CONNECTICUT

a state of the united states of america. in 1920 the population was 1,380,631 as compared with 1,114,756 in 1910, an increase for the decade of 23:9%. the total land area of the state is 5,004 square miles. political history.—in 1911-2, the 34th and 35th and in rg15-6 the 36th amendments to the connecticut constitution were adopted. the first stated the conditions under which the lieut.- governor was to take the place of the governor; the second pro- vided that the general assembly should adjourn not later than the first wednesday after the first monday in june; and the third allowed the passage by the general assembly of a law to cover the payment of mileage to the legislators. in 1914 a workmen’s compensation law, which applied to all work-places in which five or more persons were employed, was passed. in 1925 a commission vested with power to end the pollution of streams, whether the nuisance be committed by firms, cor- porations or municipalities, was established. in the same year a new medical practice act provided for more strict supervision, and a commissioner of agriculture was substituted for the older board of agriculture in order to make state assistance in the development of agriculture more effective. during the years 1920-5 a marked development took place in the amount and the conduct of the public welfare work of the state. connecticut failed to ratify both the 18th (prohibition) and the roth (woman suffrage) amendments to the federal consti- tution, and in 1925 refused by a large majority to ratify the pro- posed child-labour amendment. the governors of connecticut from 1gog to the beginning of 1925 were frank b. weeks (1909-11); simon e. baldwin (1911-5); marcus h. holcomb (1915-21); everett j. lake (1921-5). on aug. 16 1924 anson t. mccook was appointed treasurer to fill the unexpired term of s. harold gilpatrick; he reorganised and improved the methods of handling and safeguarding the state’s money and securities. on jan. 7 1925 hiram bingham was inaugurated as governor. he resigned the following day, having been chosen a senator of the united states in a special election to fill the unexpired term of frank j. brandegee, and the lieutenant-governor, john h. trumbull succeeded to the office of governor. education.—beginning on july 15 1909 the organisation of public education was changed from the district type to that of town management. in 1921 there were less than 10 townships that had not availed themselves of the law by which all the schools are under the direction of the town school committee. appro- priations for the support of the schools are made at a town meet- ing. compulsion was made more rigid by the enactment provid- ing that after sept. 1 1911 no employment certificate should be accepted by any employer except such as were issued by the state board of education. on july 1 1917 a law provided that all new public school teachers must pay 5° of their salary into a pension fund. the outstanding educational development of the five years ending 1925 was the improvement in the profes- sional preparation of teachers. in rg11 the connecticut woman’s college was opened at new london, and in 1925 a woman’s college, albertus magnus (roman catholic), was opened at new haven. in 1925 trinity college established an extension department. agriculture —in 1920 32:2% of the population was classed as rural, though the actual farming population was somewhat smaller. in 1920 the farms of the state numbered 22,655, a loss of 4,160 since r19ro. the average value of land per ac. in 1920 was $53.28 as compared with $33.03 in 1910. ‘tobacco is the most important agricultural product; the crop increased from 28,110,453 lb. valued at $4,415,948 in 1910, to 42,193,196 lb. valued at $15,189,551 in 1919. in the season of 1922 the con- necticut valley tobacco association, a pool mee a connecticut membership of 2,400 growers farming 90% of the acreage of outdoor tobacco tn the state, was formed for the collective mar- keting of the crop. the association sorts, packs, sweats and sells 703 the leaf. dairying is practised on more than four-fifths of the farms of the state. the quality of the milk is being steadily improved through a system of inspection put into effect by the milk regulation board and administered by the dairy and food commission. the number of milch cows fluctuates around 120,000. the production of milk increased from 45,749,840 gal. in 1909 to 49,458,287 gal.in rgr9o. inthe same period the output of butter fell from 3,498,551 lb. to 1,926,127 ib.; cheese output rose from 79,156 lb. to 90,500 pounds. the poultry industry increased very rapidly owing to the favourable climate and the large mar- ket close at hand. for the same reasons market gardening in- creased, the gardeners being organised into one state and 16 local organisations. the estimated values of five leading crops of 1924 were: tobacco, $12,223,312; hay, $10,400,000; potatoes, $3,425,000; apples, $2,363,000; and corn for silage, $2,310,000. these figures indicate a very considerable decline from those of 1923. afanufacturing indusiry—the world war brought a great volume of orders to connecticut factories and caused large num- bers of plants to change the character of their product. in may 1918 80% of connecticut manufacturing was directly or indi- rectly engaged in producing munitions, rifles, machine guns, clothing and other articles used by the military forces, and there were five plants where ships and power boats were constructed. wages were high during this period. in the years of rapid ex- pansion there were a great many strikes, and labour organisations increased in membership. during the two years following the armistice the factories began the process of readjustment to peace-time conditions, which was completed by the depression of 1920-1. the leading branches of manufacturing industry and the values of the products of each in 1921 were:— brass, bronze, copper and allied products $65, 795,194 cotton goods : 62,987,202 silk goods, including products of throwsters . 50,838,974 hardware 50,277,218 foundry and machine shop products 46,144,807 electrical machinery apparatus and supplies 33,839,350 woollen goods : ; 20,504,074 in 1922 the situation steadily iapieted: fheploy ment de- clined, and in dec. 1922 the department of labour reported an actual shortage of labour in the state. the growth of industry after 1922 was indicated by the fact that in 1923 and 1924 the cost of new factory construction and additions was $16,807,775. the years 1923-4 were remarkably free from strikes and lockouts. brsliograpiy.—p. w. bidwell, rural economy in new england at the beginning of the nineteenth century (1916); c. m. douglas, the government of the state of connecticut, revised and rewritten by lewis s. mills (1917); r. j. purcell, ‘connecticut in transition (1918); elias lb. sanford, a ilistory of ‘connecticut (1922); charles m. andrews, connecticut's place in colonial history (1924). cg) (r. h. conrad, joseph (1857-1924), english novelist (see 6.968), was born on dec. 6 1857 in the ukraine, of a polish family of the name of korzeniowski; his father, a man of letters, became in- volved in the polish insurrection of 1863 and was banished to vologda, whence he returned to cracow before his death. in cra- cow, the son, joseph, passed his boyhood. he learned to speak and write french with fluency as a boy; his first acquaintance with english literature was made through polish translations of shakespeare and dickens; later on, the novels of marryat and fennimore cooper—particularly cooper’s the pilot (1888)— inspired him with romantic ideas of the seaman’s life. at the age of 19 he found his way to marseilles, and for two years served in french ships in the mediterranean and on the south american coast. with hardly a word of english speech at his command, he came to lowestoft in 1878, qualified as able seaman on coasting vessel, and in aug. 1880 sailed as third mate to sydney on the clyde-built, clyde-owned sailing ship “ loch etive,’’ commanded by a famous clipper captain, william stuart of peterhead, of whom, later, in the mirror of the sea (1906) conrad said ‘‘ to this day i preserve his memory, for indeed it was he, in a sense, who completed my training.” four years later he was a master in the british merchant service, and for 704 years his calling sent him to many parts of the world and through a constant succession of adventures, all contributory to the cosmopolitan spirit and the range of incident in his subse- quent stories. a sequence of novels.—during a period of ill-health (the result of congo fever whose sequelae were to give pain to his later years and shorten his life), he started his first novel, a/mayer’s folly, the writing of which engaged him, with frequent and protracted intermissions, from 1880o till iow. into its composition went many personal experiences of his own as first officer of a ship in which he had sailed between singapore, borneo, celebes and sumatra. when published in 1895 it was recognised, by acutely discerning readers, a3 a portent of something new in english fiction, the product of a rare temnerament and of unusual ex- periences, expressed in a fastidious choice of phrase, in a studied cadence whenever that would carry an emotional effect, or best suggest half-lyrical moods evoked by natural scenes or moments of human crisis. his style in general had dignity, clarity and idiomatic vigour, with an elusive quality of charm which few readers probably suspected mixht be due to the writer being a foreigner, with at least three languages at his command where- from to choose and adant the 7oleu and harmonies of his verbal palette. this first novel was saeicn to establish a small though de- voted band of permanent conradians, but neither it, nor its immediate successors—.12 outcast of the islands (1896), the nigger of the narcissus (1897), lord jim (1900), youth (1902) and typhoon (1903), found any large body of the reading public to share the enthusiasm of the critics till many years after. of the nigger of the narcissus, conrad, in the year before he died, declared it was “ the story by which as a creative artist 1 stand or fall; at any rate, no one else could have written it.”? it and youth and typhoon brought out hitherto unexploited aspects of life at sea with amazing effect, and gave ocean storms and the trials and endurance of the mariner an epic grandeur. the scene of lhe outcast of the islands and of lord jim was laid on the same coasts as ldnayer’s folly. . soon after his emergence as a writer, he gave up the sea, and went to live in kent. but the public apathy rezarding his work, and the stress of pecuniary cares paralysed his pen for a while; ever a slow writer, he began to find a whole day at the desk pro- duced no more than a few sentences, and thoroughly disheartened, decided to go to sea again. fortunately for himself and english letters, his efforts to get a command on a clyde ship, four years after giving up the sea, failed. a modest civil list pension was secured for him, and relinquished as soon as the sales of his books made his circumstances easier. still in the prime of life, he wrought industriously and could yet call up reserves of zest, passion, poetic and romantic mood to vivify the recollections of his earlier stranze experiences. in the following 25 years he produced a score of volumes of fiction; complete novels for the most part, others, collections of his short stories; as well as several volumes of his own reminiscent experiences. conrad’s “ first period ”’ is generally classified as ending with nostromo (1904), a tale of an imaginary state in south america, with its atmosphere created from an old book of south american travels. lhe afirror of the sca which followed, a blend of reminis- cence, fable and reflection, may be looked upon as commenta- tory on a chapter closed. the second period.—it was, in many respects, a new conrad who produced in 1907 the secret agent, a fantastic tale of the anarchist and criminal underworld, which 15 years later, he dramatised. chance (1919), within the tides (1915)—a series of short tales—was followed by victory (1915) (with the old cele- bes and java background), the arrow of gold (1919), the rescue (1920) and the rover (1923). for many of conrad’s earliest admirers those novels, though delightful, missed some- thing of his first creative ecstasy, but by them he secured a great vogue for all his works in britain and america, and on his death he was recognised and honoured on both sides of the atlantic as a classic novelist. the rover—an historical tale with its scene laid in the peninsula conrad von hotzendore between toulon and hyeres—was, in a sense, the residual prod- uct of a much greater mediterranean story he had been brood- ing on since 1907, dealing with trench intrigue at napolcon’s “iba period. this latter work, begun only june 1920, was but half or two-thirds done when he died, and was published in its oe state in 1925, with the title of suspense. ln estimate.— conrad, as has been said, brought to his first essays in enclish writing at least trilingual knowledge, and al- though he never contemplated writing in the language, found in the best french writers effects of balance, light and shacle, a de- lizht in words for their own sake, as well as more subtle psycho- logical resulis arising from the indulgence of personal mood even at the cost of action, hell momentarily in suspense. this french influence was rarely absent from his work, and wonder- fully enriched it. he came to the study and practice of english in his maturity, with an instinctive sense of verbal beauty, a respect for good technique, a cultivated mind and high ideals as an artist. in all his books is manifest a scrupulous avoidance of cliche either of thought or phrase, and a philosophy that forbade surrender to romantic sentimentalism on the one hand or “ realistic ” squalor on the other. it was his conviction that only through an unremitting care for the shape and ring of sentences, an ap- proach could be made to plasticity, to colour, and the light of magic suggestiveness could be brought to play for an evan- escent instant over the commonplace surface of words worn thin by ages of careless usage. ‘‘ the sincere endeavour to accomplish that creative task, to go as far on the road as his strength will carry him, to be undeterred by falterings, weari- ness or reproach, was ”’ he said, ‘‘ the only justification of the worker in prose.” there was no deliberate ethical purpose in his books. ‘i sus- pect ”’ he said, ‘‘ that the aim of creation cannot be ethical at all. i would fondly believe that its object is purely spectacular—a spectacle for awe, love, adoration or hate, if you like, but in this view—never for despair. ‘these visions, delicious or polgn- ant, are a moral end in themselves.” for the most renowned russian novelists he had neither respect nor admiration, which perhaps 1s not to be wondered at ina pole. though he disliked the appellation of “ romantic novelist ” and preferred to be known as a “ creative artist,’ he greatly vindicated romance in a period of “ realistic *’’ reaction. he died at bishopbourne, near canterbury, on aug. 4 1924. a volume, last essays, was pub- lished in 1926. (n. mu.) see ford madox ford, joseph conrad (1924); a. symons, noies on joseph conrad: with some unpublished letters (1926). conrad von hotzendorf, franz (1852-1925), austro- hungarian soldier, was born in vienna nov. 11 1852. conrad was the leading military figure of the old dual monarchy, and also one of its most influential politicians. in 1899, as a brigadier in ‘trieste, his observations on italian irrdentist propaganda inspired him with a lasting mistrust of the third member of the triple alliance. here he made the acquaintance of the heir to the throne, the archduke francis ferdinand, whose ideas coin- cided with his own in many respects. francis ferdinand’s in- fluence elevated conrad to the post of chief of staff in 1906. ilis predecessor, general beck, had held this post for some 20 years, in the course of which beck, who shared the emperor francis joseph’s optimism, had allowed the army to lag far behind modern progress, in technical matters, and had paid little atten- tion to the nationalist problems which complicated the home and foreign politics of the monarchy. conrad at once began to reorganise the army, especially the artillery. his activities earned him the hatred not only of the german liberals but also of the slavs and the magyars, all of whom, if for different reasons, were opposed to an aggressive army policy. ilis most serious conilict, however, came with the emperor himself and the minister of foreign affairs, count ach- renthal. conrad was convinced that the monarchy could not avoid a conflict with serbia; and further that italy must be con- sidered not as an ally but an enemy. he believed the only salva- tion to be in aggressive “‘ preventive’ measures. both before conrady—conservative party and after the annexation of bosnia and hercegovina he urged that the only solution of the southern slav question would be the ‘‘ preventive’ annexation of serbia. when italy became engaged in war with turkey in1o11, he again advocateda “ pre- ventive ’ war against the monarchy’s ally. this last suggestion led to such a conflict of views with aehrenthal, who believed that peace could be maintained, that conrad was forced to resign. he was reappointed, however, a few months later, when events in the balkans again grew critical. conrad did not overestimate the strength of his army, and, therefore, when war broke out and the attitude of italy and rumania grew critical, he urged— vainly—that these former allies be appeased by territorial con- cessions. meanwhile he conducted the operations of the austro- hungarian troops in galicia with skill and boldness, and later, when they entered the world war, also saved his country from much devastation by his bold strategy. when, however, the young emperor charles himself took over the command of his army in place of the previous nominal commander, the arch- duke frederick, he took offence at conrad’s assured manner and dismissed him from his post. from march 1917 on conrad com- manded an army group on austria’s italian front. no further successes crowned his efforts, and finally the troops under his command disintegrated with the collapse of the monarchy. conrad’s political views aroused much controversy. from his own point of view—the maintenance at all costs of the dy- nastic power of the habsburgs—they were undoubtedly correct; he took too little account however of the stronger but more re- mote influence of world politics. as a strategist he was bold and skilful but unlucky. as a personality he was simple and deeply respected; his chief failing was his often faulty judgment of human character. after the downfall of the monarchy conrad withdrew entirely into private life and occupied himself with the preparation of his monumental memoirs aus meter dien- sizeit, of which five volumes had appeared in 1925. he died at mergentheim aug. 26 1925. (c. a. m.) conrady, august (1864- ), austrian orientalist, was born at wiesbaden april 28 1864. in 1897 he was appointed a professor at the university of leipzig, where he eventually became director of the school of oriental studies. he achieved great distinction as an authority on chinese languages and litera- ture and on indo-chinese philology of which he originated the study. among his works are line indochinesische kausativ- denominativbildung (1896); the section on “ china” in j. von pflugk-harttung’s history of the world (1910); die chinesischen handschriftenfunde sven hedins in lou-ian (1920).