CIVIL SERVICE

this term usually refers to the officials of the central government only, but in france and certain other countries persons employed by municipalities and other local authorities are also civil servants. great britain in great britain, in 1926, the civil service consisted of about 300,000 persons, of whom 187,500 were in the postal service. this excludes the industrial staffs of such services as admiralty dockyards. of the total number 73,500 are women, of whom 50,600 are in the postal services. of the men about 143,000 served in the armed forces in the world war. the work of the civil service has not only increased since 1911; 1t has also in some sections changed in character. there are many more technical officials than there were, as the task of government has changed in regard to health, transport, etc. the machinery of administration is not very different in the various departments; but there are specialist functions performed by some officials: for example, the inspectors of the home office, the inspectors of the board of education, the employment exchange officials, etc. new departments have come into existence, e.g., the ministry of labour (1917), which took over the “ labour” divisions of the board of trade; the ministry of health (1910), which combined the work of the old local government board with that of the health insurance commissioners, etc.; the ministry of transport (1919), which took over some old functions of the board of trade and fulfils some new functions in regard to railways; the ministry of mines, combining some old work of the iiome office with some old work of the board of trade; the dept. of overseas trade and the air ministry. the ministry of pen- sions deals with war pensions and may be regarded as a survival from the war period. war departments.—some new departments created during the war, have ceased to exist: for example, the ministry of munitions (1916-20), the ministry of shipping (1917-20), the ministry of food (1916-21), the ministry of national service (1917-20) and the ministry of reconstruction (1917-20), ancl some sections of older de- partments, which grew up during the war, have also disappeared: as, for example, the postal censorship under the war office, and the 645 war trade dept. under the foreign office. during the war there were departments which hardly affected the character or functions of the normal civil service, such as the ministry of information, and these have disappeared. | conditions of entry—the normal methods of entry to the civil service remain much the same as they were before the war. examinations for entry are under the supervision of the civil service commission; but this body has not the extensive powers of the united states civil service commission. the treasury is the co-ordinating authority for the british service. under an order in council of july 22 1920, the civil service commissioners issue regulations from time to time as to the con- ditions of entry and the subjects of examinations. special arrangements were made in the years tmmediately following the war for recruitment; but all these have now come to an end. the special arrangements are recorded in the reports of the gladstone committee (cmd. 34, 1919; cmd. 36, 1919; cmd. 164, 1919) and of the lytton committee (1920, 1921, 1924). changes in administration—the organisation of the civil service has been considerably affected by the reports of the royal commission on the civil service, especially the fourth report (cd. 7,338, to14). again, a joint council for the civil service administrative and legal departments was established in july 1919. a joint committee of this council issued a report (eb. 17 1920) on reorganisation, and the suggestions made in that report, agreeing with principles advocated by the royal commission, have been made the basis of the present organisa- tion of the home service. the foreign services were reported upon by the royal commission (fifth report cd. 7,748, 1914). the general order in council of jan. 10 1910 still remains the chief statement of the conditions of employment by the crown. the present classification of the members of the home civil service is as follows: an administrative class, concerned with the formation of policy, an executive class and a clerical class. be- sides these there is a class of writing assistants in certain depart- ments, for filling up forms, etc., and a separate section of typists and shorthand typists. pay and penstons.—the pay of civil servants in great britain in permanent grades tncludes salary proper together with a bonus fixed in 1920 on the basis of a cost of living percentage of 130 above that of 1914. the bonus is given to all civil servants except those with salaries of £2,000 a year and over, but it is graduated so that the rate of bonus decreases as salaries increase. the bonus is subject to review every six months, when it isincreased or decreased by 1/26th for every five full points by which the average of the official increased cost of living figures for the preceding six months rises above or falls below 130. disregarding the bonus, the pay of the principal classes of civil servants in london 1s as follows: the pay of those receiving more than £500 a year varies in different departments, but heads of de- partments receive in some cases £3,000 a year. assistant secretaries receive from £1,000 to £1,200 a year and principal clerks {£700 to fg00. in accounting and supply departments the higher posts are usually paid on two scales, {550 to £700 and £850 to £1,000. lower rates are at present gencrally fixed for appointments held by women. pensions and retiring allowances are granted to civil servants who retire on account of ill-health, age or because the office which they hold is abolished. no civil servant retiring before the age of 60, except for ill-health or on the abolition of his office, is eligible for any pension or gratuity. nocivil servant with less than io years’ service is eligible for any pension or gratuity. no civil servant with less than 10 years’ service is eligible for pension, and the maximum number of years’ service for which pension is granted is 40, or, for additional allowances, 45 years. but civil servants retiring for the reasons given above, with less than 1o years’ service, are eligible for a gratuity. if a male civil servant dics in the service, a gratuity is paid to his estate equal to a year's pay, or the amount of the allowance which would have been due to him had he retired at the time of his death. apart from pensions under earlier acts, the superannuation act, 1999, which governs most of the cases, grants an annual pension to male civil servants of onc-eightieth of the salary and emoluments for cach year of service: there is also an additional allowance of a lump sum equal to one-thirtieth of the salary and emoluments for each year of service. position of women.—the position of women in the civil serv- ice of great britain has changed considerably since 19t4. at that date the divisions of the service known as class i., second division and assistant clerks were not open to women. there were about 3,000 women in certain self-contained branches of 646 three or four departments, but most of these were in the general post otfice. there were about 500 women in the labour ex- changes, some typists and shorthand typists and a class of female wriling assistants numbering about 1,800. there were also some women inspectors for factories, health insurance, education, etc. the royal commission proposed a large extension of these practices (cd. 7,338, chapter x.); but it was the war which radically altered the situation. men were needed for military service at the very time when the activities of the civil service greatly increased; and by july roro, there were more than 115,000 women in the service. evidence of their work is given in the report of lord gladstone’s committee (cmd. 164, 1919). the sex disqualification removal act, dec. 29 1919, removed certain obstacles, and required that an order in council which might ‘‘ prescribe the mode of admission for women to the civil service ’’ should be laid before parliament forthwith. the re- organisation committee of the joint (whitley) council, referred to above, made detailed suggestions in regard to the employment of women in the civil service (feb. 1920); and the house of commons on may 19 1920 passed the following resolution: ~ that it is expedient that women shall have equal opportunity of employment with men in all branches of the civil service within the united kingdom and under all local authorities, providing that the claims of ex-service men are first of all considered, and should receive equal pay. the govt. refused to act on this resolution, but accepted a modified resolution of aug. 5 1921, including the phrase:— ilaving regard to the present financial position of the country this house cannot commit itself to the increase in civil service salaries involved in the payment of women in all cases at the same rate as men. the employment of women has been curtailed owing to the necessity of finding places for ex-service men. regulations in regard to the dismissal of women on their marriage were published on aug. 26 rg2tr (e. 3,754/03): and further regulations reserved to men certain branches of the civil service (e. 3,242, in draft in cmd. 1,244, april 11 rg2r). rights of combination, etc—the organisation of the civil service has been greatly affected by the adoption of the policy expressed in the reports of the whitley committee of 1917, on the relations of employers and employed. the govt. accepted the application of the principles of that report, and a joint council for the civil service, administrative and legal departments, was established in july 1919. this council consists of representatives of the treasury and other departments, standing for the public as employers, and of represent- atives of the employees taken from associations and unions of civil servants. there are subordinate departmental joint committees. the central council produced, through an ad hec committee, the plan of reorganisation of the civil service referred to above. there are also joint councils for industrial establishments under the ad- miralty, office of works, war office, air ministry and stationery office. civil servants are organised on a trade union basis in certain sections: for example, the civil service clerical association has a membership of about 17,500, the post office workers l'nion has a membership of about 80,000 and the post olfice engineering union, a membership of about 15,300. a board of conciliation and arbitration in the civil service, estab- lished in 1917, came to an end in 1921; but in april 1925 new machinery for the same purpose was set up under the industrial courts act, 1919. the court of civil service arbitration, described in the official letter of the treasury (no. 6/25, march 14 1925), has power to deal with “ claims affecting emoluments, weekly hours of work and leave of certain classes of civil servants.’’ claims of those classes receiving more than £700 a year will not be referred to the court except by the consent of both parties. cases of individual officers are excluded from the competence of the court. the official announcement says that “subject to the overriding authority of parliament, the government will give effect to the awards of the court.” the political rights of civil servants, ¢.e., in regard to appearing on political platforms or standing for election to parliament and local authorities, are defined by order in council. at present a civil servant is not allowed to criticise or express opinions publichy in regard to public affairs with which his own department is specially concerned; and with regard to candidature for parliament, a civil servant is required to resign his post on the announcement of his candidature and has no right to reappoiniment even in the event of failure to be elected. a treasury committee has reported upon this problem (cmd. 2,408, 1925). the report contains information as to the existing regulations for parliamentary candidature of persons serving in the army, navy or air force as well as civil servants. civil service bibliography.—historically important are r. h. gretton, the king’s government (1913); a. l. lowell, government of england (1920); sir w. rk. anson, law and custom of the constitution, 5th ed. (1922, etc.) recent accounts are to be found in c. delisle burns, whitehall (1921); the development of the civil service; lectures, prefaced by lord haldane (1922) and special studies of separate departments in the whitehall series, e.g., the hiome office, by sir ik. troup (1925), etc.; the reports of the roval commission on the civil service (cd. 7,338, 1913, etc.) are the most recent general reviews of the service. the britisn empire in the crown colonies the civil service is frequently drawn from among residents in this or that colony, but the higher officials are appointed directly through the colonial office. in the self-governing dominions the civil service is controlled by the govt. of the dominion in question. canada.—the “‘ spoils’ system was abolished and competitive examinations made effectual for the inside service by the civil service act of 1908; and the same principle was established for the outside service by the act of 1918. in that year a report was made by a body of american experts, on which a reclassification of the service was instituted and special examinations established for 1,600 different offices. the experts have thereby introduced two new conceptions; (a) that technical detailed knowledge of each office should be required of a candidate before entry, and (b) that there is no serious difference between routine and in- tellectual administration. the act of 1918 contains most of the existing regulations in regard to political rights, promotion, dis- missal, etc. (see r. m. dawson, the principle of official inde- pendence (1922), ch. iii., “ the civil servant ”’.) australia.—the public service act, 1922, governs the situa- tion. the act of 1902 was the first to regulate the civil service under the commonwealth constitution; and under that act a civil service commissioner was appointed. the royal com- mission on public service administration reported in 1919, and another commission reported on economies in 1920. as a result the act of 1922 was passed, which established a board of com- missioners for the public service with extensive powers, similar to those of the united states civil service commission rather than to those of the british system. the arbitration (public service) act, 1920, superseded the original arbitration act of torr, and established a public service arbitrator, holding office for seven years, for giving awards on claims from associations of public servants; but this act of 1920 appears to conflict in some particulars with the act of 1922, in regard to the powers of the board. the decisions of the arbitrator have raised salaries by over £1,000,000 since 1913 without the board having any power to control such decisions. there is a system of contributions to- wards a superannuation fund. the number of civil servants in 1923 was about 202,476, of whom 26,277 were in the common- wealth service. (lirst report of the public service board of com- misstoners, oct. 1924.) new zealand.—the public service act, 1912, places the service under a commissioner and two assistants, appointed for seven years and responsible only to parliament, but the postal and telegraph act, 1918, excludes those services from the authority of the commissioner, except in regard to making appointments. there is a contributory superannuation fund under an act of 1908 (year book of new zealand). union of south africa.—the public service act, 1923, carries out the recommendations of the committee of enquiry which reported in 1920. regulations have been issued in government notices under the 1923 act. there is an advisory council repre- senting associations of public servants which gives advice to the public service commissioners, when asked. the commissioners were appointed nov. 27 1923, and have the extensive powers usual in the dominions. the number of civil servants in 1925 was 26,612 (official fear book of the union). | british india.—the situation is now governed by the govt. of india (civil service) act, dec. r925. the whole problem, however, is still fluid owing to the development of general policy in regard to the govt. of india. the islington committee recom- mended certain improvements in the civil service in aug. i915, civil service but the report was only published in jan. 1917. on aug. 20 1917 the secretary of state for india in the house of commons an- nounced that there would be “ increasing association of indians in every branch of the administration ”’; and in that year the en- quiries began which led to the montagu-chelmsford report (cd. 9,109, ror9) and the govt. of india act, 1919, the preamble of which allows for the indianisation of the services. ‘the mac- donnell committee reported on difficulties of recruitment in 1922 (january) and the o’donnell circular of may 30 1922, gave, in a letter to local governments, the arguments for and against drastic reduction of the number of europeans. finally, the lee committee reported on the superior civil services (cmd. 2,128, 1924) and the act of 1925 implements their recommendations. tue unrrep states the changes in the federal civil service in the united states since the war are (a) an increase in the number of employees, (5) an increase in the proportion of women employed, and (c) modifications in the laws and regulations. in june ror4 there were 482,721 employees in the federal civil service, of whom 292,460 had entered by competitive examination. in june 1923 there were 548,531 employees. during the war the number of women employed was increased, and since 1919 all the examina- tions under the civil service commission have been open to women. in 1923 about 15% of the employees of the federal civil service were women; and the greater number of these (41% as compared with 11% of the whole civil service) were in the district of columbia, since outside that district the positions are such as are not usually sought by women (letter carriers, mechanicians, etc.). one member of the civil service commis- sion since 1920 has been a4 woman. the statutes and presidential rules affecting the civil service are printed in the report of the civil service commission for 1923. the chief new statutes and rules since the war are as follows: the retirement act, may 22 1920; the classification act, march 4 1923; a presidential order, march 3 1923, granting preference, under amended terms, to veterans, etc. the number of posts entered by competitive examination has been increased by the presidential order of may to 1921, requiring examinations for the three superior grades of postmasters. the general tend- ency to abolish “ political ” appointments has been continued: but there are still about 15,000 positions filled by appointment by the president, besides 12,000 excluded by law from the classi- fied civil service. the positions of deputy collectors of internal revenue are still regarded as “ spoils ” for the victors in political contests; and cases of illegal appointment for political reasons still occur and are dealt with by the commission. the civil service in the various states is developing along similar lines. bibliography.—annual report of the civil service commission; lewis mayers, the federal service (1922); a. w. proctor, principles of public personnel administration (1922); t. h. lay, foreign service of the united states (1925). sce also a. n. holcombe, state govern- ment in the united states (1917); j. m. mathews, principles of state administratron (1917); w. f. dodd, state government (1922); w. b. munro, afunictpal government and administration (mac- millan, 1923). the french service the number of civil servants under the second empire was 200,000 and in 1909 it was 757,678, not including workers on the state railways. these numbers, however, cannot be compared with those given for great britain, because in france they in- clude local government officials and teachers, who would not be included as civil servants in great britain. the constitution of feb. 25 1875, art. 3, gives power to the president to nominate for all offices or posts in the service, and the conditions of entry, etc., are to be found in rules administered finally under the con- seil d’etat. examinations are held for candidates for most posts, and a university degree is in some cases necessary for entry. the organisation of the service in france is in three particulars strikingly different from that in great britain: (a) the conseil d’etat, (5) the cabinet of a minister, and (c) the position of the prefects and the connection between the central and the local administration. 647 the conseil d’etat, apart from its functions as court of appeal in cases of administrative law, is a central advisory body of permanent civil servants for assisting the govt. of the day in its executive functions. the ordinary members of the conseil number 35; they must be at least 40 years of age and are partly officials who have had responsible positions elsewhere and partly chosen from among the 37 matires des requteies who act as part of the con- seil in preparing reports. the conscil d’etat discusses all matters of foreign policy, finance, police, education, etc., but its advice dves not bind the government. the cabinet of a minister is a small body of officials chosen by a minister as a private secretariat to advise on policy. the law of july 13 rg11, art. 142, takes cognisance of the cabinet and pre- vents certain dangers of favouritism in the cabinet system; but the control over policy exercised by a cabinet naturally turns the rest of the officials in the ministry into mere instruments. a long controversy is connected with the right to trade union organisation among civil servants; and there scems to be an agreed distinction between civil servants who “ give orders ” (fonction- naires d’autorite) and those who perform quasi-industrial services (fonctionnaires de gestion). the problem was discussed in the senate and the chamber in april and july 191g, but no solution was adopted. the present situation is that the law of 1884 does not allow trade unionism among civil servants, but that the laws of rgo1 and 1920 are believed by some authorities to permit such trade unionism. in any case in practice syndicats des fonc- tionnaires are recognised and there is a powerful federation des fonctionnaires. (see h. barthelemy, trarte elementaire de drout administratif, 1oth ed., 1923 ; j. barthelemy, le gouvernement de la france, 1924.) tne german service in germany the position of civil servants has been affected by the revolution and the weimar constitution of aug. 14 1919, of which articles 128, 129, 130 and 143 affect the civil service directly. the number of civil servants has increased since 1914 in spite of the loss of alsace-lorraine and although the federal post office is to be conducted as a quasi-private undertaking. in spite of considerable reductions after the war, the number of full-time federal civil servants in 1925 was about 94,300 as com- pared with 19,200 in 1913. but this has not decreased the num- ber of civil servants in the various states; for example, in prussia there are 11,500 more than in 1913, an increase of 10%, and in bavaria the number has risen from 23,c00 to 33,000, or nearly 44°%. it is recognised that these numbers should be reduced, but as all these officials are pensionable, reduction of numbers would still leave a large expenditure necessary. the chief increase of federal officials is in the financial admin- istration, in which there are now 73,200 persons. before the war, taxes were levied by the states through the communes; but now, largely owing to the financial requirements of the versailles treaty, taxes are imposed and collected by the federation, and, therefore, a large federal organisation has been created, which is staffed by federal officials. women are eligible for any posts in the civil service, but in practice women are still excluded from judicial office. the political rights of civil servants have not been much changed so far as the letter of the law goes, since the war; but in practice civil servants used not to be free to engage in political activities, and particularly membership of socialistic parties was made impossible; and in this matter the prussian administration was exceptionally strict. all this, however, is now changed, and civil servants are now as free politically as any other citizens. freedom of combination is guaranteed by art. 159 of the weimar constitution to all, and therefore to civil servants both in the states and in the federation. there are several unions of officials. (see h. oppenheimer, the constitution of the german republic, 1923.) tile league of nations an important development since the war has resulted in the establishment of an international civil service. it is true that ever since the middle of the 19th century, for example, in the 648 office of the universal postal union since 1870, there have been | small numbers of officials under authorities representing the joint action of sovereign states; but the establishment of the league of nations and its international labour organisation has con- siderably modified the situation. there are now 475 officials of the league in geneva and elsewhere and 360 officials of the labour organisation. their work is partly to carry out the de- cisions of international councils, or committees, and partly to co-ordinate the activities of the governments of the states in the league. the league civil service thus forms an integral part of the whole machinery of government. the civil service of cach of the fully developed states is now in contact with the relevant services of the other fully developed states, since it is now recognised in practice that the work, for example, of public health organisation or education cannot be effectual unless there is co-operation between states. the league officials therefore are a necessary inter-connection of the parts of modern administration. appointments are generally made after competitive examinations, which are held periodically. but apart from competence, some regard is paid to nationality. in 1925 there were 34 different nationalities in the league secreta- riat. of the 475 officials, 161 are british (including the domin- ions), 93 french and ror swiss. see annual reports on the budget of the league and of the director of the international labour organisation. (c. de b.) claretie, jules (1840-1913), french man of letters (see 6.436), completed la vie @ paris in 1913, later published in 21 vol. in 1914. he retired from the theatre frangais in 1913 and died dec. 23 of the same year. clark, champ (18s0-1921), american politician, was born in anderson co., ky., march 7 1850. he first entered kentucky university but finished his course at bethany college in 1873. the following year he was elected president of marshall college, west virginia, and one year later was admitted to the bar. after 1880 his law office was in bowling green, missouri. he was city attorney for louisiana, mo., and for bowling green from 1878 to 1881; and was prosecuting attorney for pike co. 1885-9, and then for three years was a member of the missouri ilouse of representatives. he was a member of congress from 1893 to 1895, and from 1897 to 1919, being speaker from 1911 to 1919. at the democratic convention for the nomination of a presiden- tial candidate held at baltimore in 1912, he led on 27 ballots and on 8 had a clear majority, but not the necessary two-thirds. he was finally defeated by woodrow wilson of new jerscy. he died in washington, d.c., march 2 rg2r. clarke, thomas shields (1860-10920), american artist (see 6.447), died in new york city nov. 15 1920. classical education.—in the principal secondary schools in great britain, classical studies are not losing ground (see pustic scnoots). as historical links exist with university foun- dations, the great public schools conserve the best traditions of classical scholarship. the introduction of modern methods, together with the development of interest in local and general archaeology, serves to maintain these stuclics in a position of basal importance. as characteristic of new methods the following account of an interesting and successful experiment in classical education deserves notice:— the direct method —the direct method of teaching foreign languages aims at teaching by use. it connects the foreign word, phrase or sentence directly with a thing, or an act or thought, without the intervention of english words. when a certain number of words have been learned, new ones are explained by a paraphrase in the same language; and in the final stage, the literature is read and discussed in the original. this has long been recognised as the proper method for modern languages; and a working system has been devised by which it can be applied to latin and greek. time is saved, be- cause the whole lesson is taken up with the language, instead of its being largely occupied with english explanations; attention is kept, because the language used expresses what we do or think, and it is real to us instead of artificial; understanding is easy, because what we do or see, explains what is said. in pro- claretie—classical education portion as we exclude english words from our minds, we come to think in the language, and a feeling for its idioms and turns of speech is soon developed. idiom is usually the last thing to be learned, and then only by the select few; with this method, it is the first thing, and it is learned by all. since the vocabulary used is simple and deals with every-day and familiar life, the atten- tion can be exercised on the novelties, that is, the peculiar inflections which distinguish the ancient languages. - grammar 1s jearned as much on the direct method as on any other; but it is learned after use, not before, and is therefore less irksome. short exercises are also used, if necessary, to illustrate grammar; they do no harm if they come in their proper place (after use) and in due proportion (not excessive). with the reading book, from the very first all is read aloud and explained in the same language, the explanations being written and learned. english is never used unless it cannot be helped, and then with a kind of apology. the less english we use, the more latin or greek we shall learn. when the pupils are fit to read an author, they know enough to dispense with english alto- gether or nearly so. formal translation from english into latin or greek, the most difficult of all exercises, is reserved for the last two years of school life. whoever does not understand must ask. no one is blamed for not understanding; all are blamed, and punished if necessary, for not asking. the reading lesson is the most important part of the direct method. every line of the matter is read aloud; and very often the mere manner of reading shows at once whether the text has been understood, and if it has not, it can be explained simply by correct reading. by reading the memory is filled, the ear is taught, the taste is trained; the language, in short, is learned in the most effective way. so much so, that verses of all sorts, lyrics included, are written with ease by imitation. but the real merit of this method lies in its effect on the learner. from the first stage to the last, the learners are willing to learn, and happy in learning; their attention is kept without trouble and discipline is easy. . (w.h.d.r.) universities—in the universities archaeology, anthropology, numismatics, epigraphy, psychology, philology and geography are recognised as essential to the classical scholar who would understand and describe clearly conditions of life in the ancient civilisations. western europe has learned to realise the measure of its debt to greece and to estimate the nature of the legacy it has received from imperial rome. to the greeks modern science owes much—the spirit of ceaseless enquiry; from rome come political ideas and methods as yet unexhausted. the precision of classical literature leads to a sense of proportion, a standard of values, a respect for the truth of words, and accuracy of thought qualities of abiding worth in the turmoil of public life or in the contests of scientific debate. france.—in france during the greater part of the 19th century, the position of classics in secondary schools was supreme. they alone led tothe baccalaureate ;— sole entrance to the universities and the liberal professions, towards the end of the century, a strong movement in favour of modern languages and science arose. in 1898 a parliamentary committee was appointed to inquire into the subject. they reported in 1899, but it was not till r902 that their conclusions were embodied in the establish- ment of four alternative courses, a full classical, a latin-modern languages, a latin-science and a purely modern course, all of which led to the university. these courses remained unchanged for nearly 20 years, and during that period the classical candi- dates for the baccalaureate, who in 1904 numbered 3,337, fell to 2.775 in 1924. the latin-modern rose from 1,217 to 5,964, the latin-science from 2,229 to 5,241 and the science-modern jan- guages from 2,742 to 5,241. thus, while greek declined, the students taking latin increased more than twofold and amounted to over 70° of the candidates. the war brought its aftermath of discussion. in 1922 m. rerard, the minister of public instruction, proposed to make latin and greek obligatory in the earlier stages, and to cut down the courses to two (classical or modern). a bitter struggle followed, in which the majority of expert opinion was against claudel-—claus him. none the less, in may 1923 the president of the republic issued a decree embodying the proposals of m. berard, and re- quiring a certificate of proficiency in latin and greek from all future candidates for the baccalaureate. a year later the ministry fell and was replaced by a radical one. the two courses have been maintained, but classics are no longer ob- ligatory for all, though as the curricula of the girls’ schools have now been assimilated to those of the boys, a classical education is equally open to the former. germany.—in germany up to the end of the 19th century, classics were likewise supreme. the full classical school, the gymnasium, was with one or two exceptions the sole avenue to the university and liberal professions. in 1890, at the instance of the kaiser, a conference was called in prussia. its conclusions, largely embodied in the curricula of 1892, reduced the number of hours given to classics and dethroned the latter in favour of the mother tongue, while the universities were thrown open to pupils from the realgymnasium (latin-modern school) and to a large extent to those from the oberrealschule (modern studies school). similar reforms had already been adopted by other german states. the next outstanding feature was the founding of reformgymnasia, where the first language was french, latin not being introduced till the fourth and greek till the sixth year, both being taught intensively. this type was largely adopted in prussia before the war. classical studies have been open to girls since 1904, but the number taking them has not been very great. for education since the war, no statistics are available, but according to one authority, “the desertion of schools with latin as a central subject is general.” others are less pessimistic and the prevailing opinion seems to be that the reformschulen will ultimately be the future type of german classical education. tialy.—of the other european countries, the most interesting one from the classical standpoint of view is italy. here, thanks to the reforms of gentile, there has been a strong reaction in favour of classics, and by the royal decrees of may and nov. 1922, classical studies have been strengthened in the higher schools not only of the purely classical but also of the scientific type. latin in fact is now obligatory in all secondary schools. room for this increase has been found by cutting down the number of subjects and reducing the time given to mathematics; the main object of the reform being to replace the former en- cyclopaedic aim of the school by a cultural one based on direct knowledge of the classics. latin is also a principal subject in the girls’ high schools. belgium.—in belgium again the position of classics appears to have improved. a committee was appointed after the war to consider the reform of the school syllabuses and the position of greek. as a result, classics have been maintained in the athe- nees royales (iligh schools) and further greek and latin can be studied in those ecoles moyennes, which are not within convenient distance of an athenee. norway.—in norway, likewise, the classics have recovered ground. in 1896 greck was entirely banished from secondary education; to-day it is included in one section of the higher schools (gymnasia), and can be studied by girls as well as boys. czechoslovakia.—the republic of czechoslovakia has largely maintained the previous types of education, which were on german lines and as the system is co-educational, classical or latin studies are equally open to girls. sweden.—in sweden classics seem to have somewhat lost ground: the pupils following a full classical or latin course, who ten years ago were in a majority, are now outnumbered by those taking modern studies. to sum up: in italy classics are supreme. in spain latin is obligatory for all university entrants. in france, while greek is on the wane, latin forms part of the education of at least two- thirds of the secondary pupils. in germany for the moment latin is losing ground, but in the new reformschulen classical pupils still abound. in sweden classics appear to be slightly losing popularity; in czechoslovakia the old forms of classical education have been preserved. in the other european countries, where classics have been ousted from intermediate education 649 and confined to one or more sections of higher education, they are apparently either holding their own, or have recovered some of the lost ground, as in norway and belgium. (c. bre.) in tite united states u'itted states-—the limitation of the latin vocabulary re- quired in the secondary schools to the words of greatest value for further study of latin was modified by a study of the latin words most important for the correct use of english, and a definite place in teaching was assigned to the derivation of english words from latin. greater attention was paid to the historical, political, social and literary values of the authors read, and less emphasis was laid on the formal side of the language. the direct method, demonstrated by dr. w. h. d. rouse in new york in 1912, was found ill adapted to the inelastic programmes of the large public hizh schools, but its influence was seen in the greater provision for oral latin in new textbooks. in 1920 the general education board arranged with the american classical league to conduct an investigation of the classics (chie‘ly latin) in american secondary schools. this investigation was carried out by experts and extended over a period of three years. the results were published in 1924 in the elaborate general report, part i. this covered statistical in- formation, chapters on the aims of latin teaching, the curricu- lum, the methods of teaching, etc. the aims as organised were, in order of importance, to read and understand latin; to increase the pupil’s ability to understand the latin element in english, and to read, speak and write english; to develop historical and cultural background, correct mental habits and right attitudes toward social situations; to increase the ability to learn foreign languages; and to give an elementary knowledge of the principles of language structure. the chapter on curriculum recommended a graded restricted vocabulary organised largely with reference to english derivatives; an elimination of the unusual syntactical constructions from the early work; an increase in the amount of easy reading; less attention to caesar, cicero and vergil; a wider range of selection in authors; and an extensive use of collateral reading illustrative of the civilisation of greece and rome. in the chapter on method a functional rather than a formal approach was suggested, with careful attention to the transfer of training, a large use of oral latin, including reading aloud with proper expression, and the employment of transla- tion rather as a sure training in english than as a means of testing comprchension of the text. the suggestions of this report have been received with general approval and bid fair to be widely adopted. the college entrance examination board has approved them, and textbooks are being modified to meet the new demands. (g.'l.") claudel, paul (1868- ), french poet, dramatist and diplomat, was born aug. 6 1868 at villeneuve-sur-fin. he was educated at the lycee louis-le-grand, and entered the consular service in 1892. the early part of his diplomatic carcer was spent in the east as consul at fou-teheon, shanghai and tientsin. as first secretary at pekin he gained a valuable acquaintance with chinese life and thought. in 1921 he was made french ambassador at tokio after a series of european appointments and three years in rio de janeiro. he was one of the earliest contributors to the nouvelle revue frangaise, founded in 1908-0, but as early as 1900, he was recognised by the discriminating few as a writer of the first rank. his works and especially his plays are definitely catholic in inspiration; they are, however, often marred by a vague mysticism tending to obscurity. among his works are connaissance de l’est (1900; eng. trans. by t. frances and w. r. benct, the east i know, 1914); l’echange, la teie dor, la jeune fille violatine (1901); cing grandes odes (1910); l’otage (1911; eng. trans. by chavannes, 1917); l’annonce faite a dfarte: plays (1gt2; eng. trans. by l. m. still, 1916); deux poemes a'ete (1914); corona (1915); poemes de guerre (1915). he was also re- sponsible for translations of the agamemnon and the eumenides of aeschylus (1920). claus, emile (1849-1924), belgian painter, was born at vive saint-eloi, flanders, on sept. 27 1849. receiving early training at the antwerp academy of fine arts, claus began as 650 a traditionalist. his early works are genre scenes and portraits, correctly drawn and painted in a stereotyped manner and show- ing no originality. soon, however, he came under the influence of certain french painters who had determined to break from the rut, and he completely changed his style, in spite of the fact that he had achieved a certain reputation and his work was remunerative. he started to paint in high lights by the juxta- position of pure colours. i[e settled at astene, in a house on the banks of the lys, which he called zonneschijn. there he began to paint that beautiful series of views of meadows, gardens, fields, | streams, roads, seen at every time of the day, at every moment of the season. he became the painter of the sun and of the moon- light, of the blue or of the grey sky, of rain, of wind, of mist, of snow, of dew, of fog, rather than the painter of earth, trees, cot- tages, cattle or human beings in the open fields, which appear to be his subjects. during the world war claus resided in london, and from the windows of a house on the victoria embankment painted views of the thames, showing the changing effects of the light and the weather. in ror7 he accompanied the queen of the belgians to la panne, and visited the devastated regions. in 1920 he re- turned to astene and worked there until his death, on june 6 1924. tle was a member of the belgian royal academy, com- mander of the order of leopold and the recipient of numerous belgian and foreign honours. he is represented in the luxem- bourg, paris, and in galleries in venice, brussels, antwerp, ghent and liege. his works are also found in numerous belgian and foreign private collections. (pl) cleaning: sce dry cleaning. clemenceau, georges (1841r- ), french politician (see 6.482).—in rotr m. clemenceau entered the senate and went on the commissions for foreign affairs and the army. he could have had no better position for surveying european fluctuations and german activities; or for inquiry into the real condition of french armaments—this last his dominant concern. convinced that germany meant war, and was organising war, he was haunted by the fear that again france might be caught unprepared. significant was his speech in the senate, feb. 10 1912, on the franco-german convention (of nov. 4 1911). “germany relies above all on force . . . her whole thought is how to utilise that force. i see it constantly stated in the ger- man papers that she intends to invade france, and extract from us an immense indemnity. all her newspapers are insisting that france shall be made to pay the costs of the new german fleet.” the senate, however, gave little opportunity for sounding the alarm. accordingly, on may 5 1913 appeared a new daily paper, l’ homme libre, its editor—georges clemenceau. in its pages he waged daily battle for security and liberty. the issue of may 5 contained the following: “ our past defeats have exposed us to a perpetual menace from the most formidable army that ever was. we must live; and the nation has the right to insist that the maximum of efficiency shall be obtained from its man- power.” though l’ homme libre dealt every day with home politics and social problems, it returned always to the terrible theme of the german menace. the following extracts are from articles which appeared in 1913: ‘‘ the issue of this appalling conilict will be nothing less than the life or death of i'rance.’’? (may 25); ‘‘ germany has but one aim—to wipe out france.” (june 14); “ only an absolutely determined government can ensure our being prepared for war.”’ on march 6 1914 he wrote: * let germany choose her own time; she will soon learn how much can be accomplished by the moral force of a good cause backed by courage and full prepara- tion.” to stir the nation by his urgent appeals this ardent con- troversialist seized every pretext: alsace-lorraine, the zabern affair, the illusions of i’'rench pacificists, the vain attempts at a franco-german rapprochement, the imprisonment of hansi the alsatian caricaturist by the germans. in the spring of 1913 the question of restoring the three years’ term of conscript service suddenly arose. would france make this mighty sacri- fice in view of the german peril? m. clemenceau took an im- passioned part in the debates on armaments. the minister of cleaning—clemenceau war admitted that france had allowed herself to be outstripped by germany in the production of scientific means of wartare, but he added: “ moral force is supreme. with its aid inferior weapons can deal splendid blows.” ‘* why don’t you buy cross- bows then?” cried m. clemenceau from his seat in the senate. then came aug. 1914 and the war. m. ciemenceau was living in the rue franklin at passy, in a three-roomed flat crammed with books. the flat was on the ground-iloor of a five-storied building, on the far side of the courtvard. at the back, on a terrace overlooking the boulevard delessert, was a small garden planted with rose-bushes and japanese dwarf-trees. during the first three vears of the war, m. clemenceau’s day was spent as follows: he rose at one or two in the morning, lit his lamp, and worked intensely for three to four hours on the daily article of two columns for his paper. sometimes this long article was written straight off at one heat; at other times it was worked out after manv alterations and erasures. at six or seven o'clock he breakfasted, did physical exercises and received his daily flow of visitors. next he coped with his corre- spondence—one to two hundred letters from all parts of france, enabling him to keep his finger on the national pulse. after a hasty lunch of perhaps a cutlet and some fruit, he used to face the two formidable commissions of the senate, where the min- isters of national defence had to appear. after these sittings, m. clemenceau quitted the luxembourg to drive off immedi- ately into the heart of paris. at his newspaper office in the rue taitbout he went through his article, conferred with his sub- editors and political correspondents, read the evening papers. at eight o'clock he returned home, dined and went to bed. this was the average working day of m. clemenceau, who in 1914 was already 73 years old. but at the hands of the censor l’ homme libre soon suffered for m. clemenceau’s plain speaking. he knew that the war problem was complex, and was determined to insist on all the vital needs. the whole youth of france must be mobilised. he denounced the shirkers, demanded that technical efficiency raised to the highest pitch must become worthy of the outpour- ing of blood. ife attacked all incompetency, red tape, inade- quate munition factories, with their shortage of guns and rifles, and badly-run hospitals. he made war in short, upon all who fuiled to realise that this was a conflict of supplies and organisa- tion, and upon every kind of apathy and feebleness. ‘the civil and military officials were staggered. m. clemenceau had actually dared to say that all was not well, and that peace habits must cease when the nation was fighting for life. the result was that in sept. 1914 l’ homme libre was suppressed. two days later, however, it reappeared as l’ homme euchdine, but wore its fetters lightly. for three months—until m. clemenceau came into power—there was a daily struggle with the censor. which would tire first? for some time not a week passed without articles being mutilated, but m. clemenceau won. his hammer hit the nails on the head. the censor relaxed more and more until excisions became very rare. meanwhile in the senate, m. clemenceau agitated for more and still more guns, muni- tions, soldiers. he pleaded for a judicious use of the available man-power, for a better medical service. but above all he strove to create the indomitable and des- perate “ will to victory.”’ he was supported by other members of the army and foreign affairs commission, jike mm. jean- neney, cheron, doumer, humbert, berenger. the war dragged on; weariness, slackness and pacificism began to appear. m. clemenceau was the first to draw public attention to that grow- ing peril; he now felt that his warning must be more resounding; that neither the columns of his newspaper nor the secrecy of the commissions gave him scope enough. he first spoke behind the closed doors of the senate, but it was at a public debate there on july 22 1917 that he sounded a clarion call which rang through france. at this time m. malvy, who had been minister of the interior since 1914, was chairman of an important com- mittee in the chamber, and probably even his warmest admirers would admit that during his term of office he had not treated revolutionaries with a firm enough hand. his justification, it clemenceau is true, was that he desired to “ gain the confidence of the work- ing-man ’’; but m. clemenceau retorted that there was no com- parison between those working-men who were loyally doing their duty to their country and a number of abject “* defeatists.” in vain the minister of justice declared that crimes had been punished and precautions taken; m. clemenceau denounced the measures as inadequate. ‘‘ we are at war,” he said, “the germans are at st. quentin: the morale of the country has been shaken. yet all you do is to quibble about legal forms and talk about fines of 15 to 300 francs! ... what we must have is order within, that the army with peace behind it may face its task of war.” four months later m. clemenceau came into power. he had never sought office and he knew that his task meant victory or death. it is significant to recall the state of france when clemenceau became premier. although some maintained that all was going well, and that victory was in sight, the situation in reality was miserable. the morale at the front was bad, and at home even worse. resources were nearly at an end, and except in the flowery speeches of officials, no solution whatever could be discerned. at this point m. poincare sent for m. clemenceau; not be- cause he loved him: it would be hard to imagine two men with less in common than the impetuous, explosive vendean, and the cold precise lorrainer. but m. poincare realised that of all men m. clemenceau was the impersonation of the idea of war to the death. in his new government m. clemenceau himself took the portfolio of minister of war. he was not altogether a favourite with his colleagues in parliament; for hitherto he had been chiefly a fighter, giving and taking hard blows. his warnings had been harsh; his candour scathing. but now they welcomed him. one ministry after another had been dismissed. ‘the last, that of m. painleve, had fallen amid feelings of doubt and anxiety. a war minister was needed who would carry on the struggle without flinching or respite. such a leader was found in m. clemenceau, who was then 76 years of age. tle formed his victory cabinet on nov. 16 1917 and was destined to see germany defeated on nov. 11 of the following year. on nov. 20 1917 he made the following declaration: “ pacificism must go; no more german intrigues; no more treason or semi- treason. war, and nothing but war!” thenceforward till nov. 11 1918, clemenceau did in fact concentrate on war only. but first he made it clear that france was bent on absolute victory and would brook no half-measures. those who spoke of waver- ing or yielding were immediately silenced; any one who ob- structed the path to victory was ruthlessly removed. by these means clemenceau restored the nation’s self-confidence, and with it the conviction that its long-drawn out martyrdom would not be in vain. no one who was in france at that time will ever forget that extraordinary resurgence of hope and _ resolution transforming the french people. the soldiers at the front redoubled their efforts; in vain the central powers alternately brandished the sword and held out the olive branch. the whole nation was solidly united by the will to victory. in march 1918 the anglo-french line was broken through; clemenceau joincd in organizing the unity of com- mand with foch at the head. in april the austrian minister czernin proclaimed that france was ready to negotiate. m. clemenceau merely replied: ‘ il y a des consciences pourries.”’ in may came the disaster of the chemin des dames; the french troops were driven back on the marne, while the commander- in-chief was criticised. ‘* our soldiers,” said m. clemenceau, “have officers who are in every respect worthy of them,” and three months later he made foch marshal of france. during that long year of ceaseless effort m. clemenceau’s resolution remained unshaken. france was determined on victory, for he had infused into her the temper of fine steel. every night ger- man aviators raided paris, demolishing whole blocks of houses and dropping bombs even on the ministry of war itself. “ big berthas ” fired on churches and the hospitals of the maternite and saint-gervais were both struck. whole towns and districts were wrapped in mourning; but resistance only stiffened. con- 651 viction strengthened that the germans were being beaten. on nov. 8 1918 erzberger was already in the train of the com- mander-in-chief of the allied armies. on the 11th the guns roared for the last time; the nightmare was over. from nov. 11 1918 to june 28 1919 m. clemenceau devoted himself to the international settlement. the peace of versailles was in preparation, and this necessitated strenuous days of work and delicate negotiations. up till now m. clemenceau had merely had to contend with his enemies; now his task was to reconcile the interests of france with those of her friends. he defended her cause with enthusiasm and conviction, forcing his view alternatively on mr. lloyd george and president wilson. meanwhile germany was disarming, and m. clemenceau took care to supervise that disarmament. but the french parliament began to grow restless, for it saw itself put to one side in the peace negotiations. it therefore no longer regarded m. clem- enceau as indispensable. the great patriot, who was anxious to finish the work he had begun, did his best to smooth matters over. momentous problems had to be solved; demobilisation had to be faced, a general election was looming ahead, and the ques- tions of alsace-lorraine and the liquidation of war stocks had to be settled. m. clemenceau decided to deal simultaneously with these questions as of equal importance. peace was signed on june 28, and on nov. 11 the new chamber was elected. m. clemenceau counted on its support; for he believed that its members, many of them ex-soldiers, would have profited by the lesson of the war. although he never stood as a candidate—it is certain that he would have been ready to give the last years of his life by taking m. poincare’s place at the elysee. and thus outside and above the changing governments, he could have secured continuity in political action by a strict application of the 1919 treaties. m. poincare left the elysee ... but m. deschanel was elected president of the french republic. and without doubt the electors, under the cloak of the ballot, had voted according to their hearts. m. clemenceau had saved his country, but members could not forgive the fact that he had excluded them from the final work for victory. during the war he had un- doubtedly worked alone; he felt that large assemblies were not made for action. probably he would have admitted the com- missions to the deliberations on the treaty of versailles if dip- lomatic obstacles had not intervened to prevent it. m.clemen- ceau had also to face—both in the chamber and in the senate— the hostility, not only of the clerical party of the right who suspected him of indifference to the vatican, but also that of the extreme left, who were alienated by what they considered to be his militarism. clemenceau thus met the fate which overtook other war ministers and on jan. 20 1920 his cabinet fell, m. des- chanel being summoned to office. he had earned the gratitude of his country and returning to his beloved books, might well have sought repose; instead he sailed for india. there he was able to study an ancient civilisation, whose splendours had always fascinated him. “‘ the tiger ” hunted the tiger; and his english friends welcomed him magnificently. he travelled over the whole country, and retained a vivid impression of the ganges and the temples of benares in particular. in paris l’#cho na- tional of andre tardieu carried on the fight for the treaty of versailles. m. clemenceau returned to the rue franklin and to his books. once more he was able to enjoy his aeschylus and the roses in his garden. but it now appeared that the united states was endeavouring to dissociate herself from european affairs. though she had fought to win the war, she would not help to win the peace. | m. clemenceau was now 8&1 years old, but he sailed at once for america at the end of 1922. from town to town he carried the message of france to the citizens of the union. he had no official mission, for he had neither asked anything nor received anything from the french government. his progress was none the less triumphant. once more he returned to the rue franklin, but not to rest. life and work with him were synonymous, and by the end of 1925 he was already writing two books; one on philosophy and the other on demosthenes. what better subject 652 for the french patriot than the great athenian who would not have his country false to itself. (j. mr.*) clementel, etienne (1862— __), french politician, was born march 29 1862 at riom and educated there. he was elected a deputy in 1898 and became minister for the colonies in rouvier’s cabinct, in 1905, afterward occupying ministerial posts in departments where his knowledge of economics could find full play: the ministries of agriculture, colonies, finance, public works and marine. his collaboration was particularly valuable in organising the supply of raw materials for the allied armies between 1914 and 1918. by effecting the agreement for the establishment of the inter-allied wheat executive (see control, inter-allied) with mr. walter runciman in nov. 1916 clementel helped to tide over a difficult situation. the creation of the inter-allied maritime transport council was due in great part to his energy, for, as early as aug. 1917, he had occupied himself with drawing up a general inventory of his own country’s requirements, an initiative quickly followed by the allied governments. after the armistice, m. clementel was chosen “ president fondateur ” of the international cham- ber of commerce. his work at the london conference of july 1924, which he attended as minister of finance in the herriot cabinet, was eminently appreciated. hle was elected senator for the puy de deme in 1918. among his writings may be men- tioned: l’ ame celtigne (1899) and un drame economique (1914). clermont-ganneau, charles simon (1846-1923), french orientalist (see 6.498), died feb, 13 1923. cleveland (sce 6.503), the largest city in ohio and the fifth in the united states, had in 1920 a population of 796,841, a gain of 42:1% for the decade. in 1924 the population was estimated at 902,457. the area in 1925 was 69-154 sq. m. as against 41 sq.m.in 1910. of the three new viaducts across the valley of the cuyahoga river, the noteworthy one is the high level bridge with a central span of sor ft. in length and 06 ft. above water. the total length, with approaches, is 5,630 ft., the cost $5,407,000. the centre of retail trade has moved steadily eastward, crowd- ing out the large houses with spacious grounds which had made euclid avenue famous. new residential sections were developed, especially near wade park and on the heights east of the city. noteworthy buildings added include the county courthouse, the city hall, the public auditorium and the public library (of the uncompleted “ group ” plan); the union trust, the en- ginecrs bank, the federal reserve bank and hanna buildings; the plain dealer newspaper building; the cleveland trust co’s. bank; the museum of art and the church of the covenant (presbyterian), st. agnes (catholic), the temple (jewish) and the amasa stone memorial chapel of adelbert college. education.—the schools were reorganised in 1917 as a result of asurvey. significant features were the development of junior high schools, of which there were 19 in 1925, and the establish- ment of departmental supervision. the normal school, now the cleveland school of education, was affiliated with western reserve university. to the university group was added a night college called cleveland college. in 1924-5 the university had 514 instructors and 3,410 students. the most important addition to the educational and artistic life of the community was the museum of art. the building, of classical design, was com- pleted in 1916. its directors have succeeded, through classes, lectures and special exhibitions, in making it a power in popular education. another valuable influence has been the museum of natural history opened in 1922. the musical development of the city was stimulated by the creation of a symphony orchestra _and a school of music. in its charities cleveland has carried far the principle of co- operation, seeking to obviate through a welfare federation the waste in soliciting contributions. the cleveland foundation was created in 1914 to enable a competent commission to institute inquiries on the best methods of furthering the interests of the community, and, when the funds entrusted to it become large enough, to apply the income directly to schemes of betterment. cleveland is the seat of a federal reserve bank. its two largest banks in 1925 were the union trust co., formed in 1921 clementel—climate and climatology by the consolidation of several older banks, and the cleveland trust company. the brotherhood of locomotive engineers co- operative national bank, the first labour bank in the united states, organised in 1920, had resources in 1925 of $28,082,840. the city’s manufacturing enterprises expanded steadily during the period 1910-25. the increase in automobile production was among the most striking. the harbour facilities were developed by the completion of the government breakwater, 5} m. long. the city still retained its position as the greatest ore market in the world, and led also in the manufacture of many steel products. in accordance with the authority conferred by the home-rule amendment of the state constitution, a charter, submitted by a special commission, was accepted by the citizens on july 1 1913. this reduced the number of elected officers to the mayor and 26 councilmen. by an amended charter, which took effect on jan. 1 1924, the manager system was introduced. ‘the council of 25 members was chosen by districts, four in number, instead of by wards. the president of the council was called the mayor, but full administrative authority, with the duty of choosing heads of departments, was entrusted to the manager, elected by the council and holding office at its pleasure. subordinate officials were appointed according to the merit system. the city added to its waterworks a filtration plant for its western section, with a capacity of 150,000,000 gal. a day, and a high-level reservoir for the eastern section, and in connection therewith a filtration system with a capacity of 166,000,000 gallons. (h. e. b.) clifford, john (1836-1923), british nonconformist divine (sce 6.507), died nov. 20 1923. climate and climatology (sce 6.509).—climatology is largely a science of the future. the full value of much of the great mass of data already collected and now being collected will really not be reached until the averages, the extremes and the variability of the different climatic elements can be based upon longer series of records than most of those now at hand. the essential facts concerning the climates of most of the world, al- though not yet known as completely or as accurately as is desir- able, or as will eventually be possible, are nevertheless sufficiently well ascertained to meet ordinary needs. general climatology.—the third edition, in three volumes, of julius von ifann's handbuch der klimatologie (stuttgart, 1908-11) constitutes the one indispensable handbook for all who are in any way concerned with the study of climate. in them, a summary of what is known concerning the climate of every part of the world may be found. the climatic pictures are made notably complete and accurate by means of vivid descriptions of weather types; by frequent references to the effects of climate upon vegetation, crops and human activities and by well-chosen quotations from the writ- ings of residents and of travellers who are familiar with the climates concerning which they have given accounts. temperature, rainfall and other essential data for large numbers of stations are in many cases here worked out in detail and summarised for the first time. kendrew's the climates of the continents (oxford, 1922) is the first comprehensive survey in english of the climates of the jand areas of the world. tables of monthly average temperatures and rainfalls for more than 400 stations, and numerous maps and diagrams, are included. a vast amount of information is here available, in one volume, in convenient form for ready use. wladimir k6ppen’s die klimate der erde (leipzig, 1923), after a gencral discussion of the principles of climatology, gives a description of the essential features of the world’s climates. this description ignores political boundaries, using instead a series of climatic prov- inces, distinguished from one another by certain critical values of the essential climatic elements, a brief, simple scheme of two or three reference letters or numbers (climatic formulae) is used for the characterisation of each province. eckardt’s grundstge einer physioklimatologie der fesilander (berlin, 1922) is original in title as well as in method of treatment. it deals with the climatology of the continents, but dispenses with all tabulations and contains very few numerical data. the changes in seasonal pressures are taken as the fundamental controls of climate. these three volumes are valuable supplements to von hann’s standard work. local citmatology—many recent publications deal with the climate of individual countries or of smaller areas as given in the classified bibliography of afeteorology issued semi-annually (since sept. 1920) by the royal meteorological society (london), or in the bibliography regularly published in the afetearologische zettschrift. united slates.—lispecially marked progress has been made during the past decade in the scientific investigation of the climatology of climate and climatology the united states. the preparation of a section on climate for a new aflas of american agriculture (1918 and later years) marks an im- portant advance in the accurate charting and discussion of many of the essential features of the climatic conditions of this large area. this atlas will, for many years to come, be the standard authority on all the subjects with which it deals. the data used in the construc- tion of the large series of maps relate to temperature, precipitation, humidity, frost, sunshine and wind all cover a uniform period of 20 years or longer, or have been reduced to that period. many details are further set forth by means of special diagrams and graphs. all the essential facts regarding the climatology of the united states are cartographically shown in this new atlas with a detail not hitherto attained in any other area of equal size in the world. the text accompanying the charts, while brief, is adequate in calling attention to the more important facts. in the climates of the united stafes (boston, mass., 1925) r. dec. ward has given a compact general description and explanation of the essential characteristics of the climatology of the united states, fully illustrated with charts and diagrams, and based on all available information. full bibliographies are included on each topic, and special attention is paid to the economic and other human relations of climate. a ustraita —australia is another large arca, a knowledge of whose climatology has advanced very rapidly. ‘the australian common- wealth bureau of meteorology has issued an unusually valuable series of reports, dealing especially with rainfall, but also presenting many other essential facts concerning the general climatic character- istics of the country. these studies are clear and concise in treat- ment, and emphasise the practical economic aspects of the subject. a report on the climate and weather of australia (1913) is one of the best available discussions of the meteorological and climatic conditions of any part of the globe. the main thesis of these mono- graphs is the climatic limitation and control of agriculture and of stock-raising. the results will be of practical value in the future development of australia. the extreme importance of rainfall is emphasised, not only of the annua! amounts but also of the season at which the rain falls, and of its reliability. latin america.—vhe climatology of latin america is receiving increased attention. the establishment of the new directoria de meteorologia (1921), in brazil, has already resulted in an increase in the number of observing stations, and in the publication of im- portant climatic data in the regular bulletins of that service. for mexico there is a very complete study of the temperature con- ditions, equal to that available for many other countries. new rainfall maps of latin america have been constructed.2 the scat- tered data for the several countries of central america have been compiled in convenient form, and a useful annotated bibliography of south american climatology has been published.* it is significant that, with the increasing accuracy of climatic data resulting from the availability of records covering longcr and longer periods of time, there is a marked tendency to publish these data in cartographic rather than tabular form. they thus become avail- able for easier and more effective use. hellmann’s kiima-adlas von deutschland (berlin, 1921); a new edition of mohn's adlas de climat de norvege (christiania, 1921); angot’s monographs on the rainfall of france (paris, 1913, etc.); gorezynski’s new isothermal and iso- baric charts of poland, europe and the world (warsaw, 1917-8) may be noted here. mention should also be made of a very complete discussion of the rainfall of the british isles, based on all available data, by salter.’ arctic regions.—while the meteorology of the arctic has made relatively little progress in recent years, the antarctic has been visited by a large number of expeditions, most of the results of whose scientific work, as well as some of the results of work done prior to 1910, have been published in the last decade or so. these discussions include those relating to the british expeditions of 1901-4, 1910-3 and 1914~7; the australian expedition of 1911-4; the norwegian of 1910-2; the german of i911-2, etc. meteorological observations are now available for complete years, made at fixed land stations; on board vessels drifting slowly in the ice, on sledge journeys, and from the upper air by means of kites and balloons. the material is, how- ever, still too scattered and incomplete to give an accurate and satis- factory picture of antarctic climate. most of the discussions con- cern the physical problems of antarctic meteorology. in all studies of the controls of the seasonal weather conditions, and hence also of climates, the reseau mondial is practically essen- tial.6 this is a compilation of world data by 10° squares of latitude and longitude based on observations at land stations averaging two for each square. monthly and annual summaries of pressure, tem- perature and precipitation are included. climate and crops.—recent studies of the larger controls of climate over crop distribution, and of weather factors which most affect the critical periods of growth and of yield of field and garden crops, have brought out much information which will prove of importance in the advance of agricultural climatology. the geographic origin of the world’s food supply and of other essential agricultural products, and of the climatic and other factors which control the present distribu- as i * the references refer to the bibliography at the end of the article. 653 tion of the world’s crops and livestock, are discussed in the geography of the worild’s agriculture.’ in this atlas the essential climatic con- trols in the case of the important crops in all parts of the world are briefly stated. another publication, also of wide interest, deals with cotton’ the climates of all the cotton areas are discussed, detailed consideration being given to the united states. the facts here given are of practical value in the selection of the most favourable climates for future cotton growing. an outstanding publication whose aim is to elucidate the methods that may be used in studying the aetiology of plant distribution, and to give the essential climatic data necessary for carrying out such work in the united states, has been issued by the carnegie institution of washington.? this is the most notable investigation of its kind for any area of comparable size. j. warren smith’s agricultural meteorology: the effect of weather on crops (new york, 1920) is a serviceable guide to the use of correlations and of similar processes in the study of climate and crops, and also sum- marises results already achieved. climate and health.—the intimate study of solar radiation in relation to health (see heliotherapy) is making very rapid prog- ress. at davos, switzerland, dorno has made himself the recog- nised authority on solar and sky radiation. he has there measured the light, heat, chemical and bactericidal effects of radiation which is found to vary widely in its ray elements, even at the same station, the same solar altitude and under a clear sky. the results are of great importance in medicine and in biology, recent medical researches having shown the value of certain of the finer rays in the treatment of tuberculosis, rickets and other diseases. the essential facts on open-air and sunshine in relation to health and diseases are given in a popular handbook by dr. leonard hill," and in a. c. rollier’s heliotherapy (london, 1923). it appears that in the use of climate for medica) purposes the variable quality of sunshine must be known, and not merely its duration, physiological climatology.—it has for some time been recog- nised that conditions which are best for human beings are mod- erately cool and moderately moist air, in motion, together with a reasonable variability of temperature. (see pusptic health.) dr. leonard hill has devised a so-called “ katathermometer ” (q.v.) which indicates by the rate of cooling of wet and dry bulb thermometers, heated to about the surface temperature of the human body, the combined effect of temperature, humidity, wind evahoration, etc., in a way comparable with the experience of a human body.” several investigators have sought to determine, in actual numerical values, the most favourable atmospheric conditions for man. dr. griffith taylor, using wet bulb tem- peratures and relative humidities, has worked out the criteria of a suitable climate for anglo-saxons in the tropics.“ this study suggests, as representing ideal conditions, a wet bulb read- ing of 62°f. and relative humidity of 68-5% in summer, and 37° f.and 81% in winter. keppen gives 64-4° f. (18° c.) as the temperature of greatest comfort. climate and civilisation.—using statistics of the efficiency of factory operatives, students and others in the eastern united states, huntington has determined what he calls the “‘ opti- mum ” temperatures for man’s greatest efficiency. these are outdoor tempcratures of 60°~65° f. for maximum physical efficiency and 40° f. for maximum mental efficiency. beneficial stimulating effect was found in a certain moderate degree of temperature variability associated with storm controls. the different parts of the world are graded according to their approxi- mation to such a climate, and the civilisations of those areas are also graded. a close agreement is found between the results. the conclusion is reached that a certain special combination of climatic conditions prevails to-day where high civilisation is found, and that past climatic fluctuations which brought a simi- lar type of climate were associated with correspond ng periods of high civilisation. criticism of these far-reaching conclusions has been based on the insufficiency of the data upon which the study rests; a lack of any general agreement as to the facts con- cerning the distribution of civilisation and the occurrence of special climatic types in past times, and upon the fact that the controls over human development and historical events are far too complex for any simple evaluation. variations of climate-——the whole question of climatic vari- ations is still under active debate, both as to the occurrence, 654 characteristics and frequency of any such “ changes,” and also as to their possible causes. dr. ellsworth huntington has been a prolific writer on this problem. his investigations, which began in central asia, have been extended over parts of western asia, palestine, the libyan desert, the south-western united states and portions of central america.“ t’rom an examination of a large body of evidence—archacological, physiographic, historical, including the rings of the giant seguoias of california and of other trees, the conclusion is drawn that from the beginnings of human history a gradual change from moister to drier climates has been going on. this process has, however, not been steadily progressive, but has taken place in a more or less irregular, pulsa- tory fashion, drier and moister epochs alternating, without defi- nite periodicity, as subordinate irregularities on the general curve of desiccation. the major fluctuations are believed by huntington to have been essentially synchronous, and of the same general character under similar geographic conditions, in central and western asia, in the mediterranean area and in north america. these pulsations are further believed to have been potent factors in bringing about certain great historical migrations and events, such as the decay of rome, the rise and fall of the central american civilisations, and so on. while much evidence in favour of changes of climate in his- toric times has been brought forward, the opinion is quite widely held that a good deal of this is not wholly trustworthy. much of it is so distinctly contradictory that in certain cases nothing less than a complete deadlock exists. further, a considerable number of meteorologists think that much of the evidence seems to have been interpreted without due consideration of controls other than climatic fluctuations. in cases where careful examination of the evidence has been made by experts in archacology, botany, geology and history, there has usually been hesitation in ascribing the facts solely, or often even partly, to fluctuations in climate. at the present time, the opinion of the majority of the most competent authorities seems distinctly to be that there is not sufficient unimpeachable evidence to justify a belief in any per- manent progressive change of climate within historic times. that there are certain fluctuations in the values of the climatic elements is, however, a well-established fact. the so-called briickner period, averaging about 35 years in length, is generally recognised. no definite or universally accepted conclusion has yet been reached regarding the existence of other longer periods. a period of about 11 years in temperature, rainfall and certain other meteorological phenomena has been made out by several investigators, but on the whole the variations in the values of these elements appear to be very slight, and the results are often debatable, if not contradictory. keppen has greatly extended his investigations of sunspot controls over temperatures, begun some 30 years ago, and has found that the 11-year periodicity appears to be somewhat less marked but more regular than he at first thought it to be.'® (see atmospheric electricity; meteorology.) douglass has for some 25 years been studying the evidences of climatic fluctuations given by tree rings in california and elsewhere.!7 some of his conclusions have been used by hunting- ton and others in their investigations of climatic fluctuations. douglass believes that a close relation exists between the thick- ness of tree rings and the annual amount of precipitation, and finds evidence of periodicity over large areas, in agreement with the sunspot cycle or multiple of it. a 100-ycar cycle also appears very prominently in the 3,000 years of sequoia record and in the 500 years of the yellow pine. the climatic chronology based on the tree rings has also been studied in the tree trunks and beams discovered in the ruins of prehistoric dwellings in the south- western united states. causes of climatic fluctuation.—there is not yet any agree- ment as to the causes of climatic fluctuations. very important work on the variations in the intensity of the sun’s heat has been carried on during the past two decades by dr. c. g. abbot, and his associates of the astrophysical observatory of the smith- sonian institution. the sun is a variable star. there are vari- ations associated with the sunspot period of about 11 years, and climate and climatology there are also variations in shorter intervals, of the order of a few weeks or even days. there has been much discussion, but there is no unanimity of opinion, as to just how such vari- ations in the amount of solar radiation will affect conditions on the carth’s surface. instead of being higher at times of greater solar activity, temperatures over most of the world are slightly lower. a highly complex train of effects must obviously result, in which temperature, pressure, evaporation, cloudiness and rain- fall are all concerned, and in which readjustments in the gencral circulation of the atmosphere play an important part. the varying strength of the atmospheric and oceanic circulations, and the resulting effects upon the development and location of the great “ centres of action’ and of the wind and rain belts, seem to many writers competent to account for any climatic vari- ations which may have taken place in historical times. in one of the outstanding publications of the past decade, helland-hansen and nansen, in their study of north atlantic temperatures, conclude that variations in the supply of solar energy, acting through the atmospheric circulation are the initial cause of tem- perature changes on the earth’s surface.® so far as changes of climate during the geological past are concerned, there has been a decided tendency towards seeking an explanation in factors which are recognised as being effec- tively at work in determining present-day climates, and a less- ened appeal to purely astronomical causes, which in the past were most widely advocated. e. ifuntington and 8. 8. visher in climatic changes, their nature and causes (new haven, conn., 1922), however, incline to the view that variations in solar activity may arise from some effect induced by the ap- proach to the solar system of some of the greater stars. such variations in solar energy, acting on storms and on the position of storm trackg?on the earth’s surface are believed to have been concerned in the climatic changes or fluctuations of the past. w. j. humphreys, who may perhaps be taken as most emphati- cally advocating terrestrial as opposed to extra-terrestrial or cosmical controls, believes that past climatic fluctuations were due to changes in topography, in the distribution of land and water, in elevation of the land, in atmospheric and oceanic cir- culations, in volcanic dust, etc. in other words, the same con- trols over climate were at work in the past as are observed to-day, only in different combinations.!® in the evolution of climates (london, 1925), c. e. p. brooks holds that past changes of climate, such as the glacial periods, were mainly due to changes in the extent and elevation of the lands, especially in the higher latitudes. bibliography.—1i. j. hernandez, ‘‘ the temperature of mexico,” monthly weather rev. supplement no, 23 (washington, d.c., 1923). 2. e. van cleef, ‘‘ rainfall maps of latin america,” 15id., vol. 49, pp. 537-542 (1921). 3. w. w. reed, © climatological data for central america,” tbid., vol. 51, pp. 133-141 (1923). 4. m. m. welch, ‘ bibliography on the climate of south america,” 1d7d., supplement no. 78 (1921). 5. m. dec. s. salter, the rainfall of the british isles (london, 1921). 6. reseau mondial, meteorological office, london (begins with 1911). 7. v. c. finch and o. e. baker, geography of the world's agriculture, atlas and text (1917); u.s. dept. of agriculture, office of farm management (washington, d.c., 1917). 8 o. c. stine and o. fe. baker, “‘ cotton, ” atlas of american agriculture, pt. v., section a., u.s. dept. of agriculture, office of farm management (washington, d.c., 1918). 9. b. e. livingston and forrest shreve, “ the distribution of vegetation in the united states, as related to climatic conditions,” carnegte inst. publ. no. 284 (washington, d.c., 1921). 10. c. dorno, studien tiber licht und luft des hochgebirges (braunschweig, 1911); also numerous other publications, in monthly weather revtew (vol. 48, pp. 18-24, 1920; vol. 50, pp. 515-521, 1922, and else- where). 11. leonard hill, sunshine and open atr, their influence on ilealth, with special reference to the alpine climate (london, 1924). 12. leonard hill, ‘ atmospheric conditions which affect. health,” qo. j. met. soc., vol. 45, pp. 189-206 (1919); ‘‘ the science of ventilation and open-air treatment,” afedical res. counce. spec. report, series no. 52, p. 295 (london, 1920) and other papers. 13. griffith taylor, “fhe control of settlement by humidity and temperature (with special reference to australia and_the empire}: an introduction to comparative climatology,” com- monwealth bur. of met. bull. 14 (melbourne, 1916). 14. ellsworth huntington, civilisation and climate (new haven, conn., 1915; ard ed., 1924) summarises much of the author's earlier work, includ- ing that on historical changes of climate; world power and evolution clynes—coal (new haven, conn., 1919). 15. ellsworth huntington, palestine and its transformation (1911); the climatic factor as illustrated in arid amertca, with chapters by charles schuchert, andrew e. douglass and charles j. kullmer (carnegie inst. publ. no. 192, washington, d.c., 1915) and numerous other publications. 16. w. keppen, ‘“ lufttemperatur, sonnenflecke und vulkanaus- brtiche,” afet. zetischr., vol. 31, pp. 305-328 (1914). 17. a. e. douglass, ‘‘ climatic cycles and tree growth: a study of the annual rings of trees in relation to climate and solar activity,’’ carnegie inst., publ. no. 289 (washington, d.c., 1919); ‘‘ some aspects of the use of the annual rings of trees in climatic study,” sctentfic monthly, vol. 15, pp. 5-22 (1922), also numerous other papers. 18. b. helland-hansen and f. nansen, ‘ temperature variations in the north atlantic ocean and in the atmosphere: introductory studies on the causes of climatological variations,” smithsonian misc. coll., vol. 70, no. 4, publ. 2537 (washington, d.c., 1920). 19. w. j. ilumphreys, ‘“‘some factors of climatic control,” scientific monthly, vol. 20, pp. 449-459 (1925). (r. dec. w.) clynes, john robert (1869- ), english politician, was born at oldham, lancs., march 27 1869, of working-class par- ents, and worked himself as an artisan for many years. he was active in the trade-union movement, and eventually became president of the national union of general workers, and chair- man of its executive council. he entered parliament as labour member for northeast manchester (platting division) in 1906, when the labour party was returned for the first time in nu- merical force, over 50 in all; and he has sat uninterruptedly for the same constituency ever since. it was not, however, till the world war that he attracted general attention. he protested, in feb. 1915, on behalf of his party, against the rise in prices, which he attributed mainly to contractors and dealers exploiting the needs of the people. in 1917 he was appointed parliamentary secretary under lor rhondda soon after the latter’accepted the position of food con- troller. in the arduous and successful work of that office he took his full share, and, when his chief died in june 1918, he suc- ceeded him to the general satisfaction. he gave special encour- agement to the creation of national kitchens, the number of which had grown by the end of august to over 600, and he set up, inside the ministry, a food council to consider questions of policy, and to co-operate with other bodies dealing with food problems. public appreciation of his admirable work in the war was shown by the honorary degrees conferred upon him in 1919 by the universities of oxford and durham. in consequence of the de- cision of the labour party to terminate its support of the coali- tion govt., he resigned office in nov. 1918, just before the general election. at the beginning of the session of 1919 clynes was elected vice- chairman of the party, and since then he has been reckoned among its principal leaders. he was chosen chairman in 1921, but after the election of 1922 the labour party at westmin- ster elected mr. ramsay macdonald. mr. clynes became deputy chairman, and in that capacity moved on jan. 17 1924 the labour amendment of want of confidence in mr. baldwin's govt. which brought that govt. down and put the labour party in office. ele became lord privy seal and deputy leader (in the necessary absences of mr. macdonald on foreign office business) of the house of commons. whether leader, or deputy leader, of his party, mr. clynes always spoke in the house of commons with a moderation and appreciation of the standpoint of other classes not always manifested by labour members. he showed himself opposed to “ direct action,” and has treated a capital levy as a suggestion rather than a definite proposal. though a very lucid and respected speaker, he never attained great parlia- mentary power. he left office in nov. 1924. coaching.—the london meets of the coaching club are fairly well attended, seven or eight members generally putting in an appearance at the magazine in hyde park at the two or three meets which are held every year. this number is sup- plemented by coaches sent from the royal artillery (aldershot) and the royal artillery (woolwich) and sometimes by a coach from the army service corps. at the richmond show in june 1925 there were 21 entries for the coaching marathon. of these 14 were private coaches, seven road coaches and two military coaches, and the full 055 number did not exhaust all the coaches which were then seen about london. there were also marathons at olympia and at one or two other shows in 1925, and, though some of the road coaches which took part in these events were infrequently seen on the roads, two at least had a long and regular season. one coach ran regularly in the north of england during part of the summer. driving.—as regards the driving of single-harness horses, the dog-cart, gig, buggy and governess cart are still found in fair numbers, more particularly perhaps in countries where there are many lanes and by-ways and no great amount of traffic on the main roads. welsh farmers, for example, use a dog-cart more frequently than a car, the approaches to many of the hill farms being almost impossible for a car. in this single-horse traffic the cob is favoured rather than the horse, and for the pair there is almost no demand. the teams which have been seen in and about london during the 2oth century are better looking and have better action than their predecessors of two or three gen- erations ago, and the improvement in horseflesh applies in a considerable degree to all breeds of light horses and has come at a time when, except for hunters and polo ponies, the demand is smaller than it has ever been in modern times. (c. rr.)