CIRCUS

thcre are now three distinct types of circus. the british is a caravan, the continental a music-hall fitted with arena and stables, and the american a mobile arsenal of amusements. in none of these are the traditions of philip astley, father of the modern circus, strictly upheld. his amphi- theatre, a combination of riding-school and music-house, retained much of the ancient dignity of horsemanship. since about 1920, interest in the circus has been re-awakened in several countries, including russia, where the soviet has per- mitted companies to be reorganised. in france, where the vogue took long to die, as the building of the handsome cirque de paris a few years before the war proves, the revival came quickly, partly because of the enthusiasm for the ring shown by the modern school of painters. this return to popularity was first marked by the redecoration of the cirque medrano in 1927; in the same year the nouveau cirque, which from 1914 had been an ordinary music-hall, was occupied by 2 menagerie, and, as the next step, the american bar was abolished so that the stables could be restored; the cirque d’hiver, the scene of gemier’s production of edipe roi, in the season 1919-20 and afterwards a cinematograph theatre, once more became a circus in 1923-4; and this upward progression was crowned in 1923 when the french minister of public instruction made the three fratellini, the most popular clowns of france, officers of the academy. american circuses.—unlike the french circus, whose main- stay is the clown, the american three-ring exhibitions dwarf his antics into insignificance. the largest is the ringling brothers and barnum and bailey circus, which was begun at baraboo, wis., in 1884, by five brothers. in 1907 they bought the barnum and bailey “ greatest show on earth” which they combined with their own “ world’s greatest shows ” in 1919. after open- . ing at madison square gardens, new york, in the spring, this vast organisation set out in four or five trains on a seven months’ tour of over 15,000 miles. even before the union of the two concerns, the ringlings’ methods had revolutionised the ameri- can circus. when william f. cody (buffalo bill) tried to renew his early successes by appearing before the public with gordon 638 w. lillie (pawnee bill) in a wild west and great far east circus from 1909 to 1913, his material had to be sold by auction to meet the heavy liabilities. in australia the wirth brothers have conducted a railroad circus on the american model for many years, but the mammoth show has yet to establish itself in europe despite the success of barnum and bailey’s visits between 1880-1900. in 1925, how- ever, the circus krone aroused keen interest in berlin as the only three-ring tent on the continent, and three rings were installed in the stadium of the british empire exhibition, wembley; but here the space was too large for the romantic smell of sawdust and tanbark to reach the audience. international circus.—successful attempts to create an inter- national circus have been made at olympia, london. for the christmas holidays of 1906-7, c. b. cochran installed there a company from the cirque de paris with other acts; for the season of 1913-4 he brought instalments of the hagenbeck zoo from berlin, thus introducing the idea of mappin terraces into eng- land, and engaged a german stud of 250 horses, besides an ameri- can trick rider, french clowns, and many other performers, mostly from the furopean continent. each christmas since 1920 there has been at olympia an international circus managed by bertram w. mills. otherwise the british circus is still a kind of large family party travelling from town to town in little cot- tages on wheels and congregating each christmas at the agri- cultural hall, islington, just as they congregated 1oo years ago in st. george’s fields. to-day they still perform the tricks that amused the country before the circus was invented. thus, in 1925, dogs and monkeys were acting in bostock’s royal italian circus a scene called the deserier, ending with the execution of a pomeranian by a monkey seated on a pony, which recalls the drama of the deserter acted by dogs and a monkey at sadler’s wells in 1785. after most of the buildings installed by hengler, sanger, and others, in the chief towns and cities of the united kingdom had been put to other uses, the “ tenting ’’ companics became more like the old fair folk than astley’s performers. they exhibited personal skill instead of combining to present “ equestrian dramas,” of which the last relic was the wembley stag hunt and roman chariot races, two favourite circus items since astley’s was first built. likewise the jester is disappearing, the fun now being provided mainly by silent clowns wearing the one-piece garment of the french “ grotesque,” the ill-fitting evening clothes of the “‘ au- guste,” or the costume of charlie chaplin of the films. entertainments of a character similar to the circus include the international rodeo, held under c. b. cochran’s management at the british empire exhibition in 1924, which was a contest in steer-wrestling and buck-jumping between cowboys who were showmen in the sense that prize-money was their livelihood. in july 1925 a band of cossacks gave an exhibition of horse- manship in london and paris, including a dramatic spectacle enlivened by comic tumbles from horseback. bibliography.—files of variety, clipper and billboard, new york (1920-5); gustave frejaville, aw music-hall (1923); c. b. cochran, secrets of a showman (1925); m. willson disher, clowns and pantomimes (1925); m. r. werner, barnum (1923); george concklin, the ways of the circus (1921). (m. w. d.) city government.—the authorities charged with city government are constituted upon one or other of the following principles: free local election of indigenous growth, as in great britain and as transmitted to her dominions overseas; a more or less complex mixture of free local election with central govern- ment appointment, as in most european countries; a somewhat intricate mixture of free local election with bureaucratic admin- istrative method, exemplified practically throughout the united states. recent change—for change there has been under every heading—has taken one or both of two directions: that of form or constitution and that of subject. the general tendency has been to broaden the scope of the admittedly legitimate activities of city government or to develop particular services already ad- ministered, though in the united states there has been at least for a period up to 1921 a tendency in the opposite direction. city government the effect of the world war upon city government, at least in those countries which suffered most, has been to stimulate a communal sense. if progress is measured by approximation to *“ government of the people by the people for the people,” this stimulation will in its turn make for the betterment of city government throughout the world. this, however, is a matter rather of administrative efficiency than of form or of subject. i. the english system english city government is in form the least changed of any instrument of government in the world. apart from measures of standardisation, such as the municipal corporations act, 1882, the city governments of england are the same in form to-day as on this day 500 years ago. the municipal corporation, with its mayor, aldermen and councillors elected by the burgesses and its machinery of town clerk, surveyor and other paid officers is still to-day the staple form of authority by means of which an english city is governed; committees of clected members or councillors under whose orders the paid officers act are its medium. poor law.—it is true that other agents exist. for poor law purposes boards of guardians are elected, also under a broad franchise. and to meet special needs there are specially con- stituted local authorities having duties of limited scope. little has yet been attempted for the amalgamation under one admin- istrative control of all the many subjects of city government, while in london a dual system of central and local authorities deliberately set up has been equally deliberately continued. the last great example of amalgamation of functions took place in 1902, when education was added to the roll of duties of city government as distinct from government by authorities ad hoc, and signs of renewed development in the direction of amalga- mation are not wanting, as a direct result of the suspension of building operations during the war, the responsibilities of city government in the matter of destroying slums and providing new houses were largely increased by special legislation culminating in the hous- ing act, 1925. the net result of the housing activities of the civic authorities throughout the kingdom is that in england and wales during the years 1920-5 no fewer than 190,000 houses have been added by civic enterprise to the houses available. housing —the housing act, 1925, also deals with town plan- ning. the duty of planning and controlling urban development, now freely recognised as a civic duty of first-class importance, was entrusted to civic authorities only in 1919. since then civic authorities have thrown themselves whole-heartedly into a great and difficult task. up to march 31 1925, schemes had been approved or were in preparation in no fewer than 281 urban dis- tricts, and in the larger cities the correlated problem of control- ling redevelopment of areas already built up by some system of zoning is receiving careful attention. other services—many other services, which a few years ago would by popular opinion have been unhesitatingly placed in the category of matters fit only for handling by private enter- prise, are now treated as municipal services. public health services are steadily enlarging to embrace treatment not only of material but of persons. medical examination and treatment of school children are now municipal services, while tuberculosis and venereal disease are recognised, in addition to infectious disease, as evils for the prevention and cure of which all the forces of the civic authorities must be mobilised. gas and elec- tricity services, the first of which in london is still in the hands of companies and the second of which is just about to be dealt with by an authority constituted for the purpose, have, in bir- mingham, manchester and many other large cities, as well as in some of the metropolitan boroughs, long been within the acknowledged sphere of city government. many of the larger cities, following the example of glasgow and manchester, regard the provision of trafiic facilities in a broader sense than the mere provision of new or wider roads as of civic concern. spain.—the type of civic authority dealt with under this heading is not entirely confined to great britain. spanish city city government government has developed strongly upon these lines. since 18g0, communes have been administered by ayuitanetentos, elected by registered male citizens above 25 years of age domi- ciled in the communes for at least two years, with a president or chairman (alca/de) appointed by the ayuntamicntos from amongst its own members. it is true that there has always been a gov- ernor appointed by the state, who represents the state’s author- ity in each province, but his duty as regards municipalities has been no more than to see that their actions do not overstep the powers granted to them. in 1923 all avuntamientos, together with the alcaldcs, were abolished and replaced by assoctitcd councils of householders. in 1924 the estafufo municipal was passed giving communes through their avuntamientos the right to choose whatever organisation best suits them. the statute also prescribes methods for determining the revenue and expenditure, as well as for the fixation of taxes, etc. municipal accounts are not subject to approval by the state government, and ayuntamientos may form their own budgets. brsltiocrapny,.—sir g, l. gomme, lectures on the principles of english local government (1897); c. gross, bibliography of british mfunicipal iistory (1897); a. shaw, municipal government in con- tinental europe (new york, 1901); dr. josef redlich and f. w. ifirst, local governnrent in england (1903); a. g. rickards and f. w. pember, the afetropolts water act, 1902 (1903); sidney and beatrice webb, english local government from the revolution to the municipal corporations act (1904-8); p. ashley, local and central governnient (1906); sir g. l. gomme, governance of london (1907); ¥, howe, the british city (1907); a. e. lauder, afunicipal manual (1907); w. b. munro, the gevernment of european cities (new york, 1909); p. a. harris, london and its government (1913); sir r. s. wright and h. hobhouse, local government and local taxation (1914); j. j. clarke, outlines of local government (1920); j. p. day, publie administration in the highlands and islands of scotland (1918); j. j. clarke, the local government of the united kingdom (1922); [low manchester is afanaged (edited by m. ander- son— manchester, 1925); report of minister of interior of spain, l' autonomie munici pale—enquete au sujet des relations entre le pouvoir central et les pouvoirs locaux (madrid, 1925). this report was arenes to the third international congress of towns and communes eld in paris in 1925. il. the mixed system under the second heading fall the city governments prevailing throughout europe (except spain) and their derivatives (in- cluding spanish) in asia, africa and north and south america. the outstanding feature of change in germany, france, belgium, italy and the balkan states is not a change in the form or constitution of the civic authority, but in the broadening on democratic lines of the basis upon which the free elective element is now chosen. the mixture of that element with the national government element is not affected, but the local franchise is extended. the most striking examples are perhaps ‘to be found in germany and belgium, where since 1919 a mu- nicipal vote has been given to every citizen, male and female, over an age varying from 20 to 25 years. of the second class—holland, norway, sweden and the countries of european derivation in other continents—little change other than natural and normal growth can be postulated. city government in con- tinental countries is summarised in rough outline below:— france—for local government purposes france is divided into departments, arrondissements, cantons and communes. the local affairs of the commune are managed by the municipal council elected by male (over 21) suffrage for four years, but many of its decisions and especially its budget must be approved by the prefect of the department, who is a political official nominated by the minister of the interior and appointed by the president. on the other hand, a comseil general elected by male suffrage from business men in the cantons controls the depart- mental administration of the prefect. the municipal council elects from among its members a mayor who as executive head of the commune proposes the budget and supervises the police, revenue and public works, and appoints to or dismisses from communal offices. the mayor is also the agent of the govern- ment, and in his sphere of administration is charged with carry- ing out the laws of the country. assistance is given to mayors 639 by deputies (adjoints) elected by the municipal council and vary- ing in number, according to the population of the commune, to not exceeding 12 (though in lyons there are 17). the communal council draws up a list of repartiteurs, whose duty it is to appor- tion among the taxpayers the communce’s share of direct taxes, but the actual selection from the list is made by the sub-prefect of the arrondissement. direct taxes are imposed by the con- seil general on the district councils (conseils d’arrondissements) who allot to each commune its share of these taxes. germany.—before the war, each state of the empire regulated its own plan of municipal rule—there was, therefore, a lack of uniformity but nevertheless a closer approach to a single type of city government than in the united states. the dominating example had always been prussia, and other states were falling into line except in adopting the three-class system of voting. on the formation of the republic this system was abolished everywhere in germany, and the disappearance of the autoc- racy and the extension of the franchise referred to above have increased the interest of the citizens in local affairs. city authori- ties are empowered to do whatever is deemed necessary in the interests of the city, subject to nothing being done which is pro- hibited either by law or by the veto of higher authorities. speak- ing generally, the powers exercised by the german municipality correspond fairly closely with those exercisable by its english counterpart, with the important additions that poor law relief and all the public services of gas, electricity, water and tram- ways are almost universally included. the general form of city government in prussia and hesse is by way of (a) municipal council, which elects a chairman, sub- stitute chairman and secretary or clerk who may or may not be a member of the council, (6) magistrat—an executive board consisting of unpaid and paid members, the latter being usually expert officials. the head of the magtstrat is the burgomaster, who is appointed by the council; heis usually an expert and has frequently been successful in a similar position elsewhere. like the american city manager, the office of burgomaster pro- vides a professional career. the exercise of the powers of the municipality is restricted first by the overriding authority of the minister of the interior; secondly, by the intervention on occasion of the ober prdasident of the province. he, too, is appointed by the state and corre- sponds to the french prefect, as he is also the local agent of the national government. a third form of control is by a district board (beztrksausschuss) appointed by the provincial committee and composed of trained officials. they are a sanctioning authority and the arbiter be- tween the municipal council and the magisirat. the part played by the state government as distinct from the national eave ment is therefore considerable. italy—each commune has a communal council (consiglio communale), which is a deliberative and not an administrative body, and is elected for four years. male persons over 21 years of age, and women over 25 years under certain conditions, are entitled to vote. the head of the administration is called the syndic (sindaco) and is elected, by secret vote, by the members of the communal council from among themselves; he is a repre- sentative of the state in the same way as the french mayor. the members of the communal council also select from among themselves a municipal council (giunta), over which the syndic presides, which appoints officials, etc., and may be said to govern the commune. | . each communal council is supervised by the prefect or sub- prefect (state officials) and also mainly from a financial aspect by the provincial administrative gtusta—composed partly of persons nominated by the government and partly of persons elected by the provincial council. the prefect has power to sus- pend the deliberations of the communal council and municipal council and to annul any action proposed by them when con- trary to law or regulation. there is a right of appeal, however, to the government (minister of interior) by the communal coun- cil against the prefect and provincial ginnia. furthermore, the government can dissolve the communal council and appoint a 640 commissioner to act in its place. the system has been modified under a fascist law, which abolishes self-government in the smaller communes with less than 5,ooo inhabitants. there have also been drastic changes in the govt. of rome. belgium.—municipal councils are elected by the qualified voters (of either sex over 21 years of age) for six years—half being chosen every three years. the burgomaster is appointed by the king in accord with the supposed wishes of the majority of the council, usually from among its members. executive affairs are performed by echevins (echevinal college) holding office for six years and consisting of the burgomaster, aldermen elected by the council and the council secretary. the burgomaster is at once the servant of the commune and a representative in the commune of the executive power of the state. the office often descends from father to son. provincial councils, the executive committee of which is known as the deputation permanente and consists of six members, exercise a considerable measure of supervision over the actions of municipalities, and the state, too, through the provincial governor, but decentralisation is better realised in belgium than in france. netherlands.—the municipal councils are elected bodies varying in numbers in accordance with size of towns. the mayor or burgomaster is appointed by the sovereign but in supposed deference to the wishes of the council. the councils are elected for a four-year term. executive powers are given to wel- houders (six in large towns) chosen by the council, and as such paid salaries. the police are under the burgomaster, who is an expert civil servant rather than a citizen magistrate, often holds his position for life, and is well paid. municipal self-rule is more complete than in france, though budgets have to be approved by executive committees (‘‘ deputed states ”’) of provinces, and the ‘“‘ commissioner of the sovereign ”’ has also a controlling in- fluence, corresponding to that of the french prefect, though not so powerful. norway.—oslo and bergen have a governor (fylkesmann) appointed by the state, as they rank with counties. other cities and towns are administered by a town council (bystyre) elected for three years, and an cxecutive committee (formannskap) of one-fourth the number of the council. the chairman of the coun- cil is elected by the members of the council from their midst. these chairmen, with the governor of the county in which the municipalities are situated, meet annually, and decide upon the taxes, etc., to be raised in the various cities and towns. there is also a burgomaster appointed by the council but his work is mainly secretarial. since 1910 women over 23 years of age have had the suffrage and are eligible for office under the same conditions as men. japan.—the larger cities have a municipal assembly (for administrative purposes) and a municipal council (for executive purposes, partly elective and partly nominated by the central government), the mayor, who is one of three persons elected by the assembly and approved by the emperor, presiding over both bodies; towns have a municipal assembly presided over by a chief magistrate (headman), who is elected by the assembly and ap- proved by the governor of the prefecture or province, who is himself appointed by the government. all male subjects of 25 years and over have the suffrage provided that they are resident in the city or town, and pay land tax or state tax of a certain amount. the main functions of the municipal authorities are concerned with finance. bibliography.— i. massat, manuel de legislation administrative speciale a la ville de paris (1901); albert shaw, afunicipal govern- ment in continental europe (new york, 1903); w. ledermann, die stddteverordnung von 1853 nebst thren geselzlichen ergauzungen (berlin, 1902); g. franceschi, manuel des maires (paris, 1903); r. de pre- voisin, guide pratique d'electeur (paris, 1906); p. ashley, local and central government (1906); h. lindemann, die deutsche stddtever- waltung (stuttgart, 1906); a. esmein, ifistotre du droit frangais (paris, 1908); w. b. munro, the government of european cities (new york, 1909); w. h. dawson, afunicipal life and government in germany (1914); and the evolution of modern germany and the germans (1919); associazione det comunt italtant, il regime com- munale in italia (roma, 1925); g. montagu harris, local govern- ment in many lands (1926). (m. h. co.) city government ii. the american system lord bryce’s american commonwealth (1888) may be said to mark the turning point in the consideration of city problems in america. from the end of the civil war in 1865 to 1888 the united states was engrossed in problems of readjustment, reconstruction, transport and internal development. municipal affairs, where not wholly neglected, were at low ebb and in the hands of selfish political organisations, whose interests were wholly those of personal aggrandisement and profit. lord bryce’s criticism stung the country into consciousness of the shortcomings. philadelphia conference.—a national conference on city gov- ernment was held in philadelphia in 1894, out of which grew the national municipal league. there was no regular form of american municipal government, and the greatest diversity of types. the general tendency, however, was toward a federal plan modclled on that of the national government with a divi- sion of functions (legislative, administrative and judicial). out of the league’s eflorts grew a “‘ municipal programme,” the fun- damental features of which were: that every community should have the right of self-government in local affairs without the interference of outside governmental or party machinery; that the city’s public property in land, and especially its franchise rights, should be preserved unimpaired; that all barriers should be removed which prevented the popular will from expressing itself freely and effectively; that municipal administration should be conducted in the main by a class of public servants who by reason of experience and special training were particularly fitted for their official duties; that official responsibility should be so placed, through simplifica- tion of governmental machinery and full publicity of accounts; and that the people could hold their asblic servants to the execu- tion of the public will with the least possible delay and uncertainty. example of galveston.—in the year in which this programme was adopted (1900) the galveston hurricane-flood nearly destroyed that city. among other thingsswept away was the typical old-style mayor and council form of government, which was replaced by a commission of five men appointed by the governor of texas. this commission worked so swiftly and efficiently, and with so much less annual cost that, after the emergency passed, an attempt was made to continue it with a commission cf five mem- bers, three appointed by the governor and two chosen by popu- jar vote. a court decision declared such appointments to be unconstitutional, and the entire commission forthwith became elective. to the surprise of most observers, no demoralisation ensued, and through successive elections changes tn the personnel were slight. in 1908 des moines, ia., adopted the galveston system, with the addition of the initiative, referendum, recall and non-parti- san primary. this broader plan was even more widely copied than the galveston plan. among the larger cities (over 100,000 population) which adopted it are buffalo; newark, n.j.; new orleans; jersey city; portland, ore.; st. paul; oakland, cal.; omaha; birmingham, ala.; memphis; san antonio; dallas; houston, tex.; trenton; salt lake city; reading, pa.; fort worth; spokane; kansas city, kan. twenty-nine cities of over 50,000 population had adopted it by 1915; 67 of over 20,000; and go of over 10,000. illinois leads in the number of commission- governed cities, followed by texas, kansas, new jersey, penn- sylvania, oklahoma, california, michigan, south dakota, alabama, louisiana, tennessee and florida. city manager system.—few changes of importance were made in the des moines plan (except the preferential ballot first added by grand junction, colo., 1909) until the appearance in 1913 of the modification providing for a city manager. operating under an old form of government, the council of staunton, va., appointed a business manager. later dayton, o., after a dis- astrous flood, adopted the commission-manager form of govern- ment, the essential feature of which was a small council of five, acting as a policy-determining body, and acity manager to be elected by the council to execute its policy. out of this grew a city-manager form, which the national municipal league recom- mended to charter-makers, then multiplying in great numbers city planning due to the growing dissatisfaction with existing conditions. a second ‘‘ municipal programme” formally adopted by the national municipal league in ro14, definitely embodied the city or commission manager plan and later recommended that the council or legislative body be elected on the principle of pro- portional representation. the city manager movement is justly regarded as the ripest fruit of the movement for better municipal government. it embodies the short ballot, responsiveness to public opinion, con- centration of executive power and responsibility, expert admin- istration of city affairs and elimination of legislative control over the administrative: all essential principles of sound govern- mental practice. the success of the plan has been abundantly proved, although here and there expectations, because unrea- sonable, have not been met. moreover, its application to an increasing number of cities is developing municipal policies as perhaps no other single factor has. city planning, zoning, budget making, improved personnel and administration, more effective purchasing, the preparation of adequate and carefully devised plans for transportation, intelligent housing—all have been stimulated by utilising experts in municipal affairs. on march 1 1925 there were 352 cities and towns operating under a city manager form of government; 261 by virtue of charter provi- sion, and 91 by virtue of ordinance provisions. these were dis- tributed as follows: michigan, 38; california, 33; texas, 30; florida, 26; virginia, 23; oklahoma, 18; ohio, 16; pennsylvania, 15; kansas, 13; georgia and north carolina, 12 each; lowa, 11; illinois and new york, 7 each; colorado, tennessee and west virginia, 6 each; cregon and washington, 5 each; 15 other states from 4 to 1 each. the cities over 20,000 population operating under this form of gov- ernment are: cleveland (769,841); cincinnati (401,247); iansas city, mo, (324,410); norfolk, va. (159,080); grand rapids, mich.; dayton, o.; fort worth, tex.; knoxville, tenn.; san diego, cal.; wichita, kan.; sacramento, cal.; springfield, o.; wheeling, w. va.; portsmouth, va.; berkeley, cal.; tampa, fla.; long beach, cal.; roanoke, va.; niagara falls; jackson, kalamazoo, and bay city, mich.; pasadena, cal.; greensboro, n. c.; lima, o.; beaumont, tex.; kenosha, wis.; charleston, w. va.; stockton, cal.; dubuque, ta.; san jose, cal.; muskegon and pontiac, mich.; auburn, n. y.; waco, tex.; newport news, va.; austin, tex.; columbus, ga.; lynchburg, va.; colorado springs, colo.; muskogee, okla.; phoenix, ariz.; alameda, cal.; newburgh and watertown, ys east cleveland, o.; new london, conn.; middletown and sandusky, o.; durham, n.c. progress in recent years.—there can be no lasting improve- ment in the personnel of city officials until the short ballot be- comes an established fact. this change will come less quickly than the others because of the “ vested interests ” of the great political organisations, which will yield with the greatest reluc- tance, for the short ballot means the substitution of citizen management for party organisation. prof. frank parsons, in summing up the municipal activities of american cities, declared the following subjects had been held to be proper public purposes and proper subjects of municipal ownership and control: “ roads, bridges, sidewalks, sewers, ferries, markets, scales, wharves, canals, parks, baths, schools, libraries, museums, hospitals, lodging-houses, poor-houses, police, jails, cemeteries, prevention of fire, supply of water, gas, electricity, heat, power, transportation, telegraph and telephone service, clocks, skating rinks, musical entertainments, exhibitions of fireworks, tobacco warehouses, employment offices.” according to the federal census of 1920, america had be- come preponderantly urban, over 50° 4 of the population being reported as living in cities. the municipal problem is, therefore, an outstanding one, and questions of regional planning and city and county consolidation become of increasing importance. bibliography.—p. ashley, local and central government (1906); a. r, hatton, digest of city charters (chicago, 1906); j. a. fairlie, essays in municipal administration (1908); e. s. bradford, com- mission government in american cities (1910); e. p. oberholtzer, referendum, initiative and recall in america (1911); c. r. woodruff, city government by commission (1911); w. b. munro, bibliography of municipal government (cambridge, mass. 1915); h. a. toulmin, phe city manager (1915); h. l. mcbain, law and practice of municipal tome rule (1916); w. b. munro, principles and afethods of municipal administration (1916); c. zueblin, american munic- ipal progress (1916); t. s. chang, fistory and analysis of the com- mission and city manager plans of municipal government in the 641 united states (lowa city, 1918); h. l. mcbain, american municipal progress and the law (1918); r. n. story, american municipal kx- ecutive (urbana, 1918); f. j. goodnow and f.g. bates, municipal government (1919); c. p. woodruff, a new municipal program (1919); w. b. munro, the government of american cities (1920); e. kimball, state and municipal government in the united states (boston, 1922); j. koren, boston 1822-1922; the story of its govern- ment and principal actinties (boston, 1922); and many pamphlets published by the national municipal league of amcrica. (c. r. w.) city planning.—in some directions the world war speeded up the work and achievements of city planning. the devastated areas in france and belgium provided opportunities for applying new ideas with much wider scope than would have otherwise occurred; new societies, such as the renaissance des cites,' have prevented a repetition of the haphazard rebuild- ing that happened after the great fire of london. in great britain the war and the consequent housing shortage have pro- duced an immense amount of municipal house building; houses by the thousand have been planned and built in complete new suburbs, exhibiting the looser method of suburban planning with about 12 houses to the acre (in place of the old 40 or 50) which was being timidly attempted before the war. again, the large amount of unemployment caused by post-war trade depression has provided labour for an outburst of road con- struction that almost equals the work of the romans in the british isles. the new arterial roads round london, planned out and agreed to by a series of conferences before the war, have now nearly all been actually constructed, and the trees are already springing up along thcir routes. but these pushes do not represent uniform and complete progress. there has been a tendency to slip back to old stand- ards, on the score of the saving in finding immediate cash. it has always, however, been demonstrable that town planning is an economy in the long run. it is true that it will cost less to-day to construct a road 30 ft. wide than one 60 ft. (but not much, if the extra 30 ft. are only laid down in grass); but if in 20 years’ time it is necessary to pull down the buildings which have been erected up to the 30 ft. road, widen it to 60 ft. and rebuild, then it would have been found considerably cheaper to make your road sufficiently wide at first. town planning means the ex- ercise of a little forethought, and using the skill of the designer to decide which roads will be eventually wanted at 60 ft. wide and which can remain at 30. other questions require fore- thought. zoning (a word that has come into common use) means deciding what is the best use to which land should be put and confining it, with of course reasonable elasticity, to that use. if a man now builds a house in a residential zone he knows that he will not wake up one morning and find a blast furnace started next door; if a certain town (as has happened in sheffield) has a limited amount of land eminently suitable to industries, it may be necessary to prohibit houses being built there, in order to reserve the land for industrial expansion. in both cases it might pay for the moment to allow the blast furnace among houses and use up industrial land for residential; but in the long run the whole town suffers as well as the individuals; and in both cases the houses find themselves damaged by being mixed up with industrial buildings. zoning, therefore, attempts to look ahead, and also gives a man a sense of security in his property; it sta- bilises rateable values. city planning in various countries the following points from different countries will give some idea of the international character of the practice of city plan- ning. its theory is cosmopolitan, as the habits and customs of living in cities tend to approximate, with nevertheless an occasional sharply determinating factor which produces different effects, as, for example, the new york skyscraper and her elaborate height zoning regulations, necessitated by the fact of the business section being confined within a small island. the british istes—in england town planning has been legal- ised by the act of 1909, subsequently slightly enlarged in its ! renaissance des cites, paris. « ¢ 4 3 i 5 ¢ e | i — cor, hail ummett rose zat 2 bed ioee general peale vues inner € civy planning area oe =e 3 mt fa ca fic. 1.—city of dublin; development of central area. scope and finally codified in 1925. town-planning powers are still almost entirely concerned with suburban development on the outskirts of the great towns, though they are applicable equally to smaller isolated communities and even rural districts. all boroughs and urban districts with a population of over 20,000 at the census of 1921 must prepare a scheme for all land in their district which comes within the definition of the act as land likely to be used for building purposes. this definition somewhat paradoxically includes open spaces, roads, parks and recreation grounds. towns of historic or architectural interest may include their built-up areas if they can persuade the min- istry of health that they are worth preserving in themselves. so far oxford and chester are the only ones that have taken advantage of this widening of the scope of the acts. no fewer than 281 authorities had (by march 1925) presented schemes covering nearly 1,800,000 ac. of land thus under control; 17 schemes, prepared by 12 different local authorities, and covering approximately 28,000 ac., were finally completed and approved. regional planning may be said, so far as great britain 1s con- cerned, to have been practically invented as a definite policy during the period 1911-5. towns, in attempting to plan out their future, found that in many cases it was essential to know what the neighbouring authority intended to do; at times in thickly populated districts such as southeast lancashire, the west riding of yorkshire and the neighbourhood of birmingham one scheme insensibly merged into another. it was discovered that a group of authorities forming a natural unit might be well advised to combine together to produce a report and plan, in skeleton, for the whole region, thereby attempting to secure the best lines of development for main roads, zoning and other town planning purposes. one of the first regional plans of this nature was an unofficial one for london produced by the london society during the war, and published in the form of a mag- nificent map as a development plan of greater london. the object was to show the local authorities, from london county council to the smallest rural district within the metropolitan area, that their interests were inextricably bound up. it is significant of the difficulty found in dealing with capital cities that london is still without a complete regional committee, several small partial ones having alone been formed. the doncaster scheme was the first regional plan to be prepared; others are in hand for regions of which the centres might be described as (1) manchester, (2) leeds, (3) birmingham, (4) newcastle, (5) middlesbrough, (6) chester, (7) cardiff, swansea and newport; there are several others of less marked centralisa- tion. in this direction england has been a pioneer. in cast kent, where an entirely new coalfield is being opened up, a far- reaching regional plan is prepared which it is hoped will in- adugurate a new era in coal production, both as to the working of the pits and as to the creation of new towns, without impairing rural amenities. the main lines of garden village design are by now familiar: the limitation of houses to 12 per acre, the sharp distinction between main roads and residence approaches, the retention of city planning natural features so far as possible in the layout and the impor- tance given to grass, trees and open spaces. many of the munic- ipal housing schemes are models of layout and house design, and it would be invidious to pick out any for special comment. the most important new departure since the founding of letchworth on a single site has been the companion garden city of welwyn, hertfordshire. both these are independent places, hence the use of the word “ city,” not “ village’; but welwyn is more in the nature of a satellite town to london—that is to . i ed - my siig a y -@cee eeste> e * eee a ee % ave z a ‘fic. 2.—rebuilding of cambrai. plan of centre of town. hatched portion shows buildings destroyed by bombardment and _ fire. (1. town hall. 2. beffroi. 3. porte de paris. 4. cathedral. 5. st. gery.) heavy black lines show new city-planning alignment of streets. the site of the british war memorial is shown at 6. say, its position was selected with a view to allowing a certain number of its inhabitants to go backwards and forwards. this satellite method of growth is one of the results of regional planning combined with the garden suburb planning of 12 houses to the acre, and is affected by improved train service and the increased use of motor-cars and buses. the question has thus arisen whether, instead of spreading the suburbs out continu- ously from the towns, it may not be better to start a new satel- lite further afield with a centre of its own, albeit dependent for its main nourishment on the parent body. the movement is only in its infancy, and would be facilitated by a better distribu- tion of electrical power throughout the country. welwyn must be regarded as a typical forerunner of the satellite town. several cities have put forward tentative suggestions for remodelling the centre of the town, and birmingham has aimed at relating central improvements to suburban planning under the acts and to the regional planning of the surrounding local authorities. birmingham has schemes for buying up land wher- ever possible and re-laying it out in such a way that the city benefits as landowner for the newly planned area. the great contribution made by liverpool during this period has been the construction of a magnificent series of external artcrial roads, including an outer ring, known as queen’s drive. another interesting direction of study is preliminary survey work, using the word in the widest sense of studying a place from every angle. some valuable work was done under the auspices of the royal institute of british architects during the war in london and at manchester and other places as a centre. the object of these surveys is to familiarise the public, city councillors and officials with every aspect of the place, so that the town-planning proposals may really meet the needs and be in harmony with the character of the district. perhaps the most detailed civic survey for an individual town was prepared by sheffield, accompanied by a tentative plan of future growth. 643 probably the biggest scheme (on paper) of general town planning (apart from urban schemes under the act) has been produced for dublin, as a result of a competition promoted just before the outbreak of war by the marquess and marchioness of aberdeen. other schemes, also not advanced in 1926 beyond the paper stage, were prepared for bath, plymouth, kilmar- nock, northampton and bolton. france-—the importance of the french contribution to in- ternational town planning has hitherto been dominated by the achievements of the past, owing to the fact that a homogeneous and consistent architectural style had given continuity to the work of city planning and improvement from the reign of louis xiv. continuously down to the end of the second empire. it must be remembered that, though the legal and utilitarian aspects of town planning are soon out of date, artistic achicve- ment is perennial, even if the precise objects to be served may have changed. in france, city extension was being carried out before the war on what we should call town-planning lines as a matter of course. gyratory traffic, introduced in 1926 into london, was being thoroughly studied as a practical proposi- tion, and two interesting housing laws (1894-1906) giving en- couragement to individual workmen to acquire their own houses had been passed. since the war, as has been said, the whole energy has been directed to the restoration of devastated areas. perhaps the two most spectacular events have been the passing of the law of march 14 1919, calling on every city, town and commune, of over 10,000 inhabitants to prepare a plan of ex- tension, improvement and embellishment within three years’ time; the other event, which indeed was concerned with it, was the great competition for the future of paris, perhaps the largest town-planning competition ever held. the three special require- ments asked for were (1) regional developments, (2) central improvements, (3) the existing fortifications, which latter it had been proposed to pull down just before the war. the scale of the work may be judged from the fact that the winning design (by m. jaussely) was planned for a city that should contain 10,000,000 inhabitants. germany and austria-—germany before the war was in the full swing of city building. she was actually expanding more. rapidly in her towns than any other european country. these were being systematically planned, and were in the majority of cases excellent examples of municipal foresight, but in two directions the work was not satisfactory. artistically they were undistinguished, and as regards the health of the inhabitants the housing conditions left much to be desired owing to a still prevalent predilection for dwelling in tenements. the road planning was, within its artistic limitations, of a monumental and striking character, with great “‘places’’ formed at the railway stations and each important centre of the town; but this ample road provision was carried to excess when these big thoroughfares were provided also for residential streets, with the result in many cases of forcing up the value of land to very high prices. an important competition was held for berlin. the winning design, by herr jansen, contained among others two striking features: first, five great radial roads, whose object was to make the country round accessible in all directions; and, secondly, the knitting together of the fine woods and lagoons round berlin into a great circular outer park belt, extending as far as potsdam. cologne has also produced a bold scheme of development and others are in prospect. vienna is naturally grouped with germanic town planning, but resembles paris in that tts most remarkable achievements belong to an earlier period; but again its most important contri- bution to modern town planning is to be found in the girdle of wooded hills and meadows which tt had completed shortly before the war. these comprise some 68,000 ac. of open spaces within the city boundary of the most varied topography, ranging from mountain slopes, rocky and wooded, to pleasant meadow lands and wide stretches of country and water lagoons in the neigh- bourhood of the old danube bed and on the banks of the stream further down at libau. 6.44 belgium.—brussels during all this period has been in the throes of a reconstruction into which it was plunged by the ambitious schemes of leopold ii. the chief and still incomplete work was the creation of a great new central station in the midst of the old city: for this purpose a large part of the central area has been laid waste. this is the best european town in which to study the vexed problem of the single union through-station as against a scries of terminals. the difficulties of the levels in central brussels have complicated the solution; and this town-planning project became at an early stage an acute political issue. contiguous to the station, but not theo- retically connected, is the new garden which leopold had con- structed on the site of the old steep street, the montaigne de ja cour; this is the best example of picturesque town landscaping carried out ip recent times. every other aspect of modern city planning may be stu:licd in and near brussels. the rest of belgium is naturally remarkable chiefly for the post- war reconstruction work, which has advanced very rapidly; the artistic policy adopted has been a re-creation of imagined 17th- century flemish towns. | italy.—as regards rome, the great ‘‘ piano regolatore " of 1908 was one of the biggest attempts of modern times at a city improve- ment and extension scheme; it remains in force with necessary modifications until 1933. unfortunately, in spite of its boldness it is conceived in a somewhat hard and mechanical spirit, the remarkable topography of rome not being allowed sufficiently to dominate the layout of the new streets. the main features of the plan are an immense encircling boulevard, ‘ avenue of circumvallation,” an archaeological zone, improvements to the ancient city centring on the piazza colonna and eight or nine large new suburban areas, central improvements in the neighbourhood of the capitol and the victor emmanuel monument are in hand. more normal examples of city extension are to be found at milan, turin and florence: this work is still carried on under the act of 1865. _ sweden, denmark and ioliand.—the extent of swedish work in town planning was shown by the exhibition and city planning conference, gothenburg, in 1923. whereas the previous town plans are of a hard and uninspired sort, the later work, which confesses a debt of acknowledgment to english planning, is extremely free and flexible, as may be seen at stockholm, gothenburg, l'ppsala, kalma and other places. in a monumental direction the great new town hall at stockholm stands among the first half dozen modern buildings. denmark, which in copenhagen has always possessed one of the most charming and up-to-date capitals in europe, has an interesting and progressive regional scheme of decentralisation and many charm- ing examples of garden-suburban planning, founded possibly on english originals, but distinctive in architectural treatment. amsterdam possesses perhaps the most interesting town “ spi- _der’s-web ” plan in europe: the modern proposals are continued in the same spirit. rotterdam, an uninteresting town plan, has some remarkable and completely planned suburban extensions and pro- posals for ‘' gyratory "' traffic places. no other continental country is so valuable to england as a field for the study of housing as hol- land: modern methods of construction, traditional examples of design, brickwork, layout, etc., all may be seen in varying degrees of cost- liness and cheapness. | finland,—the town plan of helsingfors is a grandiose conception, and studies and models for the new suburbs have been made in greatest detail. the design for the study of munksnas-haga by m. ae saarinen is a remarkable example of modern finnish civic esign. russia.—the most interesting piece of city planning in russia is moscow: the old capital has always been one of the foremost examples of instinctive ‘ spider’s-web " planning, caused by the successive walls of fortifications with the kremlin at the centre. the extension plan carrying on the same type, with ring and radial roads, makes moscow one of the largest and most marked examples of continuous- spreading towns, the reverse of the satellite method of growth. united states—among the most marked features of the period in america has been the city-planning report which many towns have issued, not usually by official action, but as a result of the interest of the citizens at large and business men in the future of their city. of the 43 cities in the united states with a population of 150,000 or more, only one has not had some sort or other of town-planning report prepared. the chicago report, which appeared in 1909, was the first of these magnificent schemes to appear, in this case prepared for the commercial club, and presented to the city; and the main lines proposed have been adopted. since then the san francisco, cleveland, philadelphia, boston, rochester, minneapolis, pittsburgh, new haven, new jersey, newark and many more reports have appeared, their tenor varying from monumental vision toseverely practical and statistical suggestion. the almost universal ‘ gridiron” type of plan upon which american towns have been laid out has given a considerable city planning degree of uniformity to many of these schemes, and has sharply cut them off from the normal european town plan. the aim of these plans has therefore been largely to cut diagonal lines through the square chequer board (the fairmount parkway has thus been thrust right through the very heart of philadelphia at the city ilall); to create an encircling boulevard connection (as proposed for chicago); to give the city a manifest centre, the gridiron being continuous and devoid of climax. these civic centres, in which were massed all possible public buildings with gardens and monuments, threatened at one time to become an obsession, but latterly have assumed juster proportions in the general scheme of things. san francisco, st. paul (minnesota), st. louis, denver, rochester and springfield are among the more remarkable civic centres in course of realisation. great attention has also been given to the railway station and its connection with the town; at cleveland this is the key of the civic centre. in the systematic provision of open spaces america has led the world: nearly all the statistical bases upon which parks and playgrounds are disposed in england have been founded on united states practice and experience. small children’s play- grounds, local gardens, connecting park strips, riverside drives and tree-planted boulevards, large parks and stretches of re- served country are all knit together into a continuous system which interpenetrates the town plan and in some places appears to be its guiding factor. the boston and metropolitan park system is the oldest, and is on a truly regional basis, as it em- braces the areas of no fewer than 38 different local authorities who all contribute to its cost and upkeep. other fine park sys- tems are found at kansas city, cincinnati, minneapolis, phila- delphia, baltimore, portland and providence the most characteristic city-planning term in use to-day in the united states is “ zoning.” this has been so enthusiastically taken up that zoning legislation and plans have been passed for cities, quite apart from other aspects of town planning. this is the exact converse of what has frequently happened in england, where main road plans have been prepared without any thought of what buildings are to face on them or occupy the districts through which they pass. some 300 cities, towns and villages have passed zoning ordinances determining with some exactitude the character of every building to be erected in each district. this control of the use of land, density of population and height and bulk of buildings is administered directly by the courts under what is known as “ police power,” and not by the munici- pality under by-laws. comprehensive zoning was first applied about nine years ago in new york; its growth and codification of practice took place in a decade. new york, already zoned, is pursuing its city and regional plan. it is the biggest thing in city planning in the states, the area extend- ing to 3,500,000 ac, and the population being about 9,000,000. de- tailed monographs are prepared of all trades and their requirements; traffic and other data are collected and preliminary studies made. rapid transit routes and freight distribution plans have been pre- pared in order to control! the future spread of the population. washington, specially designed as a capital city, has been thor- oughly overhauled by a commission and its original plan amplified; this was rendered possible by the reclamations from the potomac river. the railways have been grouped together into a union station facing down one of the avenues to the capitol. the mall, in front of the latter, has been cleared of blocking buildings and irregular gardening and is being restored as a great processional park leading up to the washington monument; beyond this, the main axis 1s continued to the new lincoln memorial, and a bridge is planned across the river to the national cemctery at arlington. the park system of washington has been augmented by a series of magnificent riverside drives. other examples of town planning.—the most remarkable city- planning study of canada is that which has been prepared for ottawa. imposing plans have also been designed for calgary and vancouver. canberra, the australian capital, is being built. the design was obtained by a competition, which was won by mr. walter b. griffin of chicago. delhi, the monumental centre of british administration in india, is conceived on a scale of the greatest magnificence. madras, bombay and lucknow have each of them great schemes in course of realisation. international organisations—at ghent in 1913 there was held the first international congress on town planning and organisation of civil service city life, on the occasion of the great exhibition. there was also the cities exhibition arranged by professor patrick geddes. at this congress was founded the ‘‘ union internationale des villes et communes,” with its headquarters at 3, rue dela regence, brussels. this union is intended to be the mceting ground of all cities for a discussion and comparison of problems concerning city life, of which town planning is one. the secretariat publishes a valuable period- ical bibliography, ‘ tablettes documentaires,” which summarises international happenings in relation to civic life. conferences are held from time to time, the last being in paris in 1925. closely allied to the above, but dealing strictly with city and regional planning activities, is the ‘ international federation for town and country planning and garden cities '': headquarters, 3, gray’s inn place, london. a very large number of technical and sociological organisations are represented on the council, and the leading technicians of the world belong to the society. the con- ference held in new york in 1925 was attended by representatives of states, affiliated societies, municipalities, technical bodies and individual members from 26 countries, bibliography.—f, haverficld, ancient town-planning (1913); t. f. tout, medieval town-planning (1917); r. unwin, town- planning in practice (1919); final report of the committee appointed by the afinister of itealth to consider and adzise on the principles to be followed in dealing with unhealthy areas (1920); c. b. purdom and others, zown theory and practice (1921), and the building of satellite towns (1925); report of the south wales regional survey committee (1921); l. p. abercrombie, the doncaster regional plan- ning scheme: the report prepared for the joint committee (1922), deeside regional planning scheme: chester and flintshire (1923), “dublin of the future’: civics institute of ireland, vol. 1 (1923), stratford-upon-avon report on future development (1923), sheffield: a civic survey and suggestions towards a development plan (1924); and l. p. abercrombie and j. archibald, fast kent regional pian- ning scheme (1925), bulletins of the international federation for town and country planning and garden cities (1923, etc.); s. davey and f. c. minshull, law and practice of town planning (1923); n. p. lewis, the planning of the modern city, 2nd ed. (new york, 1923); ministry of health, model clauses for town planning schemes (1924); reports of international town-planning conferences (london, 1924, etc.); h. t. o’rourke, the dublin civic survey (1926); manchester and district joint advisory committee, report upon the regional plan (1926). (p. a.*)