COTTON

cotton, like all other important industrial commodities, has been profoundly affected by the economic dis- turbances of the world war and its aftermath. i. production of raw cotton in ro11-2 the united states produced a cotton crop of 16,109,000 bales, with linters. this was the first time in history that the american crop had exceeded 13,750,000 bales; and the world cotton harvest was raised to 25,594,000 bales. the next year the american crop fell back to 14,091,000 bales and the world crop to 23,676,c00 bales. a slight improvement in 1913-4 made the totals 14,614,000 bales and 24,422,000 bales respec- tively, but in 1914-5 the american crop established a record with a total output of 16,738,000 bales including linters, carry- ing the world total to 26,841,000 bales. the average world production for the five years rg1o-1 to 1914-5 inclusive was 24,485,000 bales, of which the united states supplied an aver- age of 60°%. egypt supplied an average amount approximating to 1,500,000 bales, falling to 1,298,000 bales in 1914-5, while in india, after a bad year in 1911-2, when production fell to 2,630,000 bales, the balance was restored by two good crops of over 4,000,000 bales in 1913-4 and 1914-5. the years in which the effect of the world war was seriously felt, as will be seen from table i., caused an almost universal restriction. the american crops remained under 13,000,000 bales and world crops nearer 20,000,000 than 21,000,000 bales. in r919-20 the american crop fell to 11,921,000 bales, but this failure was compensated for by an unusually large indian crop of 4,637,000 bales, which carried the world total for that year to just over 21,000,000 bales. the average world production for this cycle of five years was 20,593,000 bales, of which the united states contributed an average of 59%. the following table illustrates the comparative steadiness of production during these first two cycles, as a contrast to the extreme fluctuations of the next five years, from 1920-1 to 1924-5:— table. 1. world’s cotton crops, 1910-1 to 1924-5 (in thousands of bales of 500 lb., approx.) ameri- year ani ras indian | others } total 1910-1 11,966 1,515 3,032 5.330 21,893 iqi 1-2 16,109 | 1,485 2,630 5.379 | 25,594 igil2-3 14,091 1,507 3,688 4,390 23,676 i9l 3-4 14,614 1,537 4,052 4,219 24,422 iqi4-5 16,738 1,298 4,167 4,638 26,841 1915-6 12,013 96 2,990 | 4,465 | 20,429 1916-7 12,664 1,022 3,602 3,681 20,969 1917-8 12,345 1,262 3,200 3.274 20,081 1918-9 . | 12,817 o64 3,182 3,355 20,318 19ig-20 . si sag q2 i,ri4 4,637 3,475 21,147 1920-1 . | ¥3,700 1,206 2,845 2,942 20,693 ig2i-2. ; 8,360 972 3,570 2,858 15,760 1922-3 2 o,320: |). 1243 4.458 3,465 | 109,486 923 4 ; 4,12 3,824 20,070 19°45 : ; 4,784 25,582 1 including linters. it will be seen that after a good average vear in 1920-1 produc- tion fell sharply in the following season to a low total of 15,760,- ooo bales. thereafter there was a sharp recovery, at first much more marked in cotton fields outside the united states, but with that country coming to the fore again in 1924-5. the average world crop during this period was 20,318,000 bales, the united states proportion falling to 56%. two distinct causes were operating to cause these wide varia- tions in the supply of cotton after the world war. one was the general industrial and financial disturbance which followed cotton the war. the post-war boom and slump, the fluctuations in the value of national currencies and in the relative prices of the staple commercial commodities, impoverishment of the popula- tion in large areas of the world, and the general feeling of politi- cal instability contributed to a restriction of the world’s capacity to purchase and consume cotton goods. thus in 1g2r, the carry-over of unconsumed american cotton at the end of the season amounted to no less than 9,944,000 bales. it was clear that the united states had produced in 1920-1 a comparatively large crop of cotton which, owing to the world-wide financial stringency, had only been partially consumed. prices —the average price received by the american culti- vator for the crop of 1920 was 15-89 cents per lb. of lint as com- pared with an average of 35-36 cents per ib. for the crop in rorg. the winter and summer of the 1920-1 season saw cotton quoted well below 15 cents in new york, and there were occasions when futures fell below 11: cents. in the circumstances, a restriction of acreage under cultivation in the united states was a natural economic development, and the area planted for the rg21 crop was no more than 31,678,000 acres. from about 1915 until the end of the 1920-1 season, the chief influence at work was a re- striction of consumption, which, with varying force at different seasons, caused a restriction in the quantity of raw material produced in the united states. the boll weevil—from 1921 onwards, however, a second factor came into play, namely, the boll weevil, and up to 1925 the position was reversed, for the restriction in the size of the american crop imposed upon the world a severe limitation of the volume of consumption. in 1921-2, on a harvested acreage of 30,509,000, the yield per acre was only 124-5 lb. as compared with an average of 179 lb. in the previous 10 years. the total crop was only 7,978,000 bales (exclusive of linters) which was the smallest yield in the united states since 1895. the weather had been favourable to the spread of the boll weevil and it was estimated that pests had destroyed rog-1 lb. of cotton per acre. the next few years aroused a fear that as long as scientists could find no adequate cheap method of exterminating the boll weevil, the united states would continue to grow deficient crops, and that the deficiency would not be filled until large cotton fields had been developed in other parts of the world. american crops.—the history of the american crop during these post-war years can be illustrated by the following table:— table ii. the american cotton crop (exclusive of linters) (in thousands of (in thousands of bales) acres) baas 4 oo "to- acreage pease total ge nuction planted are yield a eal ae suinp- tion 31,678 | 30,509 7,978 | 12,488 | —4,510 34,016 | 33,036 9,729 | 12,388 | —2,659 38,701 |) 37,123 10,171 | 10,926 —f55 42,641 | 41,360 13,639 ! 13,256 + 383 48,160 | 45,945 = ss 1 december estimates. annual averages iqi1-2 1921-2 1906-7 to iglo-i es cr ee re eee ee eet” total production (bales) . ; east of mississippi river per cent of 11,753,619|13,999,687/11 ,843,028/10,379,294 total : , : 55:6 54° o- 2:8 west of mississippi a are 5 river per cent of total we. cs 44°4 45°3 49°5 57:2 exports from u.s.a. |__ (bales) 7,550,292 8,944,586} 5,733,688! 5,686,964 (note: seasons ending aug. 31 up to 1915. thereafter july 31.) 749 the lowness of the yield per acre in the american cotton belt during the years 1921, 1922 and 1923 was to a considerable extent attributable to the ravages of the boll weevil (g.v.). when, in 1923-4, on a largely increased acreage the american crop only amounted to less than 11,000,000 bales, the future outlook was serious. as shown in table ii., american cotton was being con- sumed, in spite of high prices, at a rate which was considerably larger than production, and the reserves were disappearing at a faster rate than other cotton-growing areas could possibly be developed. the history of 1924 and 1925, however, shows that, although the boll weevil may remain endemic in the united states, the decisive factor is still the weather, while a contribu- tory factor of some importance is the great and speedy expansion of acreage which has been proved possible. rainy weather pro- vides the most favourable conditions for the propagation of the weevil, but the combination of extremely low temperatures in winter and hot dry weather in summer, or even the latter with- out the former, has kept the weevil within bounds and has enabled the united states to grow large crops once more. the situation has not been entirely free from anxiety, for excessive droughts are destructive to the cotton plant as well as to the weevil, but both in 1924 and in 1925 the advent of rain has been in time to save the crop. effect of high prices —the victory over the boll weevil made the years 1924-5 a landmark in cotton history, for they removed the fear that the united states would be a dwindling factor in the production of raw material. the high prices which had been ruling since the crop failure of 1921 were an incentive to experiments in cotton-growing. there were obvious advantages to be gained by the dispersion of cultivation, so that unfavour- able weather conditions in one part of the globe need not neces- sarily mean a calamity to 50% of the world’s cotton harvest. costs of cultivation also were becoming a serious matter in the united states and for the rest of the world. if cotton prices fell below producing costs in any one year, there was a general agi- tation to restrict the acreage placed under cultivation in the next year. american costs of cotton cultivation, owing to the generally high level of wages and the falling-off in the yield per acre, were higher than in most other cotton areas of the world. consequently, throughout the tropical and sub-tropical belt, both state and private enterprise have been actively extending the cultivation of cotton. the actual results by the 1925-6 season were not commensurate with the effort made, but it was possible to foresee a time when the basis of cotton prices would be the average world cost of cultivation and not the average cost in the united states alone. the incentive to grow cotton in order to reap the bencfit of high prices has also been operative in the united states, where, owing to a high development of agricultural knowledge, of la- bour supply, of means of transport and of marketing facilities, progress has been much faster than in all other areas combined. thus, while in 1921 the area planted under cotton in the united states was 31,678,000 ac., the 1925 area was estimated at no less than 48,160,000 ac., while in the same period the expansion of area actually harvested increased from 30,509,000 to 45,945,- ooo acres. whether the united states will maintain this increase depends on the yield per acre, for since the world crops of 1925-6 are considerably larger than the potential consumption of the 1925-6 season, the prices ruling during the spring of 1926 may be too severe a test for the american grower. world production.—this increase in american acreage and harvest is an important matter when compared with the slow- ness of progress in other fields. table iii. shows the position in these countries from 1910 to 1924. an increase from 10,306,000 bales in 1910 to 10,747,000 bales in 1924 does not appear very much. russia, however, is a draw- back to any compilation of progress made, and if the russian figures are excluded there is an increase of more than 1,000,000 bales. it was clear in 1925 that these figures would increase in the near future, but the chief consideration is that the develop- ment of irrigation and transport services, etc., during the past few years is only beginning to show results. egypt is the one 750 country where cotton cultivation may be regarded as approxi- mately stationary, the production of a specialised type of cotton and the maintenance of a price premium over american qualities being considered of greater importance than an expansion of the total yield. in india, the possibilities of a considerable enlargement in the production of a higher quality of cotton are considered promising. the problem of agricultural labour supply at a cheap rate does not arise, although the yield per acre is rather low. the two table ill. world production of cotten outside the united states (in thousands of bales of 478 lb. net) estimates of the u.s. dept. ef agriculture i re 2 a s ac india} “@ | &@ | & | qr | re [peru] 6g] totals 5 s| oe sa’ = 2 aw le oe) 4 ri as oes iqio | 3,254! 1,006] 1,555} 3,467| 297 | 200 | 88 | 439 | 10,306 i9qii | 2,730| 969] 1,530] 3,437) 300 | 160 | 96 | 441 | 9,663 1912 | 3,702} 946) 1,554} 3,931] 348 | 240 | 112 | 507 | 11,340 1913 | 4,239] 1,026] 1,588] 4,000) 397 | 205 | 133 | 515 | 12,103 i9qi4 | 4,359] 1,270] 1,337] 4,500) 387 | 108 | 129 | 462 | 12,552 i915 | 3,128}1,512| 989) 3,000) 282 | 95 | 113 | 378 9,497 i9t6 | 3,759] 1,199] 1,048) 1,534) 284 | 103 | 127 | 344 / 8,395 1917 | 3,393) 634) 1,304] 2,092) 345 | 135 | 125 | 345 8,373 1918 | 3,328] i61} 999] 3,053] 339 | 203 | 142 | 347 8,572 i9iq | 4,853) 81] 1,155]2,599) 506 | 199 | 155 | 485 | 9,963 1920 | 3,013 58) 1,251] 1,883] 370 | 188 | 164 | 508 75435 1921 | 3,748] 43) 902/1,517| 505 | 147 | 157 | 357 7,376 1922 | 4,348] 551 1,170} 2,048) 553 | 178 | 137 | 454 | 8,943 4,247| 321| 1,213} 1,992 2 663 5,069} 397! 1,276] 2,176 other main areas of prospective development are africa and south america. the sudan, nigeria and uganda are the chief producing countries in africa outside of egypt, and in all three large projects for irrigation and railway or road transport are under way. in the union of south africa and in southern rhodesia considerable interest is also being taken, and, in the absence of other crops showing an equivalent or larger profit, early progress is to be expected. in south america, the chief centres of cultivation are brazil, argentina and peru. ‘the last named is an established cotton producing country of some importance. the other two, however, are together probably the foremost potential fields of the world, providing the oppor- tunities are properly exploited. the future—the future of cotton-growing in these new fields, including the new cotton areas of the united states, must depend very largely on the course of prices, 7.e., on the main- tenance of prices at a level which brings in a margin of profit after all costs of cultivation have been met. it is generally thought, however, that costs are much higher in the united states than in those areas where native tropical labour is avail- able, but unfortunately no reliable comparative data exist. the united states dept. of agriculture is practically alone in mak- ing a detailed research into costs. an examination was made for 1923 of the results obtained by 2,519 widely dispersed cotton farms. of these, 407 were estimated to present a reasonable return with yields averaging 124 lb. per acre. the average net cost of producing cotton on these farms was 22 cents per lb. of lint, and the average price received in that year was 30 cents. in subsequent years the improvement in the yield per acre would have reduced the costs, but it is not yet known whether the reduction in prices does not exceed the advantage gained. a price of 22 cents, however, is popularly regarded as adequate for most other cotton fields, although not holding out the prospect of large profits which has so far been the main stimulus. there is therefore a certain correlation between the quantity of cotton produced, plus the reserve carried over from one season to another, and the prices ruling during the season. the history of prices during the period under review is shown in the table (iv.) of average seasonal quotations compiled by prof. j. a. todd. crop forecasting—a factor, however, which disturbs the correlation between price and cultivation is the system of crop forecasting which has been set up by the united states dept. of agriculture. throughout the growing and picking season, 2.e., cotton table iv. liverpool prices (pence per lb.) american indian egyptian fully no, i. f.g.f. middling | good oomra brown iqio-!i 7-84 6:78 10:75 iqii-2 6:09 0°44 9°56 igi2-3 6:76 591 9°79 1913-4 7227 5°62 9°45 i914-$ 5°22 4°19 7°34 1915-6 7°51 5'79 10°42 1916-7 12°33 9°g2 21:56 e.g.f, sakellaridis 1917-8 21:68 16:10 30-97 1918-9 19°73 e7ts 27°85 1919-20 25°31 18-05 60°34 1920-1 11-89 8-21 30-24 1921=2 11-37 8-72 19°75 1922-3 14°92 10:25 17°29 1923-4 17:66 12:37 21°55 niddling 1924-5 13-76 ti -o4 29:82 from june to jan., the course of prices is governed by the official crop reports issued from washington, and, starting as they do some time before the cotton plant has sprouted, there is often a wide variation between the early official indications and the final yield. the crop reporting system, as established by 1925, entailed a preliminary estimate of acreage planted and in cultiva- tion on june 25, together with an estimate of the condition of the crop as expressed by a percentage of “ normal ”’ conditions for that date. from mid-july until the beginning of nov., these condition reports are issued twice a month, accompanied by an indication of the prospective total yield as calculated at the date of the report, and accompanied also from the beginning of aug. by the fortnightly ginning returns issued by the bureau of the census. the beginning of dec. also brings a revision of the acreage estimate, together with an estimate of acreage harvested, which is again revised in the following june. the final ginning return is issued in march. the collection of crop information is elaborate, and probably as complete as can be expected under the circumstances. it works well in seasons when the conditions keep fairly close to the average condition of previous seasons but it breaks down when there is a wide deviation from the average. the frequency with which reports are issued, and the complicated method of compilation, has tended to exasperate the cotton market, and some change is looked for in 1926. il, consumption turning from the question of supply to that of consumption, the first development to be considered is the growth of cotton manufacturing capacity. on this point accurate figures are available only for spinning spindles. weaving capacity, as ex- pressed in loom figures, is available for several countries, but in most of them only as an unreliable guess. the changes which have occurred since 1908 in the world distribution of cotton spindles are shown in table v. the gaps do not indicate an absence of spindles but an absence of data. the world’s total grew from 128,923,000 spindles in 1908 to 161,363,000 in 1925. in great britain there was no considerable cotton-mill building between 1908 and 1925. the french figures were swollen in post-war years by the separation of alsace- lorraine from germany, while the post-war russian figures are deceptive in that a high proportion of the unemployed spindleage must be in a bad state of disrepair. the european and world totals for 1920 are not strictly comparable, as no allowance is made for the russian spindles which must have been in opera- tion in that year. allowing for this discrepancy and for the destruction of spindleage in russia, an examination of the above figures shows that the only important changes in europe between 1913 and 1925 are territorial changes affecting i'rance, germany, austria, czechoslovakia, poland and russia. these changes are more important than mere alterations of nation- ality, for important industries have been separated, by means of tariffs, from the markets which they were built up to serve. cotton table v. distribution of cotton spindleage! (o00's omitted) ; aug. 31 | aug. 31 | july 31 | july 31 countries 1908 1913 1920 1925 europe great britain 52,818 | 55,653 | 58,692 | 57,116 france ; 6,731 7,400 9,400 9,428 germany 9,883 | 11,186 9,400 9,500 russia 7,855 9,213 aes 7 ,246° italy . 4,181 4,600 4,514 4,771 czechoslovakia “ ig 3,584 3,471 spain . . 1,850 2,000 1,800 1,813 belgium 1,162 1,492 1,572 1,788 switzerland 1,493 1,398 1,536 1,517 poland ss 1,400 1,172 austria 4,026 4,909 a 1,038 holland 396 479 597 817 sweden 390 534 67 555 portugal ; 450 48o 482 503 finland . = 25 240 253 den mark . ; ; 7 go 117 7 norway . «§ «=. «4 75 75 73 58 total europe 91,388 | 99,509 | 94,077 |i0i,12 asia india . 5,500 6,084 6,690 8,500 japan i ,637 2,300 3,690 5,292 china a ; 1,600 3,350 total asia 7137 8,384 | 11,980 | 17,142 a america usa. .. ea . | 27,846 | 31,505 | 35,872 | 37,937 canada. , : 795 855 1,200 1,319 mexico 8 i. 720 814 brazil - 1,600 1,950 total america . 28,641 | 32,360 | 39,392 | 42,020 sundries b767 3,200 250 1,077 grand total 128,923 [143.433 |145,699 | 161,363 1 doubling spindles excluded. ?only 4,203,056 actually in use. manufacturing capacity —for actual growth of manufactur- ing capacity, it is necessary to look further afield to regions which were encouraged to expand by the disturbance of shipping and europe’s concentration on war supplies between 1914 and 1918. spindles in india increased from 6,084,000 in 1913 to 8,500,000 in 1925. japan showed an increase from 2,300,000 spindles in 1913 to 5,292,000 in 1925, while a similar rate of progress was maintained by china. amongst american countries, canada expanded considerably, but the united states accounted for a larger increase than any other individual country in the world. the growth of the united states spindleage from 31,505,000 spindles in 1913 to 37,937,000 spindles in 1925, coinciding with the decline in the united states cotton crop, aroused the fear that the united states would soon be needing most of the cot- ton produced there, leaving only a negligible surplus for export. the development of the united states was also remarkable in that the growth of manufacturing capacity was located chiefly in the southern or cotton-growing states which, owing to natural advantages in freight, labour and power costs, raised a serious problem of competition for the older industry located in new england. : | manufacturing plant, however, is an illusory advantage for countries which are unable to use it. this failure to find full employment has been an important problem since the world war, but unfortunately no comparative statistics are available of the production of cotton cloth in the various countries of the world. the nearest approach to accuracy is to be found in the tables of cotton consumption on the following page. these are valuable for comparing the position of individual countries at different dates, but in comparing one country with another a gencrous allowance must be made for the fact that the finer the quality of production the smaller the quantity of raw material needed. thus great britain, working full time in 1912-3, consumed 4,274,000 bales of cotton on 55,500,000 spindles, while the united states, with only 31,500,000 spindles, con- sumed 5,786,000 bales. 7951 2h, 4 age lees 4 ay, vet 404th? eed : seers meld , ty ae ; { her wy y y | consumption | _ fic. 1.—total world production and consumption of cotton. (annual average 1922-3 to 1924-5.) : the annual averages compiled in table vii. show that after ignoring the countries which have lost or gained territory the only countries which are on a lower plane of manufacturing activity are great britain, italy and scandinavia, but this reduction is sufficient to cause a slight diminution in the world total of average consumption. the most conspicuous instances of an increase in aclivily are afforded by the united states and japan, while china would presumably figure in this list if pre- war statistics had been available. the small increase in india’s average consumption can be explained by the irregularity of em- ployment and the periodic over-production of cotton goods. the decline in british consumption is largely due to the growth of manufacturing capacity in other countries, especially in countries like india and china, which, however, still provide the two largest individual markets for british cotton goods. the high costs of labour in britain, the restriction of working hours, the financial disturbances of the post-war era and the high cost of raw material have also contributed to the restriction of an 752 cotton seed—courthope table vi. world's cotton consumption industry which is dependent largely on its export trade. in the (in thousands of bales) meantime, the u.s. industry, with a prosperous and protected season | season | season | season home market, has expanded, being dependent on the export 1912-3 | 1920-5 ; trade only for the disposal of surplus production. further ex- great britain france germany russia italy . : ‘ czechoslovakia pansion of manufacturing capacity, however, must necessitate greater attention to exports. in the interchange of cotton goods between nations, however, great britain maintains a long lead, although her position in several markets is seriously assailed by japan and italy. oe bistiograrny.—j. a. hutton, the cotton-growing resources of soi cian the fimpire (1917); g. bigwood, cotton (1918); w. l. balls, the cot- pola ton plani in egypt (1919); g. w. daniels, early english cotton austel industry (1920); w. e. dodd, the cotton kingdom (1920); n. m. hoilaas penzer, cotton in british west africa (1920); h. d. henderson, the saeien cotton conirel board (1922); j. hubback, institut international port iat d’agriculture, bureau of statistics, the cotton-growing countries’ finl aa production and trade (rome, 1922); j. a. todd, the world's cotton den oe crops (1923); t.s. miller, cotton trade guide and students’ manual n pees = (4th ed., 1923); f. j. cooper, textile chemistry, an introduction to pees the chemistry of the cotton industry (1924); j]. s. m. ward, textile lotal europe fibres and yarns, resources of fe british empire series (1923); : j. h. hubbock, the cotton growing countries, prescnt and potential india . (1926). see also the international year book of agricultural statistics j apan (rome); the annual american cotton reviews of the afanchester china guardian commercial, and the reports of the manchester cotlon total asia associaton, lid., the brilish colton-growing association publications, the review of the empire cotton-growing corporation; cotton facts u.s.a. (yearbook), 1878-1924; and reports of the memphis, savannah, canada new orleans and new york cotton exchanges. (o. j.) oe a a cotton seed: sce oils, fats and soaps. razil meeks ae es sem es se ees (ene 2 a (ees coue, emile (1857-1926), french psychotherapeutist, was total america. ee = born at troyes, france, on feb. 26 1857. from 1882 to 1910 he ginnie: 2 uk hk & was 2 chemist at troyes, and studied hypnotism and suggestion grand total . . |so17a 22.032 |17656 | 24204 | | from 1901 onwards with bernheim and liebault. he then de- veloped his own psychotherapeutical method of healing. in 1910 rt l ies. : nae : ‘ neludee hhaulanes he established a free clinic at nancy and there put his theories table vi. world's consumption of cotton into practice. coue’s system of therapeutics deals principally with (in thousands of baies) the power of imagination as opposed to that of the will and he os! claimed that by means of auto-suggestion ideas which tend to 2 oe cause illness a disease may be eliminated from the will. he - - : ~~ 2? { further claimed to have effected organic changes. coue invaria- scrar esol havo ee peensee nee tape te uty et 1928 s a. «| | bly stated with emphasis that he was not primarily a healer but ie vo] | one who taught others to heal themselves. his teaching and amer | east | egyp-| < total | & 5 «| | methods became widely known and he delivered lectures in eng- countries can indian} tian un- | ora | s46) | landand the united states. his famous formula, “ every day, cotton | cotton | cotton | 2s | kinds | “8% | | and in every way, i am becoming better and better,” is now great britain | 1,982 117 373 250 | 2,722 | 3,858 proverbial (see psychotherapy). he died at nancy, july 2 france... 736 143 84 62 | 1,028 985 1926. see c. baudouin, suggestion and auto-suggestion (1920). saat hie ae ae: za) mie (eon couperus, louis (1863-1923), dutch writer, was born at ussia . : 134 — 16 568 718 | 2,229 d ; } italy . . 584 250 41 “ii 886 g10 the hague june ro 1863 (see 8.728b). his early boyhood was czechoslo- spent in the dutch east indies, where his father was a prominent vakia 261 80 12 5 358 - government official. his first novel eline vere, written under se ‘-_* 26 lb 25)" 8 346 334 the influence of tolstoy, appeared in 1889, and was followed by elgium ; 130 126 4 6 265 23 a , ; switzerland 55 8 30 i 95 93 noodlot {the footsteps of fate) in 1894 and extaze, the first of poland... 145 32 6 10 194 7 his novels to be translated into english (1892). he next pro- austria zo 42 3 i 117 822 duced certain imaginative and idealistic works, such as afajestert holand: 19 23 me : a 83 (1895) and several volumes of prose poems. the work by which sweden ; 76 3 i a 80 103 : ; . ; fi portugal 48 . 2 33 23> 69 he is best known to the english-speaking world is the series of finland ; 30 cas ay be 30 rp ‘ books of the small souls,” four novels entitled die kleine denmark 18 i . - 19 23 zielen (the small souls), het late leven (the later life), zielen- norway: . | 7 | | tt schemering (the twilight of the soul), het helge weten (eng. total 6 646 x 3 version dr. adriaan) which together with van oude menschen, i soe) seer 2 at es - de dingen de voorbijgaan (old people and the things that pass, india... 25 | 2,195 7 38 | 2,263 | 2,183 eng. version 191g) raised him to the first rank of european japan... 682 | 1,530 30 132 | 2,373 | 1,392 novelists. couperus travelled much in greece and italy and em- china . ae eee _ 304 ft | 1,052 | 1.451 | | | 6podied his classical researches in historical romances such as de total asia bof \| 029 38 | 1,222 | 6,087 ey berg van licht (the mountain of light), de komedianten (the u.s.a... . | 5,575 20 144 84 | 5,823 | 5,128 comedian) and mythological romances such as dionyzos (1905) canada , 158 se i be 159 122 and herakles (1913), as wel] as volumes of essays, sketches and mexico ; 25 - i 121 146 - short stories. the greater part of his work has been rendered brazil 2. ] oe sof | sok |). | into english by a. teixeira de mattos. his historical novel total | e . iskander (concerning alexander the great) appeared in 1920. iow el a se aor 0029 i he died at de steeg, near arnhem, holland, july 16 1923. sundries. courthope, william john (1842-10917), british writer grand (see 7.327), died at wadhurst, sussex, april ro 1917. a volume total. : 20,930 | of verse, the country town and other poems, with a prefatory courtney, leonard h. c.—covenant memoir of him by a. o. prickard, appeared in 1920. sce also j. w. mackail, wv. j. courthope (1919). courtney, leonard henry courtney, ist baron (1832-1918), british politician (see 7.328), died in london may 11 1918, when his title became extinct. ilis brother, william prideaux courtney, died in london nov. 14 1913. courtney, william leonard (1850- ), british jour- nalist, was born at poona jan. 5 1850 and was educated at bath and university college, oxford. he was elected fellow of merton college in 1872 and of new college in 1876. in 1890 he left oxford and joined the editorial staff of te daily telegraph, london, where he spent many years as literary editor and dra- matic critic. he edited afurray’s magazine for a short time in 1890-1 and became editor of the fortnighily remew in 1894. his numerous published works include studies on philosophy (1882); life of john stuart mill (1889); kit marlowe (a drama in blank verse produced at the st. james’s theatre, london, in 1893); the feminine note in fiction (1904); the literary man's bible (1907); the seul of a suffragette (1913); the literary man’s new testament (1915); old saws and modern instances (1918); the passing hour (1925). he retired from editorial work on the duily telegraph in 1924. covenant.—the covenant of the league of nations formed part i. of the draft treaties of peace presented to the delegates of the german empire at versailles on may 7, and to those of austria at saint-germain on june 2 1919. it was subsequently incorporated in all the treaties of peace with other belligerents. it was provided that these treaties should come into force as soon as they had been ratified by germany and austria respec- tively, and by three of the principal allied and associated powers. the principal allied and associated powers comprised the brit- ish empire, france, italy, japan and the united states of amer- ica. the following articles embody (in italics) an amendment of article 6,in force from aug. 13 1924, and amendments of articles 12, 13 and rs, in force from sept. 26 1924. the high contracting parties, in order to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security— by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just and honourable relations between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of inter- national law as the actual rule of conduct among gov- ernments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of organised peoples with one another, agree to this covenant of the league of nations. article 1—the original members of the league of nations shall be those of the signatories which are named in the annex to this covenant, and also such of those other states named in the annex as shall accede without reservation to this covenant. such accession shall be effected by a declaration deposited with the secretariat within two months of the coming into force of the covenant. notice thereof shall be sent to all other members of the league. any fully self-governing state, dominion or colony not named in the annex may become a member of the league if its admission is agreed to by two-thirds of the assembly, provided that it shall give effective guarantees of its sincere intention to observe its inter- national obligations, and shall accept such regulations as may be prescribed by the teague in regard to its military, naval and air forces and armaments. any member of the league may, after two years’ notice of its intention so to do, withdraw from the league, provided that all its international obligations and all its obligations under this covenant shall have been fulfilled at the time of its withdrawal. article 2.—the action of the league under this covenant shall be effected through the instrumentality of an assembly and of a coun- cil, with a permanent secretariat. article 3—the assembly shall consist of representatives of the members of the league. the assembly shall meet at stated intervals and from time to time, as occasion may require, at the seat of the league, or at such other place as may be decided upon. the assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the league or affecting the peace of the world. 135 at meetings of the assembly each member of the league shall have one vote and may have not more than three representatives. ‘lrticle 4.—the council shall consist of representatives of the principal allied and associated powers, together with representa- tives of four other members of the league. these four members of the league shall be selected by the assembly from time to time in its discretion. until the appointment of the representatives of the four members of the league first selected by the assembly, repre- sentatives of belgium, brazil, spain and greece shall be members of the council.! with the approval of the majority of the assembly, the council may name additional members of the league whose representatives shall always be members of the council; the council, with hke approval, may increase the number of members of the league to be. selected by the assembly for representation on the council? the council shall meet from time to time as occasion may require, and at least once a year, at the seat of the league, or at such other place as may be decided upon. the council may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the league or affecting the peace of the world. any member of the league not represented on the council shall be invited to send a representative to sit as a member at any meet- ing of the council during the consideration of matters specially affecting the interests of that member of the league. at meetings of the council, each member of the league repre- sented on the council shall have one vote, and may have not more than one representative, article 5.—f-xcept where otherwise expressly provided in this covenant or by the terms of the present treaty, decisions at any meeting of the assembly or of the council shall require the agree- ment of all the members of the league represented at the meeting. all matters of procedure at meetings of the assembly or of the council, including the appointment of committees to investigate particular matters, shall be regulated by the assembly or by the council and may be decided by a majority of the members of the league represented at the meeting. | the first meeting of the assembly and the first meeting of the council shall be summoned by the president of the united states of america. article 6.—the permanent sccretariat shall be established at the seat of the league. the secretariat shall comprise a secretary- general and such secretaries and staff as may be required. the first secretary-general shall be the person named in the annex: thereafter the secretary-gencral shall be appointed by the council with the approval of the majority of the assembly. the secretaries and staff of the secretariat shall be appointed by the secretary-general with the approval of the council. the secretary-general shall act in that capacity at all meetings of the assembly and of the council. the expenses of the league shall be borne by the members of the league in the proportion decided by the assembly. article 7—the seat of the league is established at geneva. the council may at any time decide that the seat of the league shall be established elsewhere. all positions under or in connection with the league, including the secretariat, shall be open equally to men and women. representatives of the members of the league and officials of the league, when engaged on the business of the league, shall enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities, the buildings and other property occupied by the league or its officials or by representatives attending its meetings shall be inviolable, article 8—the members of the league recognise that the main- tenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety, and the enforce- ment by common action of international obligations. the council, taking account of the geographical situation and circumstances of each state, shall formulate plans for such reduction for the consideration and action of the several governments. such plans shall be subject to reconsideration and revision at least every ten years. after these plans shall have been adopted by the several govern- ments, the limits of armaments therein fixed shall not be exceeded without the concurrence of the council. ‘the members of the league agree that the manufacture by private enterprise of munitions and implements of war is open to grave ob- jections. the council shall advise how the evil effects attendant upon such manufacture can be prevented, due regard being had to the ne- cessities of those members of the league whichare not able to manu- facture the munitions and implements of war necessary for their safety. 1the second assembly, oct. 5 1921, proposed an amendment by which the following clause should be inserted between the second and third paragraphs: , ‘*the assembly shall fix by a two-thirds majority the rules dealing with the election of the non-permanent members of the council, and particularly such regulations as relate to their term of office and the conditions of re-eligibility.”” this amendment had not come into force in april 1926. = the number of members of the council selected by the assembly was increased to six instead of four by a resolution of sept. 25 1922. 794 the members of the league undertake to interchange full and frank information as to the scale of their armaments, their military, naval and air programmes and the condition of such of their in- dustries as are adaptable to warlike purposes. article 9.—a permanent commission shall be constituted to ad- vise the council on the execution of the provisions of articles 1 and 8 and on military, naval and air questions generally. article ro.—the members of the league undertake to respect and preserve, as against-external aggression, the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members of the league. in case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression, the council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shail be fulflled. article ir.—any war or threat of war, whether immediately affecting any of the members of the league or not, is hereby de- clared a matter of concern to the whole league, and the league shall take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safe- guard the peace of nations. in case any such emergency should arise, the secretary-gencral shall, on the request of any member of the league, forthwith summon a meeting of the council. it is also declared to be the friendly right of each member of the league to bring to the attention of the assembly or of the council any circumstance whatever affecting international relations which threatens to disturb international peace or the good under- standing between nations upon which peace depends. article 12.— the members of the league agree that, if there should arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rupture they will submit the matter either to arbitration or judicial seitlement or to enquiry by the council, and they agree in no case to resort to war until three months after the award by the arbitrators or the judictz! deciston, or the report by the council. in any case, under this article the award of the arbitrators or the judical decision shall be made within a reasonable time, and the report of the council shall be made within six months after the submission of the dispute. article 13.—the members of the leaguc agree that, whenever any dispute shall arise between them which they recognise to be suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlemeni, and which cannot be satisfactorily settled by diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject-matter to arbitration or judicial setilement. disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international flaw, as to the existence of any fact which, if estab- lished, would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among those which are gencrally suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement, for the consideration of any such dispute, the court to which the case is referred shall be the permanent court of international justice, es- tablished in accordance with article 14, or any tribunal agreed on by the parties tothe dispute or stipulated 1n any convention extsting between them. the members of the league agree that they will carry out in full good faith any award or decision that may be rendered, and that they will not resort to war against a member of the league which complies therewith. in the event of any faijure to carry out such an award or decision, the council shall propose what steps should be taken to give effect thereto. article 14,—the council shall formulate and submit to the members of the league for adoption plans for the establishment of a permanent court of international justice. the court shall be competent to hear and determine any dispute of an international character which the parties thereto submit to it. the court thay also give an advisory opinion upon any dispute or question referred to it by the council or by the assembly. | | article 15.—if there should arise between members of the league any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, which is not submitted to arbitration or judicial settlement in accordance with article 13, the members of the league agree that they will submit the matter to the council. any party to the dispute may effect such submission by giving notice of the existence of the dispute to the secretary- general, who will make all necessary arrangements for a full in- vestigation and consideration thereof. a for this purpose the parties to the dispute will communicate to the secretary-general, as promptly as possible, statements of their case with all the relevant facts and papers, and the council may forthwith direct the publication thereof. | the council shall endeavour to effect a settlement of the dispute, and, if such efforts are successful, a statement shall be made public giving such facts and explanations regarding the dispute and the terms of settlement thereof as the council may deem appropriate. if the dispute is not thus settled, the council, either unanimously or by a majority vote, shall make and publish a report containing a statement of the facts of the dispute and the recommendations which are deemed just and proper in regard thereto. any member of the league represented on the council may make public a statement of the facts of the dispute and of its conclusions regarding the same. if a report by the council is unanimously agreed to by the mem- bers thereof, other than the representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute, the members of the league agree that they will not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with the recommendations of the report. covenant if the council fails to reach a report which is unanimously agreed to by the members thereof, other than the representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute, the members of the league re- serve to themselves the right to take such action as they shall con- sider necessary for the maintenance of right and justice. if the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, and is found by the council to arise out of a matter which by inter- national law ts solely within the domestic jurisdiction of that party, the council shall so report, and shall make no recommendation as to its settlement. the council may in any case under this article refer the dispute to the assembly. the dispute shall be so referred at the request of either party to the dispute provided that such request be made within fourteen daysafter the submission of the dispute to the council. in any case referred to the assembly, all the provisions of this article and of article 12, relating to the action and powers of the council, shall apply to the action and powers of the assembly, provided that a report made by the assembly, if concurred in by the representatives of those members of the league represented on the council, and of a majority of the other members of the leaguc, exclusive in each case of the representatives of the partics to the dispute, shall have the same force as a report by the council con- curred in by all the members thereof other than the representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute. article 16.—should any member of the league resort to war in disregard of its covenants under articles 12, (3 or 15, it shall ¢pse facto be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other members of the league, which hereby undertake immediately to subject it to the severance of all trade or financial relations, the siohibitied of all intercourse between their nationals and the na- tionals of the covenant-breaking state, and the prevention of all financial, commercial or personal intercourse between the nationals of the covenant-breaking state and the nationals of any other state, whether a member of the league or not. it shall be the duty of the council in such case to recommend to the several governments concerned what effective military, naval or air force the members of the league shall severally contribute to the armed forces to be used to protect the covenants of the league. the members of the league agree, further, that they will mutually support one another in the financial and economic measures which are taken under this article, in order to minimise the loss and in- convenience resulting from the above measures, and that they will mutually support one another in resisting any special measures aimed at one of their number by the covenant-breaking state, and that they will take the necessary steps to afford passage through their territory to the forces of any of the members of the league which are co-operating to protect the covenants of the league. any member of the league which has violated any covenant of the league may be declared to be no longer a member of the league by a vote of the council concurred in by the representatives of all the other members of the league represented thercon.! article 17.—in the event of a dispute between a member of the league and a state which is not a mlember of the league, or hetween states not mlembers of the league, the state or states not members of the league shall be invited to accept the obligations of member- 1the second assembly, oct. 4 1921, proposed that :article 16, paragraph 1, be amended to read: ‘should any alember of the league resort to war in disregard of its covenants under articles 12, 13 or 15, it shall tpso facto be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other members of the league, which hereby undertake immediately to subject it to the severance of all trade or financial relations, the prohibition of all intercourse hetween persons residing in their territory and persons residing in the territory of the covenant-breaking state, and the prevention of all financial, commercial or personal intercourse between persons residing in the territory of the covenant-breaking state and persons residing in the territory of any other state, whether a member of the league or not.” on sept. 27 1924 the fifth assembly expressed the view that “it is no longer opportune for further members of the league to ratify the said amendment ”’ to article 16, paragraph 1, and rec- ommended “ in place thereof’ the following: “ the latter part of the first paragraph of article 16 of the cove- nant shall read as follows: * which hereby undertakes immediately to subject it to the severance of all trade or financial relations and to prohibit all intercourse at least between persons resident within their territories and persons resident within the territory of the covenant-breaking state and, if they deem it expedient, also between their nationals and the nationals of the covenant-breaking state, and to prevent all financial, commercial or personal intercourse at least between persons resident within the territory of that state and persons resident within the territory of any other state, whether a member of the league or not, and if they deem it expedient, also between the nationals of that state and the nationals of any other state, whether a member of the league or not.’ ”’ the second assembly, oct 4 1921, also proposed to insert the three following paragraphs between paragraphs i and 2 of the original text: “ tt is for the council to give an opinion whether or not a breach of the covenant has taken place. in deliberations on this question in covenant ship in the league for the purposes of such dispute, upon such condi- tions as the council may deem just. if such invitation is accepted, the provisions of articles 12 to 16 inclusive shall be applied with such modifications as may be deemed necessary by the council. upon such invitation being given, the council shall immediately institute an enquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and recommend such action as may seem best and most effectual in the circumstances. if a state so invited shall refuse to accept the obligations of membership in the league for the purposes of such dispute, and shall resort to war against a member of the league, the provisions of article 16 shall be applicable as against the state taking such action. if both parties to the dispute, when so invited, refuse to accept the obligations of membership in the league for the purposes of such dispute, the council may take such measures ancl make such recom- mendations as will prevent hostilities and will result in the settle- ment of the dispute. article 18.—every treaty or international engagement entered into hereafter by any member of the league shall be forthwith registered with the secretariat, and shall, as soon as possible, be published by it. no such treaty or international engagement shall be binding until so registered. article 19.—the assembly may from time to time advise the reconsideration by members of the league of treatics which have become inapplicable, and the consideration of international! condi- tions whose continuance might endanger the peace of the world. article 20.—the members of the league severally agree that this covenant is accepted as abrogating all obligations or understandings inter se which are inconsistent with the terms thereof, and solemnly undertake that they will not hereafter enter into any engagements inconsistent with the terms thereof. in case any member of the league shall, before becoming a mem- ber of the league, have undertaken any obligations inconsistent with the terms of this covenant, it shall be the duty of such member to take immediate steps to procure its release fram such obligations. article 21.—nothing in this covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbitration, or regional understandings like the monroe doctrine, for securing the maintenance of peace. article 22.—to those colonies and territories, which as a con- sequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the states which formerly governed them, and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world, there should be applied the prin- ciple that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilisation, and that securities for the performance of this trust should be embodied in this covenant. the best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations who, by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position, can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, and that this tutelage should be exer- cised by them as mandatories on behalf of the league. the character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of the devclopment of the people, the geographical situation of the territory, its economic conditions and other similar circumstances. certain communities formerly belonging tothe turkish empire have reached a stage of development where their existence as independ- ent nations can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. the wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the mandatory. other pcoples, especially those of central africa, are at such a stage that the mandatory must be responsible for the administra- tion of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases, and of military training of the natives for other than police purposes and the council the votes of members of the league alleged to have resorted to war and of members against whom such action was directed shall not be counted. “ the council will notify to all members of the league the date which it recommends for the application of the economic pressure under this article. ** nevertheless, the council may, in the case of particular mem- bers, postpone the coming into force of any of these measures for a specified period where it is satisfied that such a postponement will facilitate the attainment of the object of the measures referred to in the preceding paragraph, or that it is necessary in order to minimise the loss and inconvenience which will be caused to such members.” the sixth assembly, sept. 21 1925, proposed that the following amendment should be made to paragraph 2 of the original text (which becomes paragraph § of the text as amended in 1921):— “the words ‘in such case’ in the second paragraph of the original text of article 16 of the covenant shall be deleted.” none of these proposed amendments had come into force by april 1926. 755 the defence of territory, and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other members of the league. there are territorics, such as southwest africa and certain of the south pacific islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their popula- tion, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population. _in every case of mandate, the mandatory shall render to the council an annual report in reference to the territory committed to its charge. the degrce of authority, control or administration to be exercised by the mandatory shall, if not previously agreed upon by the members of the league, be explicitly defined in each case by the council, a permanent commission shall be constituted to receive and examine the annua) reports of the mandateries and to advise the council on all matters relating to the observance of the mandates. article 23.—subject to and in accordance with the provisions of international conventions existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the members of the league— (a) will endeavour to secure and maintain fair and humane condi- tions of labour for men, women and children, both in their own coun- tries and in all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations extend, and for that purpose will establish and maintain the necessary international organisations. (6) undertake to secure just treatment of the native inhabitants of territories under their control. (c) will entrust the league with the general supervision over the execution of agreements with regard to the trafhe in women and children, and the trafhe in opium and other dangerous drugs. (dq) will entrust the league with the general supervision of the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest. (ce) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of com- munications and of transit and equitable treatment for the commerce of all members of the league. in this connection, the special! neces- sities of the regions devastated during the war of 1914-8 shall be borne in mind. | (f) will endeavour to take steps in matters of international con- cern for the prevention and control of disease. article 24.—there shall be placed under the direction of the league all international bureaux already established by general treaties if the parties to such treatics consent. all such international bureaux and all commissions for the regulation of matters of international interest hereafter constituted shall be placed under the direction of the league. in all matters of international interest which are regulated by general conventions, but which are not placed under the control of international bureaux or commissions, the secretariat of the league shall, subject to the consent of the council, and if desired by the parties, collect and distribute all relevant information, and shail render any other assistance which may be necessary or desirable. the council may include as part of the expenses of the secretariat the expenses of any bureau or commission which is placed under the direction of the league. | article 25.—the members of the league agree to encourage and promote the establishment and co-operation of duly authorised voluntary national red cross organisations having as purposes the improvement of health, the prevention of disease and the mitigation of suffering throughout the world. article 26.—amendments to this covenant will take effect when ratified by the members of the league whose representatives com- pose the council, and by a majority of the members of the league whose representatives compose the assembly. no such amendments shall bind any member of the league which signifies its dissent therefrom, but in that case it shall cease to be a member of the league.! 'the second assembly, oct. 3 1921, proposed that article 26 should be amended as follows: — ‘“amendments to the present covenant the text of which shall have been voted by the assembly on a three-fourths majority, in which there shall be included the votes of all the members of the council represented at the mecting, will take effect when ratified by the members of the league, whose representatives composed the council when the vote was taken and by the majority of those whose representatives form the assembly. “if the required number of ratifications shall not have been ob- tained within twenty-two months after the vote of the assembly, the proposed amendment shall remain without effect. “the secretary-gencral shall inform the members of the taking effect of an amendment, ‘any member of the league which has not at that time ratified the amendment ts free to notify the secretary-general within a year of its refusal to accept it, but in that case it shall cease to be a member of the league.” this amendment had not come into force by april 1926. 756 coventry, england (see 7.342), had a population of 128,205 in 1921, this figure showing a considerable increase since 1911. in 1923 the estimate was 131,200. thearea of the borough is 4,147 acres. the normal engineering industries of coventry were largely changed during the world war to the production of munitions, including aeroplanes, tanks and guns. among indus- tries established since 1910 are the making of artificial silk and of telephone and other electrical apparatus. parliamentary powers were obtained in 1920 for the widening of several narrow streets and the construction of two new arterial roads in the centre of the city. a new council house, costing £100,000, was opened in 1920, and three branch public libraries in 1913; the tower of holy trinity church and the guildhall were restored. coventry was created a separate diocese in 1918, the church of st. michael being made the cathedral. three new parishes have been formed in the city since 1910: st. margaret, st. barbara and radford. a roman catholic church has been built in hare- field road. sir thomas white’s school and the industrial school were acquired in ror1o for enlarging the hospital and housing the staff. in 1917 there was trouble over the activities of the shop stewards; and, in nov. 1917, 50,000 workers went on strike. an effort was made to build a large number of houses on the radford estate to the west of the city in 1925. cowans, sir john steven (1862-10921), british soldier, was born march 11 1862, and commissioned in the rifle brigade, 1881. after early service in india, he graduated at the staff college in 1892, and shortly after joined the newly formed mobilisation section at the war office. here he helped to lay the foundations not only of the mobilisation schemes—for future test in 1899 and 1914, but of his own mastery of detail and war organisation. in 1898 he supervised the transportation of the troops for the sudan campaign, then, after a spell in the war office at aldershot, he became director of military education in india, under lord kitchener. in 1908 came his one brief spell in command of troops—the bengal presidency brigade. in 1910 he returned home and was appointed director-general of the territorial force, and his success was rewarded by his advance- ment to quartermaster-general of the forces in 1912, his last post. this he held until 1919, the one continuous member of the army council throughout the war. his amazing energy and organising genius kept pace with his task, and the universal recognition of his success was aptly shown in his popular title of “ the greatest quartermaster-gencral since moses.” in march 1919 he retired from the army and he died at mentone on april 16 1921. cowdray, weetman dickinson pearson, 1st viscount (1856- ), was born at shelley woodhouse, yorks., july 15 1856, and educated privately at ilarrogate. he entered the family firm of s. pearson & co., contractors, ultimately becoming its head. under him the firm greatly extended, undertaking many important contracts and acquiring large interests 1n mexico and south america. in 1895 he was elected liberal member for colchester, holding his seat until 1910. in 1894 he was creat- ed a baronet, and in roro was raised to the peerage. he was in 1917 made president of the air board, and the same year was created a viscount. he was elected lord rector of aberdeen university in 1918. cox, james middleton (1870- ), american politician, was born near jacksonburg, o., march 31 1870. after being educated in the common schools, he worked in a newspaper office, and for a short time was a country school teacher. later he be- came a reporter on the cincinnati enquirer. in 1898 he pur- chased the dayton news and five years later the springfield press-repubdlic, subsequently named the daily news. in 1923 he purchased the canton daily news and the miami (fla.) afeirop- olis, which later became the miami daily news. from 1909 to 1913 he was a member of congress for the dayton district. he was governor of ohio 1913-5 and 1917~21. his career as governor was notable. among the reforms introduced under his guidance were a workmen’s compensation law; the elimination of the sweatshop; the establishment of a state industrial commission for dealing with questions of labour and capital; the provision of a minimum wage and a nine-hour day for women; mothers’ coventry—craig, edith pensions; a blue-sky law for protecting investors from unscrupu- lous promoters; the initiative and referendum; the establishment of a state tuberculosis hospital and the extension of safety devices on railways and in mines. he was energetic in suppressing violence in connection with strikes, his general policy being to hold local authorities responsible without recourse to the state militia. he favoured the abolition of the federal inheritance tax, believing that the state alone should have jurisdiction over inheritances. he was a strong supporter of president wilson’s policies and especially of the leagueof nations. he was charged with opposing prohibition, but repeatedly declared that all laws must be enforced. at the democratic national convention in 1920 he received the presidential nomination, but was over- whelmingly defeated by mr. iiarding, the republican nominee. the electoral vote was 404 for harding and 127 for cox. the popular vote was 16,152,200 for harding and 9,147,353 for cox. the vote in ohio, the home state of both candidates, was 1,182,- 022 for harding and 780,037 for cox. cox, kenyon (1856-10919), american painter (see 7.353), died in new york march 17 1919. in 1910 he was awarded the medal of honour for mural painting by the architectural league. in 1912 he published the classic point of view, being lectures delivered that year before the chicago art institute. other works are artist and public (1914, largely reprints from periodicals); winslow homer (1914); and concerning painting (1917). cracow, poland (see 7.359), had a population in 1921 of 181,700, of whom 152,590 were poles. it is the capital of the province of the same name, the third city in poland, and an industrial centre. a ukrainian university, a mining academy and a fine arts academy have been inaugurated. cracow is the seat of a roman catholic archbishop. craddock, charles egbert (18s0-1922), american author (see 7.360), died at murfreesboro, tenn., july 31 1922. her latest works were ordeal (1912); raid of the guerilla (1912); and the story of duciehurst (1914). cradock, sir christopher george francis maurice (1862-1914), british admiral, was born july 2 1862 at hartforth, yorkshire. he entered the naval service in 1875, and served in the egyptian war in 1882 and the sudanese expedition of 1891. in 1900 he commanded the british naval brigade at the capture of the taku forts and the relief of peking. after taku he was promoted captain and received the china medal for gallantry. in 1910 he was promoted rear-admiral and in 1912 received the kk.c.v.o. early in the world war he was given command of a small british squadron in the pacific, consisting of the cruisers ‘“ good hope ” and “ monmouth,” an armed merchantman and one light cruiser. on nov. 1 1914 this squadron encountered five german warhips, the “‘ scharnhorst,” “‘ gneisenau,” ‘‘ leip- zig,” “* dresden,” ‘‘ niirnberg.’’ though inferior in speed and gunfire he decided to attack, and the battle of coronel was fought. as a result, the “ monmouth” was sunk and adm. cradock went down in his flagship, the ‘‘ good hope,” which was blown up while making forshore. (see coronel, battle of; falkland isiands, battle of the.) craig, edith (1869- ), british theatrical producer, daughter of dame ellen terry, was born dec. 9 1869. she made her first appearance on the stage at the court theatre during the run of “ olivia ” and subsequently played many parts both in england and america. she studied at the royal academy of music and at berlin, and at one time was engaged in the making and designing of costumes for london productions. later she was mainly employed in stage-management and play production, and in addition to her purely theatrical enterprises, she both produced and acted in a number of cinema plays. her brother, edwarp gordon craig (born jan. 16 1872), was educated at bradfield college and the university of heidel- berg. his first stage appearance was at the court theatre, london, in “ olivia.”” he, later, went to live in florence, where he devoted much study to the art of the theatre. he was a fre- quent contributor to the afask, and his book, the theatre ad- vancing (1921), is his most noteworthy contribution to the sub- ject of the art of the stage. craig, sir james—cricket craig, sir james (1871- ), irish politician, was born jan. 81871,asonof james craig of craigavon, co. down, a belfast business man. coming of pure scottish stock, he was educated at merchiston school, edinburgh, and destined for a business career. this was interrupted by the south african war of 1899- 1902, when he joined the royal irish rifles. on his return from that war he was gradually drawn into politics, and after a first failure in fermanagh he won back for the unionist party one of the seats in his native county of down in 1906. in and out of parliament he was in the confidence of sir edward carson, and when, in 1914, it was decided to offer armed resistance to what ulster unionists regarded as the threatened destruction of their rights of citizenship in the united kingdom, he shouldered a prominent share of the work and the risk. the world war brought a partial truce at home. belfast was one of the best recruiting centres in the kingdom and col. craig devoted his energies to recruiting and organising the 36th (ulster) division. when the coalition govt. was formed in 1916, he was appointed treasurer of the household. in 1919 he was parliamentary secretary to the ministry of pensions, and in 1920 financial secretary to the admiralty. when the govt. of ireland act, 1920, came into force he resigned his office and his seat in the imperial parliament and became prime minister of northern ireland. in 1918 he was created a baronet, and in 1921 a privy councillor. the govt., under sir james craig’s leadership, promptly got to work, the ulster parliament being opened by the king in person in the spring of 1921. after a period of incendiarism and bloodshed unparalleled in irish his- tory, the impcrial govt. agreed on a truce, and at a conference held in downing street, ‘articles of agreement for a treaty ”’ were drawn up and duly passed into law by the imperial parlia- ment in 1922 (see iristi free state; ireland, northern). sir james craig and the northern parliament promptly repu- diated the conference and the treaty arising from it and contin- ued to carry on the government of the six counties allotted to them by the act of 1920, the republican section of the sinn fein party, defeated in the dail, also repudiated the treaty, and strife and bloodshed again broke out. the two irish govern- ments concerned succeeded, however, in restoring order, and when the country was once more at rest, a boundary commission, nominated by the imperial govt. and the govt. of the irish free state (the northern govt. still standing aloof) was appointed and set to work late in 1924. there followed a year of peace, during which an education act and a licensing act stand prominently to the credit of sir james craig’s administration. the northern govt. paid little atten- tion to the proceedings of the commission, but when the time approached for the commission to deliver its award the situation again became acute. several conferences were held in downing street in which mr. baldwin, mr. churchill, sir w. joynson- hicks and mr. amery on the one hand and sir james craig and mr. cosgrave, the premier of southern ireland on the other, took part with the most satisfactory results. on the night of dec. 3 1925 a comprehensive agreement was signed for the final and definite settlement of all outstanding differences, territorial or financial, affecting alike the relations between the two states in ireland and ireland and the united kingdom. the agree- ment was promptly ratified by the imperial parliament and the parliament of northern ircland and, after some heated discus- sion, by the dublin parliament also. sir james craig is entitled to claim that his firm stand for the integrity of northern ireland, as defined by the act of 1920, has been crowned with complete success. (j. r. f1.) cram, ralph adams (1863- __+), american architect, was born at hampton falls, n.h., dec. 16 1863. he was educated at the westford (mass.) academy and the exeter (n.h.) high school. he studied architecture and in 1889 opened an architect’s office in boston. recognised as an authority on mediaeval architecture and an able advocate of the gothic style, he was appointed architect for the cathedral of st. john the divine, new york, in rg11, and consulting architect for the washington and san francisco cathedrals. he was professor of architecture 7957 at the massachusetts institute of technology, 1914-21, and was the first chairman of the boston city planning board, 1915—22. his numerous writings include church building (1901); the ruined abbeys of great britain (1905); impressions of japanese “architecture and the allied arts (1905); the gothic quest (1907); the afinisiry of art (1914); iteart of europe (1915); the substance of gothte (1916, lowell lectures) ; the nemesis of mediocrity (1918); the great thousand years (1918); the sins of the fathers (1919); walled towns (1919); gold, frankincense and myrrh (1919); and towards the great peace (1922). cramp, charles henry (1828-1913), american sap builder (see 7.363), died in philadelphia june 6 1013. crane, walter (1845-1915), british artist (see 7.366), died at horsham, sussex, march 14 1915. crane, william henry (1845-1922), ameen actor (see 7.367), died in dublin, ireland, april 29 1922. crawford, 26th earl of ghi-46: 3), british astronomer and orientalist (see 7.385), died in london jan. 31 1913. he was succeeded as 27th earl by his son, davin alexander edward lindsay (b. 1871). the latter published donatello (1903) and the evolution of italian sculpiure (1910). as lord balcarres he was a unionist m.p. from 1895 to 1913. in 1916 he was appointed president of the board of agriculture in mr. asquith’s govt., and he served under mr. lloyd george (1916-22) as lord privy seal, chancellor of the duchy of lancaster, and first commissioner of works, being admitted to the cabinet in 1922. credit: see banking; currency. crewe, robert offley ashburton crewe-milnes, ist marquess of (185s- ), english politician and man of letters (see 7.432), remained leader of the house of lords till dec. 1916. though he was not lord granville’s equal in the difficult task of endeavouring to win the peers’ assent to un- palatable radical measures, he contrived, by his courtesy and charm, to retain their liking and respect throughout the critical period beginning with the budget of rgoe9. he succeeded lord morley at the india office in nov. 1910, and attended, as secretary of state, the king and queen on their visit to india in the winter of 1911~2. he was responsible for the high acts of policy announced at the delhi durbar; the removal of the capital of india from calcutta to delhi, and the reunion of the two bengals under a governor-in-council. at the coro- nation of king george he was created a marquis. in the first coalition govt. he was lord president of the council, but he followed mr. asquith in declining to take office under mr. lloyd george and continued for six years to lead the independent liberal opposition in the lords. in nov. 1922 he quitted active party politics, accepting from mr. bonar law the post of british ambassador in paris. in the anxious period of m. poincare’s ministry and the ruhr expedition, when british and french policy became seriously divergent, his tactful diplomacy helped to prevent any actual breach of the entente; and he acquired considerable authority in the ambassadors’ conference. cricket (sce 7.435).—in 1911 cricket had not yet spread its tentacles so widely over the earth as it has done since the war. the game was, however, in a healthy condition. in england, warwickshire, for the first time, won the championship, the whole season providing one long triumph for f. r. foster, the warwickshire captain, who headed both the batting and bowling averages of his county team. another factor of the 1911 season was the bowling strength of the gentlemen’s side, through the medium of j. w. ii. t. douglas, f. r. foster, p. r. le conteur and w. brearley. the gentlemen defeated the players at lord’s by 130 runs, and drew with them at the oval. english team in australia—the m.c.c. team which sailed for australia in sept. of that year and which c. b. fry was invited to captain, was chosen with the greatest care, and was probably better balanced than any side england had previously put into the field. unfortunately, c. b. fry could not accept the committee’s invitation and the captaincy devolved upon p. f. warner. at this period the m.c.c. selectors were firmly of the opinion that it was time for youth to be served and, al- though the inclusion of 10 new choices was criticised, they stuck 758 to their policy of blending youth with experience. hitch had only just attained his 25th year, while foster, woolley, meac, smith and hearne were all under that age. results justified the selection and four test matches out of five were won. to england's success the bowling of barnes and foster and, in a jesser degree, that of douglas contributed, while hobbs and rhodes batted superbly. the australian wickets were perfect, but these bowlers kept a superb length, and it was their pace off the pitch that really won the rubber. the austrahans, them- selves, endorsed the general opinion that barnes is the greatest bowler on all wickets that cricket has yet produced. he had every good quality, spin, break both ways, flight, accuracy and consistency. in the rotr period, and particularly on the australian tour, the english fielding was excellent. smith kept wicket superbly, especially to i’. r. foster, his own county captain; hobbs ran out 15 men during the tour, and woolley made six catches in one test match in the slips. hobbs and rhodes were a tremen- dous asset to the side as first wicket batsmen. the former made three centuries in succession and stood out as the champion batsman of the world. it was noteworthy of a great partnership that they made many short runs and yet never needed to call each other. warner was laid low by a serious illness after the first match, and douglas captained the side. the standard of english cricket at that time is perhaps best exemplified, by quoting the complete record of the australian tour, which was 18 matches played, 12 won, 5 drawn and x lost. on their return to england, more- over, the m.c.c. team played the rest of england, at lord's and beat them decisively by an innings and ro runs. the triangular tournament.—from the international point of view, the great feature of the 1912 season was the triangular tournament between england, australia and south africa. it was a season of wretchedly wet weather, and this to a large extent spoilt county cricket, which was further overshadowed by the greater event. the south africans were not up to the standard of international cricket, and, to make matters still worse, a dispute arose between the leading cricketers in aus- tralia and the board of control. the result was that neither hill, trumper, armstrong, ransford, cotter nor carter made the tour, thus robbing australia of a great deal of her strength. england, as in the previous year, had a fine side, and although they did not once bat on a good wicket, their play was conspicu- ously better than that of their rivals. c. b. fry, the captain, got the very best out of his men, hobbs was equally at home whatever the state of the ground and rhodes came off against the australians, but failed against the south africans, this state of affairs being reversed in the case of r. hi. spooner. barnes bowled as well as ever, but woolley was undoubtedly the great all-rounder of the side. of the australians bardsley and kelleway batted brilliantly in the test matches against the south africans, while macart- ney proved himself a master of nearly every scoring stroke. whitty and hazlitt were consistently successful as bowlers, and matthews performed the unprecedented feat of bringing off a double bat trick against south africa at old trafford, manches- ter. emery, a googly bowler, of the pace of j. t. ifearne, was, on his day and when he had struck his length, an absolute match winner. the south africans, who lost five of their six test matches, had two fine bowlers in pegler and faulkner, the latter one of the greatest all-rounders in the history of cricket. these two were called upon to do nearly all the bowling, but received little support, nor could their batsmen cope with the bowling of barnes. on figures, nourse was the best of the south african batsmen, but, in point of technique, h. w. taylor was his superior. | the season of 1913.-—fine weather favoured the 1913 season. no dominion teams toured england that year, so english county cricket came into its own, and the championship was won by kent. the players, captained by rhodes, had a par- ticularly strong side, comprising hobbs, tarrant, mead, j. w. hearne, woolley, quaife, a. e. relf, booth, e. j. smith and cricket barnes. the gentlemen’s side was distinguished for the bowling of simms and falcon, and the all-round excellence of these two and foster, douglas, s$. g. smith and p. h. fender. the war pertod—the year of the outbreak of war, ror4, witnessed the centenary of lord’s ground, which had been moved roo years before from where dorset square now stands. the centenary was celebrated by a match between the m.c.c. team, which had recently returned from a successful tour in south africa, and the rest of england, the latter winning easily by an innings. the players defeated the gentlemen at the oval that year, but the feature of the match at lord’s when the latter took their revenge, was the wonderful bowling of douglas, who was on continuously except for three-quarters of an hour. his analysis read:— runs wickets 105 9 in the second innings he took four wickets for 67 runs. partnered by foster they were, perhaps, the finest pair of bowlers the gentlemen have ever had. owing to the outbreak of the great war the concluding matches in the county championship between surrey and sus- sex, and surrey and leicestershire, were not played. it was officially stated that the m.c.c. had decided to regard surrey as the winners of the championship, in view of the fact that middlesex offered no objection, as they might have done, on the grounds that surrey had not completed their programme. the effects of the war were very far reaching. the game was played spasmodically behind the lines, and mm the schools, but it must be remembered, however, that the standard of instruc- tion could not possibly be maintained during the years of strife. almost daily, good cricketers were falling upon the field of battle, while, at the best, others were being deprived of years of practice. cricket after the world war.—in 1919 the game was resumed and it is noteworthy of the post-war period that great progress has been made in denmark and holland, in which countries the school-boys are exceptionally keen. there is keenness in bel- gium, too, where a flourishing club exists in brussels. perhaps as a result of the war and the british occupation, the game is being played by the germans. in england the crowds which attend important matches are both larger and more critical than they were in pre-war days. in scotland the schools play cricket, and there has been a good deal of improvement owing to the tours of english teams. the furtherance of the game in ireland has always provided an uphill task, but since the war the irish have asked for more and better cricket. dublin university is still the great stronghold of the game, but, unfortunately, the irish schoolboy is not as keen on cricket as he might be. in australia the enthusiasm is even greater than in england, witnessed by the fact that the crowds at the test matches in 1924-5 completely eclipsed all previous records. generally speaking it may be said that since the war the sway of cricket has spread across all the earth, until it now flourishes in such widely separated countries as england and australia, hongkong and the west indies. | the season of r919.—luckily, for cricket enthusiasts, the post- war resumption of the game was blessed by a season of good weather. on the other hand, the imposition upon county matches of a two days limit of play was a risky proceeding, which might well have caused irreparable damage. the appearance in england of the australian imperial forces cricket team was a godsend. they did much to combat the heresy of the new innovation, by allotting three days to each of their matches, the position being still further strengthened by the m.c.c. also refusing 10 counte- nance the two days idea. the australian imperial forces team, at first captained by kelleway, and subsequently by collins, contained outstanding cricketers in gregory, taylor, pellew and olkifheld. other distinctive features of the 1919 season were the batting of d. j. knight and the bowling of douglas. both represented the gentlemen against the players at lord’s, where knight overs maidens 38:2 § cricket played two beautiful innings of 71 and 124 respectively, while douglas took eight wickets for 49 runs in the players first innings. for the players, hobbs proved himself to be as great a batsman as ever, scoring 120 not out at the oval, 2 and 113 at lord’s and 120 at scarborough, thus beating the record for these games which had previously stood to the credit of w. g. grace. one feature was very noticeable; this, the bowling of the players was not anything like up to pre-war standard. the season of 1920.—it was in 1920 that cricket really com- menced its new lease of life. middlesex secured the county championship, their victory over surrey in the final match at lord’s being signalised by scenes of extraordinary excitement. at the beginning of aug. the chance of middlesex attaining championship honours had seemed small indeed; then they won nine matches in succession, one against kent by five runs, and another against yorkshire by four runs, and finally attained the honour by beating surrey at lord’s. england v. ausiralia.—great as had been the english cricket recovery in so short a space of time, the australians apparently were possessed of even greater powers of recuperation. the policy of the m.c.c. was to wait a while before sending teams abroad. but the australians were insistent that an english side should visit them; and the m.c.c., much against their own wishes, con- sented to send a team to australia at the end of the 1920 season. it was now seen that what has been said of the players post-war bowling, in reality, applied to the whole country. the standard of english bowling, indeed, was considerably below that of the foster-barnes-douglas period. the english side, moreover, had a long tail, and lost all five test matches to a fine australian eleven. the main reason for australia’s pronounced superiority lay in their great batting strength and the possession of that wonderful all-round player, gregory. hobbs, russelland woolley batted finely for england, but the english bowling was weak and ill-supported in the field. the australians in england. —lin 1921 the australians returned the english visit. they won three out of the five test matches, the other two being drawn. england might have done better, but was forced to take the field without hobbs and hearne, the one out of action through illness, and the other through accident. in point of fact, hearne did play through one test match, and hobbs took the field at leeds, but had to leave the ground al- most at once, owing to a sudden attack of appendicitis. it was impossible to fill the places of two such players adequately; but, at the same time, it cannot be said that the selection committee made the best use of the material at their disposal. it seemed as if they had no definite policy; and, certainly, the elevens that represented england at nottingham and lord’s were two ill- balanced sides, whose fielding was exceptionally weak. in the fourth and fifth test matches, england batted well on slow wickets. on the season's form there can be no doubt whatever that the australians were much the better side; they were, indeed, a great side. their fielding, and this is saying a great deal, was probably better than that shown by any previous australian eleven. an- other great factor was the remarkably fine fast bowling of gregory and macdonald, cleverly controlled and applied by w. w. armstrong, the australian captain. armstrong, himself, was invaluable as a bowler and every man on the side could bat. bardsley, for the third time in his career, scored over 2,000 runs during an english tour. macartney was really brilliant and, in connection with the fielding, the beautiful general efficiency and especially the throwing of pellew, bardsley and taylor will be long remembered, as will the great work of gregory in the slips. in justice to english cricket, however, it must be stated that, at that period, english batting was, speaking generally, guilty of a wrong method. back play was overdone and the strokes re- quired to meet certain types of bowling, such as the swerve and the googly, were applied, quite unnecessarily, to all types of bowling. , | the season of 1922.—the first indication of things having taken a turn for the better during the 1922 season was the fine cricket displayed in the gentlemen and players match at lord’s. 759 none the less, there was a certain amount of anxiety felt in england as to the possible fate of the team, which the m.c.c. decided to send to south africa that winter. in point of fact, this team, excellently led by f. t. mann, had considerable diffi- culty in beating, on matting wickets, a south african side, which, on grass, would have been no match for them. the west indians.—in 1923 the west indies sent over to eng- land a notable side, under the captaincy of h. b. g. austin, who has done much for the game in that part of the world. batting was not the strong feature of the team, if one excepts g. challon- er, a player of the very highest class. their main strength, in- deed, lay in the fast bowling of francis and john, who were not only really fast, but obtained their pace with a minimum ex- penditure of energy; and also in the brilliant fielding of con- stantine at cover point. the team, at the end of their tour, achieved a decided triumph in running a very strong english eleven to a close finish at scarborough. on the whole they created such a favourable impression that the m.c.c. were fully justi- fied in sending out the strong team which left england in 1925 to take part in a series of matches in the west indies. the south africans. —the following vear the process of build- ing up post-war cricket went on, but it was a poor side that south africa sent to england, poor, that is, judged by the inter- national standard. the bowling of the south african 1924 team was its weakest point, and it did not win a single test match. on the other hand, the great english batsmen, hobbs, sutcliffe, woolley and tendren, were quick to envisage the possibilities of their opponents’ weakness and scored freely off them. england won the first three test matches with consummate ease, and it was only owing to rain that the other two resulted in a draw. it is significant of the disparity between the sides that in the first match a. e. r. gilligan and tate disposed of the south africans for a total of 30 runs; gilligan, the english captain, tak- ing 6 wickets for 7 runs on a hard, true wicket. the enelish team in australia.—the m.c.c. english team, which went out to australia in 1924-5 under the captaincy of a. e. r. gilligan, was a very good one, but not so well balanced as the team of 1914. three leg break bowlers were included, but the team lacked a steady, medium pace, right hand bowler to give the necessary assistance to tate, who had definitely proved his greatness in this department of the game during the two previous seasons. in this particular year the test teams were more evenly matched than would appear from the fact that the australians won four out of the five test matches—incidentally, the australian skipper also won the toss upon four out of these five occasions. there was, in fact, very little to choose between the english and australian elevens. in the third test match at adelaide, the english side was defeated by only nine runs, and in the second at melbourne by 80 runs after australia ‘had scored 600 in the first innings. the outstanding figures of the english side were hobbs, sutcliffe and tate. the two first named batted magnificently, and created various new records. of tate the australians them- selves said that never since the days of barnes had they seen so good a bowler on their wickets. another respect in which the english eleven gained unstinted praise from their opponents, was for the fine fielding of the side in general, and the good wicket keeping of strudwick in particular. as is stated in gillt- gan’s men, written by m. a. noble, “it was felt that english cricket had regained its old prestige.” a the australian side was well captained by h. l. collins, its real strength being found in the fact that every single man was a batsman. one of the best batsmen in the australian eleven was oldfield, the wicket keeper, who went in number ten. apart from the performances of tate it may be justly said that both sides were weak in bowling. in w. h. ponsford the australians brought to light a remarkable young batsman, who, although said to be unsound in his methods, was, nevertheless, extraor- dinarily successful. he, indeed, had the satisfaction of scoring a century in each of his first two test matches. it has already been said that the post-war attendances at cricket matches in england showed great improvement. in 760 australia a like state of things prevailed. the attendances at the matches plaved by gilligan’s men broke all previous records, the venture turning out a great financial success for the m.c.c., who, since 1903, have always undertaken the management of these tours in australia. the season of 1925.—the year 1925 will be remembered by cricketers as hobbs’ year. in it he beat the record number of centuries, 7.¢e., 126, previously held by w. g. grace. further, he scored over 3,000 runs and headed the averages. in addition to batting superbly, hobbs fielded magnificently at cover point during the 1925 season, despite the fact that he was then in his forty-third year. | in 1925 tate, in spite of having to do far too much work for his county, sussex, was probably as good a bowler as ever; but, in point of merit, macaulay, of yorkshire, ran him very close. a survey of the personalities and performances of english cricketers during 1925 creates the impression that the country is well able to put a strong batting and fielding side into the field. the chief problem is to find another bowler to support tate and macaulay. in 1926 the australians sent a team to england, but a number of the earlicr matches were spoiled by bad weather. the first test match, played at nottingham, was a draw, only 50 minutes play being possible in the three days. the sccond test match, played at lord’s, was also drawn, but on this occasion it was the high scoring on both sides that prevented a definite issue. the im- mediate need of england seems to be a leg break bowler of the class of l. braund of somerset, while a fast bowler of the lockwood or richardson type would be invaluable. bistrography.—p. f, warner, my cricketing life (1921); g. l. jessop, a cricketer’s log (1922); e. h. d. sewell, the log of a sportsman (1923); n. cardus, days in the sun (1924); lord hawke, recollections and reminiscences (1924); j. b. hobbs, afy cricket memories (1924); a. c. maclaren, cricket old and new (1924); m.a. noble, gilligan’s ‘men (1925). (pof. wo crile, george washington (1864- ), american surgeon, was born at chili, o., nov. 11 1864. after graduating from ohio northern university (1884), he studied medicine at wooster university, taking the degree of m.d. in 1887, and later at vienna, london and paris. at first lecturer in histology 1889-90, he became professor of physiology in 1890 and pro- fessor of surgery at wooster university from 1893 to 1900. he was professor of clinical medicine at western reserve university from 1900 to 1911, and was then appointed professor of surgery. during the spanish-american war he served in porto rico (1898). he was made an hon. f.r.c.s. (london) in 1913. after america entered the world war he became major in the medical officers’ training corps, and professional director (1917-8). he served with the british expeditionary force in france and was senior consultant in surgical research (1918-9). he was made lieutenant-colonel in june 1918, and colonel later in the year. he made important contributions to the study of blood pressure and of shock in operations. for his work in this field he re- ceived a geld medal from the national institute of social sciences in 1914. among his works are: surgical shock (1899); on the blood pres- sure in surgery (1903); itemorrhage and transfusion (1909); anemia and resuscitation (1914); the origin and nature of the emotions (1915); afan an adaptive mechanism (1916); a mechanistic view of war and peace (1916); the fallacy of the german state philosophy (1918); and a physical interpretation of shock exhaustion and restoration (1921).