; ; ; , 13 17,000 pastures 8:58 1,201,000 forests : : 83-17 4,652,000 fishponds and lakes . ; ; -56 78,000 waste and building tand . 4-60 648,000 total 14,035,000 the annual output of timber from the forests is estimated at 15,000,000 cu. metres, a large part of which is exported. sugar beet, corn and high-grade barley for beer-brewing are cultivated in the low-lying areas, while in the more elevated regions the cultivation of potatoes, rye and oats predominates; the high lands, except those covered by forests, are used for growing fodder crops or for grazing. of the total amount of arable land 14.5% is under rye, 14-3% under oats, 11-5 % under barley, and ro: "30% under wheat. maize is cultiv ated only in the ors areas of the southeast to an extent comprising about 2-7% of the total arable area. some 17% is taken up with perators and sugar beet, which form the basis for the highly developed distilling and sugar industries. the productivity of the soil varies considerably. thus, in the west, where there is a high technical standard in agriculture, the productivity often exceeds the general maximum figures for europe as a whole. but in the eastern areas (slovakia and carpathian ruthenia) the productivity is much lower. the following table shows the average productivity for the whole of czechoslovakia during the period 1922-—4:— yield per hectare quintals wheat 15°5 rye 15‘0 barley 15'9 oats t4°4 potatoes 108:°8 sugar beet 255'9 the most important agricultural products of czechoslovakia as regards the international markets are sugar beet, barley, which is exported partly in the form of malt, and the hops of zatec (saaz). the distribution of cattle, which forms 75% of the total number of animals, exhibits similar variations. productivity decreases from west to east, and while in the western regions there are 62 head of cattle per sq. km., a figure surpassed in europe only by denmark, belgium and holland, the number per sq. km. in the eastern areas 1s considerably less; the average for the whole republic is 52 head per square kilometre. the prominent position occupied by czechoslovakia among the most progressive agricultural states is due to the high standard of czechoslovak agriculture. the technical equipment of agricultural colleges receives very careful attention from the government, and there is also a very close co-operation between those engaged in agriculture andthe home industries which are based upon agricultural activity. before 1914 the total value of the agricultural output was estimated at about 23 milliard gold crowns. jn spite of the losses occasioned by the war the yield in 1925 was equal to that of the pre-war period. the foreign trade balance of agriculture is favourable to the country, if the export of products derived from agricultural industries "(sugar, beer, alcohol) is included. in the production of barley, potatoes, oats, beer, alcohol, sugar and fruit, there is an ample surplus for ex- port purposes. one of the important items in this respect is also the export of timber produce. the chief debit items occur in wheat, maize and cattle (meats and fats). agrarian reform.—the act of parliament of april 16 1919 gives the state the right to take over for partition estates in so far 800 as they exceed 150 hectares of arable land, or 250 hectares of land of any other category, indemnification being bascd on the average value between 1913-17. elaborate provisions are made for the various eventualities likely to arise in the application of this re- form, which is supervised by a department specially established for the purpose and known as the land office. the total area affected by this act was 926,817 hectares. by the end of 1924, 654,710 hectares hacl been taken over and redistributed, 470,327 being agricultural land and 184,383 other land, mostly forest, of which half passed into the possession of the state. of the agri- cultural land, 52% was allotted to small farmers, 21° to persons of various occupations, and 25% to landless peasants. during 1925 a further 253,000 hectares were distributed, and 203,490 hectares remain to be dealt with. the class of farmers owning medium farms in czechoslovakia has been substantially strength- ened by the land reform act. minerals and mines.—the.mineral wealth of czechoslovakia is of great importance. the most important items are pit coal and lignite. the former has its chief centres in the ostrava-karvinna coalfield, which is connected with the german and polish coal- fields of upper silesia. in addition, there are the coalfields of kladno and plze?. the output of pit coal in 1924 was 14,359,401 metric tons and the number of workers employed was 73,000. lignite is found in northwestern bohemia, at the foot of the ore mountains. the output in 1924 was 20,507,178 metric tons and the number of workmen employed was 46,000. coal is an im- portant article of export, pit coal and coke being exported mainly to austria and hungary, and lignite to germany. on the other hand, pit coal is imported from germany and toland, particularly for certain areas of northeastern bohemia, moravia and slovakia. iron ore is obtained chiefly in bohemia and slovakia, but it is inadequate for the native iron industry, and accordingly about one-half of the total amount used is imported, chietly from sweden. other metallic ores found include lead, manganese, antimony, cobalt, wolfram, silver and small quantities of gold (the annual output of pure gold is from too to 300 kilos). the uranium ores of jachymov, from which radium is obtained, are of great value. extensive salt deposits exist, about 140,000 metric tons being obtained annually from carpathian ruthenia. graphite of a high grade quality is also mined and forms the basis of a highly developed lead pencil industry. crude mineral oil is obtained in small quantities, the yield being about 1,000 cisterns annually. the abundance of excellent porcelain raw materials, par- ticularly of kaolin, is of great importance both for home industry and for export purposes. the annual yield is about 400,000 tons, obtained chiefly from western bohemia and southern moravia. under the heading of mineral wealth should be included also the numerous mineral springs, which have not only resulted in an extensive export trade in mineral waters but have exerted a large influence upon the development of such famous czecho- slovak spas as karlovy vary (carlsbad), marianske lazne (marienbad), frantiskovy lazne (franzensbad), podebrady, luhatgovice, pistany, etc. systematic attention 1s being devoted to the exploitation of water-power resources, together with a systematic process of electrification, and large steam-driven central power stations have been erected. cv. b®) industrial development industry.—it has already been pointed out that the agri- cultural products of czechoslovakia provide the raw materials for important agricultural industries. the most important of these is the old-established sugar industry, which is carried on in some 170 sugar refineries; by 1925 the pre-war output had been equalled, 7.e., more than 14,000,000 quintals of beet sugar annually, of which quantity about 10,000,000 quintals were available for export. in the manufacture of beet sugar czecho- slovakia occupied in 1925 a position second only to that of germany, and its exports exceeded those of any other country. the beer-brewing industry has attained a world-wide reputation by reason of the excellent quality of its products, notably czechoslovakia pilsen beer. alcohol (annual production 400,000 hectolitres), starch, coffee substitutes (chicory), preserved fruit and vege- tables, fruit juices, confectionery, cheese and ham industries are also of importance. the abundance of coal and the presence of iron ore have provided the necessary conditions for the development of the metallurgical industries. in 1923 there were 34 foundries in czechoslovakia; the quantity of crude iron manufactured in 1925 was 8,200,000 quintals, in the preparation of which 13,500,000 quintals of iron ore were used, 7,000,000 quintals being obtained from abroad. there are 16 steel works, with 50 foundries and an annual output of about 2,000,000 tons. the annual capacity of the rolling-mills is estimated at 1,000,0co0 tons of rolled goods. the iron industry is mainly located near the bituminous coal districts. the development of the metal industry is closely con- nected with the progress of agriculture and the development of the various agricultural industries, which have resulted in an in- creased demand for agricultural implements and machinery, as well as for machinery for sugar refineries, breweries, distilleries, etc. the metal industry has been extended to numerous other branches, and among its products are boilers and steam engines, steam and water turbines, pumps, compressors, benzine and naphtha motors, bridges, cranes, railway engines and waggons, motor-cars, lathes and other special machinery and equipment. this highly developed industry, the products of which are now exported all over the world, employs about 150,000 workers. the glass, porcelain and pottery industries also depend mainly upon the home supply of raw materials. the number of glass works is 140 and the number of workmen employed is nearly 30,coo. all kinds of glass goods are produced, from ordinary glass bottles to plate and chemical glass. in addition, there are about 70,000 workers, who in their own homes make glass jewellery and beads which are known under the generic name of jablonec (gablonz) ware. crystal, ground and coloured bohemian glass, all of high-grade quality, is largely exported to all parts of the world. the manufacture of porcelain is con- centrated mainly in western bohemia. it occupies about 15,000 workers, and with it is associated an extensive pottcry industry, which produces bricks and other building accessories, paving-stones and tiles. the large forest areas provide the raw material for the timber, paper and cellulose industries. the chief timber products are furniture of all kinds, the best known of which is bentwood furniture, barrels, building materials, frames, railway sleepers, pit props, walking-sticks, whips, pipes, etc. basket ware, brushes, buttons, toys and musical instruments are also produced. the paper industry comprises 60 paper works, 38 cardboard works, 27 cellulose works and 80 timber planing works. a great part of the output is exported. the surplus out- put of paper is utilised in the production of paper goods, bags, cigarette holders, etc. the textile industry, which occupies about 270,000 workers, is highly developed. the cotton group employs about 3,600,000 spindles and 130,000 mechanical looms, the woollen 1,200,000 spindles and 37,000 mechanical looms, the flax 285,000 spindles and 17,000 looms and the jute about 35,000 spindles and 3,500 looms. there are also 53 silk-spinning mills, with 14,000 looms. the raw matcrials forming the basis of the textile industry are obtained entirely from abroad, with the exception of small quantities of flax and wool, while the products of the industry represent about one-third of the total exports of the country. among its special products are cotton and woollen fabrics, carpets, blankets, lace and embroidery, clothing, underwear and head-gear. the leather industry, which is making great progress, obtains about 80%, of its raw materials from abroad. it also plays an important part in the export trade of czechoslovakia, its main products being boots, shoes, gloves and small miscel- laneous leather goods. the intensive agricultural activity of the republic also accounts for the development of the chemical industry, the chief products of which are artificial manures, glue, explosives, varnish, soap, candles, oils and the products of the dry distillation of wood, matches, blacking and ink. the lead pencil industry, based upon the abundant home supplies of czechoslovakia high-grade graphite is one of the standard export industries, while matches, blacking and ink are also produced. communications and transport—the total length of railways is 13,549 km.; 9,125 km. are state railways, 4,135 km. are private lines carried on by the state, and 289 km. are private lines under private management. these railways, forming a direct connec- tion between the systems of western and eastern europe, are very important, both as regards passenger and goods traffic. the waterways are also important factors. the vltava (moldau) internationalised from prague onwards, and the labe (elbe) from melnik onwards, form the route to the north sea, where the chief harbour for czechoslovak trade is hamburg. the danube (g.v.), which is internationalised from ulm, con- nects czechoslovakia with the black sea. the oder (qg.v.) is not yet navigable as far as the czechoslovak frontiers, but it never- theless plays an important part in the transport of swedish ore to the czechoslovak iron industry in the ostrava basin. the total length of navigable waterways is 418 km., of which 206 km. are represented by the elbe and vltava, and 172 km. by the danube. of the total foreign trade in 1923, 7% of the im- ports and 8% of the exports were carried by water. the fol- lowing table shows the total amount of goods carried in this way :— . elbe danube tons tons exports 798,341 118,428 imports 271,425 81,533 the elbe is used chiefly for the transport of coal, timber, agri- cultural produce and the products of the agricultural industries; the danube for the export of timber, and the import of cereals from the danubian states. in 1924 there were 4,557 post offices and 20,540 km. of tele- graphs, representing a total length of 125,726 km. of wire. the total length covered by the local telephones was 16,338 km. and of the inter-urban 13,854 km., the number of call stations being 10,870. prague is an important aviation centre, and is a sta- tion on the air route paris-prague-constantinople, which has a branch line to warsaw. an internal aviation route runs between prague, bratislava and koiice. foreign trade.—the large export and import trade of czecho- slovakia required it to build up a system of commercial treaties with foreign powers. the guiding principle of czechoslovak trade policy was that of the most-favoured-nation clause. upon this principle it constructed its whole system of agreements, . which it supplemented by means of tariff conventions for customs purposes. a custom tariff of the former austro-hungarian empire, drawn up in 1906, was adapted to the changed economic conditions by means of a system of co-efficients and became the basis of czechoslovak customs policy as far as not replaced by any new items. the tariff agreements concluded with france, italy, austria, poland, greece, spain and belgium led to a re- duction of from 50% upwards in the customs rates appli- cable to more than two-thirds of the industrial products. it was also an important feature of the trade policy of czechoslovakia that, having in view the best interests of international trade, it regarded the system of import and export licences introduced immediately after the war as being only temporary, and as con- ditions became more and more consolidated the application of the system was gradually reduced. trade agreements or tariff conventions concluded by czecho- slovakia with various countries are as follows:— 1920: switzerland, germany, bulgaria, yugoslavia and france. 1921: italy, rumania and austria. 1922: russia, the ukraine, latvia and portugal. 1923: the netherlands, lithuania, great britain, france, nor- way and the united states of america. 1924: denmark, italy, iceland and austria. 1925: greece, sweden, poland, austria, spain, turkey, bulgaria, japan and belgium. the table at the top of the next column shows the value of the foreign trade of czechoslovakia from 1920 to 1925. in 1924 the imports were cotton and cotton goods, wool and woollen goods, flax, hemp, jute, wheat and flour, live cattle, fats soi credit rts imports balance f-xports millions of crowns 23,384 22,433 12,696 10,222 15,855 £7,594 and tobacco. the chief countries of origin and the percentage of the total supplied were the danubian states (7.¢e., austria, yugoslavia, bulgaria and rumania) 19%, central and north- ern europe (germany and poland) 39:8%, western europe 18-5°%, and other countries 22-7%. the principal exports were sugar, cotton goods, woollen goods, flax and jute prod- ucts, timber, coal, glass, iron goods, fruit and vegetables, leather and leather goods, porcelain and pottery. the chief foreign markets and the percentage of the total taken were the danubian states 36-90%, central and northern europe 22-8%, western europe 20-6%, other countries 19-7%. (j. dv.) v. finance and currency in no other department of the state activities was there so energetic an endeavour to ensure the independent existence of the new republic as in that of finance and currency. in this respect there was a two-fold aim: to achieve an equilibrium of the state finances and establish a stable currency. the following are the chief figures from the state budgets for the period 1923 to 1926 (in millions of crowns):— - 4,185 4,879 5,390 2,351 1,180 1,205 special pro- receipts expenditure gramme of public works 1923 18,812 19,377 3,000 1924 16,391 16,994 2,229 1925 9,301 9,574 1,319 1926 10,086 10,070 s the great difference between the budget for 1925 and that for 1926 lies in the fact that from 1925 onwards such state concerns as railways and the tobacco monopoly were to be managed upon a business basis, separate from the state administration. ‘they appear in the budget only as a final figure after the balance has been drawn of all receipts and expenditures. thus the budget for 1926 was not burdened by investment items; such items, amounting to 871,000,000 czechoslovak crowns, are included in the ordinary budget as items necessary for the purpose of interest and amortisation. the main sources of state receipts for 1925-6 are estimated as follows (in millions of crowns):— we direct taxation a ta oe 2,086 (20°7) tax on turnover and luxury tax . 1,606 (15-9 tax on consumption . 1,432 (1352) custonis receipts 808 = (-: 8-0) stamp dues and fees . oo 1,534 (15-2) monopolies and state undertakings 1165 (11-6) | 8,531 (84-6) public debt. —the total public debt of czecho- ke 39,549, 724,334 16,045,462,152 6,757,794,000 4,478,468,181 3,259,000,000 slovakia on july 31 1925 was. ; amount assigned for the funded internal debt (interest 34 to 6%) : ‘ : ; short term internal loan (interest 5} to 6% foreign debts in various currencies (according to the rate of exchange on july 30 1925) debt arising from the peace treaties of the above mentioned funded debt, amounting approxi- mately to £95,843,000, the sum of £30,070,000 forms the share of the pre-war debt of the former austro-hungarian empire which was taken over by the czechoslovak republic, while the sum of {47,167,000 represents the capital state expenditure during the period 1919-25 incurred by railways, telegraphs, telephones, high roads, etc. similar capital expenditures are also covered partly by the foreign debts and the short term loan, while the 802 remainder represents expenditure incurred in the maintenance and repatriation of czechoslovak troops who were fighting for the allies, as well as expenditure incurred immediately after the war for the benefit of the population, which was still suffering from the effects of the war. the above list includes the state debts as far as they can be specified. whether czechoslovakia will be called upon to make payments under art. 208 of the treaty of st. germain and art. 191 of the treaty of trianon, or to make payments designated as a liberation contribution, had not been settled in 1925. currency.—one of the most important acts of the first government of czechoslovakia was the establishment of an independent currency early in rg19. for this purpose it was decided to collect and stamp all the bank notes of the austro- hungarian bank, which were then circulating upon czccho- slovak territory, as well as the deposit accounts in czechoslovak branches of the austro-hungarian bank, totalling about 10 milliard crowns. during the process of stamping, about 2-7 milliard crowns were retained as a compulsory state loan in order to reduce the amount of paper money in circulation, and the stamped bank notes were declared to be state notes with a face value in czechoslovak crowns. at the same time a tempo- rary bank of issue was established under the title of “‘ banking office of the finance ministry.”’ the stamped bank notes were later replaced by independent state notes in equal proportion. in order to defray the value of the uncovered state notes and the deposit accounts taken over from the austro-hungarian bank, a tax on capital was levied, the estimated yield of which was 7-5 milliard crowns. of this sum nearly 5 milliards had been paid off by the end of 1925. the value of state notes in circulation is strictly defined by law. the banking office, which is managed by a board of directors appointed by the finance minister, is not permitted to grant the state any loan, either direct or indirect. the general post-war financial and economic difficulties, the chaotic condition of the currencies in the neighbouring states, and the comparative ignorance of czechoslovakia abroad, caused the exchange rate of the czechoslovak crown to fluctuate up to 1922, although the financial administration continued to pursue sound principles. from the year 1922, however, the exchange rate of the crown was stabilised at about 100 crowns to $3 (u-s.). thus, as a result of the energetic and judicious currency policy inaugurated by dr. ra&in, the czechoslovak crown maintained its stability and its relatively high exchange value at a period when the currencies of the neighbouring states were hopelessly unstable and depreciated. this caused czechoslovakia to be described as ‘‘ an island in a sea of inflation.” as a result of three years of stabilisation it was decided to change the banking office, during 1926, into a joint stock bank of issue, known as national czechoslovak bank, with a share capital of $12,000,000, which may be increased to $15,000,000. of this amount one-third has been taken over by the state, although it will not have morc than one vote at the general meet- ings. ‘he aim of the bank is to issue bank notes and maintain the currency at the exchange level of the years 1924-5. this level is represented by the rate of roo crowns to $2.90-$3.03 on the new york stock exchange, and brings czechoslovakia into line with the countries possessing a gold exchange standard. to begin with, there will bea 20% gold covering, but this will be increased 1% per annum for a period of 15 years until it reaches 35 %. banking and credit.—amongst the oldest financial institutions existing upon the territory of the present republic were the communal savings banks. as a result of the development of industry, notably about the middle of the roth century, these were followed by deposit banks, and as agriculture continued to progress a number of co-operative institutions were established in the rural districts. savings banks, the activity of which is strictly defined by special regulations, numbered 373 at the end of 1925. on dec. 31 1919 their total book deposits amounted to 5,326 million ke., a sum which at the end of 1924 had increased to 11,454 million ke. there are also 153 district agricultural deposit banks in bohemia which are similar in character. their czernin total deposits amounted to 829 million ke., which had increased to 2,122 million ke., by the end of 1924. these establishments are guaranteed by the district authorities. as a result of the co-operative law of 1873, a number of credit co-operative societies on what is known as the kampelicky or raiffeisen system were founded in the rural districts. by 1925 the number had reached 3,965; their total funds amounted to 1,346 million ke. at the end of 1919, and 3,265 million ke. at the end of 1924. the same law provided for municipal deposit banks, of which there are 1,539, with deposits amounting 2,388,000,000 ke. in 1919 and 6,840,000,000 ke. in 1924. czechoslovakia contains 33 banking establishments with a share capital of 914,000,000 ke. at the end of 1919, and 1,871,- 900,000 ke. at the end of 1924. the reserve funds at these respective periods amounted to 378,000,000 ke. and 1,032,000,000 ke. their total deposits amounted to 1,224,000,000 ke. in 1919 and 6,587,000,000 ke. in 1924. there are also 164 smaller banks of this description in slovakia and carpathian ruthenia, whose total deposits amounted to 1,137,000,000 ke., and 2,214 ,000,000 ke. in rorg and 1924 respectively. in addition, there are nine banks other than those with share capital, whose deposits amounted to 300,000,000 ke. and 1,723,000,000 ke. in 1919 and 1924 respectively. in all cases the czechoslovak banks began on a small scale, collecting their deposits from all parts of the country and from all classes of the population. they take an active share in the establishment of industrial and commercial concerns. the financial and credit organisation of czechoslovakia is supplemented by a state-managed postal cheque office in prague. in 1924 there were 81,507 deposit holders, whose total claims amounted to 1,953,000,000 ke. the total transactions concluded in 1924 involved a turnover of 165,289,000,000 ke. the most important of the czechoslovak insurance companies are those dealing in life insurance and in insurance against fire, hail and other damage from the elements. the transport insurance companies are less developed, a circumstance which is due mainly to the inland position of the country. czecho- slovakia contains 14 mutual insurance companies, 21 joint stock insurance companies, and four companies controlled by public authorities. (vps) biprrograrny.—the fullest account of czech activities before and at the outbreak of the war is contained in the urtezisbegriindung des k.k. landwehrdivistonsgerichtes wien gegen kramdr, rasin und genossen (vienna, 1916), which is, however, much too bulky for the ordinary reader. a short but tendencious account based on the above is given by f. wichtl, dr. karl kramarsch, der anstifier des welt- krieges (vienna, 1918); see also h. friedjung, das zeitalter des imperialismus (berlin, 1922); r. w. seton watson (scotus viator) gives the slovak case in racial problems in hungary (london, 1908); good accounts of the czechoslovak movement in austria hungary are given in o. bauer's die esterreichische revolution (vienna, 1923); and s. fischel’s der panslawismus (vienna, 1918), for the revolu- tionary movement during the war, see t. masaryk, l' europe nou- velle (paris, 1918); also die weltrevolution (berlin, 1924); w. tobolka, diplomaticke dokumenty o eeskoslovenskem stdtu (paris, 1918); also ceske politika za svetove vdiky (prague, 1922); also afasaryk osvobo- ditel (prague, 1922); j. cervinka, nasina sibffi (prague, 1920). for constitution and history since 1918 see narodni shromazdeni eskoslovenske-mezinarodni informaeni sluzba tparlamentni, 2 cisich parlamenit (prague, 1920, etc.); usfavnt sikony eskoslovenske republiky. pro potrebu nerodniho shromdsdeni vydalo predsednictvo n. s. (prague, 1920); lois constitutionnclles de la_ republique tchecoslovague (prague, 1920, etc.); h1. rauchberg, birgerkunde der tchechoslowakischen republik (reichenberg, 1922); a. ragin, financial policy of csecho-slovakia during the first year of tts history. economic and social history of the world war (oxford, 1923); e. bene’, five years of csechoslovak foreign policy (prague, 1924); see also statn{ ufad statisteky, manuel statistique de la republique tchecoslovaque (prague, 1920, etc.); j. cisaf and f. pokorny, the czechoslovak republic. a survey of tts history and geogruphy, its political and cultural organisation, and tls economic resources (london, 1922); s. papanck, la tchecoslovaquie (prague, 1923); j. (sruber, czechoslovakia (new york, 1924). czernin, ottokar, count (1872- ), austro-hungarian statesman, was born on sept. 27 1872, and became in feb. 19124 member of the austrian upper house, attaching himself to the constitutional party. his speeches, in which he advocated a vigorous internal and external policy, made a great sensation. czernin in oct. 1912, he went as austro-hungarian minister, to bucha- rest. his dispatches published in the “‘ red book ” show that, even at that time, he was of opinion that the secret treaty signed by king charles with the triple alliance was nothing but a ‘““scrap of paper,” and that in an international war rumania would only be induced to take the side of the central powers by far-reaching concessions at the expense of the habsburg mon- archy. after the outbreak of the world war he sought even at a cost to win over rumania to the side of the central powers. but his efforts proved fruitless, because the leading hungarian statesmen would not agree to rumanian demands, involving the cession of hungarian territory. for a long time czernin suc- ceeded in persuading rumania to remain neutral. at the end of 1916 he became minister for foreign affairs in succession to count burian. czernin was, and remained, a decided advocate of the view that the central powers could not obtain so crushing a victory over the enemy in the field as to be able to dictate the conditions of peace. therefore, from the day of his taking office down to his resignation, he consistently maintained that, even at some sacrifice, they ought to seek the conclusion of a peace which should preserve to them their position as great powers. czernin did not indeed contemplate the conclusion of a separate peace with the enemy, but as against german statcsmen he insisted that germany also, especially on the questions of belgium and alsace-lorraine, would have to reconcile herself to concessions. by gloomily painted pictures of the military, political and economic situation of austria-hungary he sought to influence the german emperor and the german high command, and suc- ceeded in awakening sympathy with his peace ideas among the members of the german reichstag. czernin was not only cognisant of the peace negotiations which the emperor charles opened with england and france through his brother-in-law, prince sixtus of parma, but he 803 approved of them. he knew nothing, however, of the wording of the letter of march 24 1917 in which the emperor charles spoke of his willingness to support the “ just demand ” of france for the return of alsace-lorraine by any means and by the use of his whole personal influence with his ally. but he himself was simultaneously engaged in trying to influence german statesmen in the same sense, promising, in the event of their making sacri- fices in the west, to compensate them in the east, chiefly by the acquisition of polish territory. but his efforts, then and later, broke down on the determination of the german army leaders to obtain a military decision. during the negotiations at brest litovsk from dec. 1917 to march 1918 the opposition between the views of the austro- hungarian delegation, led by czernin, and the german delega- tion became strikingly manifest. in the negotiations leading up to the convention between russia and the quadruple alliance, signed on march 3 1918, czernin took a conspicuous part. a few weeks earlier, peace had been concluded at brest litovsk with the newly founded republic of the ukraine. the fact that czer- nin, in order to secure this *‘ bread peace ”’ had ceded to ukraine the district of chelm, to which the poles laid claim, aroused the most violent resentment among the latter, and led to unsparing attacks upon him by the austrian poles. in the beginning of april 1g18, his position was no longer tenable. the immediate cause of his resignation on april 15 1918 was the conflict between him and the emperor charles over the “‘ sixtus letter.” ribliography.—for czernin’s activity in bucharest and in the world war see his im weltkriege (1919). his dispatches from bucharest are printed in the austro-hungarian ‘‘ red book,” diplomatische aktenstiicke betreffend die beztehungen o6csterretch- ungarns 2u rumdnien, 22 juli 1914 bis 27 august 1916. a favourable view of czernin’s attitude in the ' sixtus affair " is taken by count august demblin in czeratn und die sixtus affaire (1920); the stand- point of prince sixtus is represented in prince sixt de bourbon: l' offre de la paix separee de l’autriche (1920). 804 *abernon, edgar vincent, rst viscount (1857- british diplomatist, was born at slinfold, sussex, aug. 19 1857, the youngest son of sir frederick vincent, 11th bart., of stoke d’abernon, surrey. he was educated at eton and entered the army, but in 1880 was appointed private secretary to sir edmond fitzmaurice, then commissioner for eastern rumelia. in 1882 he was sent to constantinople as the representative of great britain, holland and belgium on the council of the ottoman public debt, of which in 1883 he became president. in 1883 he went to cairo as financial adviser to the egyptian govt., remaining there until 1889, when he returned to constantinople as governor of the imperial ottoman bank, a post which he resigned in 1897. in 1887 he received the k.c.m.g. sir edgar vincent entered parliament in 1899 as conservative mem- ber for exeter, but lost this seat in 1906. in 1914 he was raised to the peerage as baron d’abernon, and during the world war was chairman of the central liquor control board. from 1920 to 1926 he was ambassador to germany and in that capacity did much to pave the way for the locarno pact. in jan. 1926 he was made a viscount. dacca, university of.—the creation of the university of dacca was due to the desire of the govt. of india to provicle increased educational facilities for the mussulmans of eastern bengal, to set up a new residential and teaching type of univer- sity and to relieve the congestion of the (afhliating) university of calcutta. after reports from a special committee in 1912 and the calcutta university commission in 1919, it was opened on july 1 1921. the university has fine buildings, inherited in part from the former govt. of eastern bengal and assam, in part from the dacca colony, founded in 1841 and an estate of nearly a square mile, with large playing fields, three residential halls, well equipped chemical and physical laboratories, and residences for the stalf. the constitution is similar to that of the english provincial universities, but on the residential side it is more akin to oxford and cambridge. there are about 85 teachers and 1,500 students (1926); research is carried on in all the departments and a high standard is maintained in the examinations. the library contains about 44,000 volumes. dahn, julius sophus felix (1834-1912), german his- torian (see 7.734), published the final volume of die kenige der germanen in to1t. he died at breslau jan. 3 1912. ~ dahomey (sce 7.734).—this french colony extends from the gulf of guinea to the niger, and includes a much greater area (41,302 sq. m.) than the old kingdom of dahomey. the last ruling chief was deposed in 1911. the population in 1925 was estimated at 1,000,000. kuropeans number about 800. some 65% of the natives inhabit lower dahomey, which 1s but one- third of the area of the colony. the principal railway runs from the coast at kotonu, parallel to the nigerian frontier, to save (162 miles). thence a metalled road, over 300 m. long, connects with the niger at mladekali. palm oil and palm kernels remain the chief source of wealth. oil palms cover an area of about 600,- ooo acres. maize is a growing export from the colony. (see wrst africa, french.) dail eireann: see irish free state. daingerfield, elliott (1859- ), american painter, was born at harper’s ferry, va. (now w. va.), march 26 1859. he received his early education at fayetteville, n.c., and went to new york city in 1880 to study art. he exhibited first at the national academy of design in 1880. among his best known pictures are “ christ stilling the tempest ’’ and “ slumbering fog,” in the metropolitan museum, new york city; “ storm breaking up,” in the toledo museum; “ the child of mary,” in the national gallery, washington; “‘ the midnight moon,” in the brooklyn museum; “ the valley of the dragon,” in the chicago art institute. he executed the beautiful mural decora- tions in the lady chapel of the church of st. mary the virgin, new york city. ), | d’abernon—dairying