CAMEROONS

in 1911 some 107,000 sq. m. of french equatorial africa were added to the german colony of cameroon or kamcrun, as it was called, as compensation for the recognition by germany of a french protectorate in morocco. in 1914-6 cameroon was conquered by french and british 494 native troops, and by the treaty of versailles, germany renounced all her rights over it. the country had been provision- ally divided into french and british spheres, and in may 1919 the supreme council gave the mandate to administer it to france and great britain. it was unequally divided, france obtaining five-sixths of the country. the terms of the mandate were not approved by the council of the league of nations until july 20 1922. delay had been caused by negotiations between the mandatory powers and the united states; these negotiations ended in u.s. citizens being given equal economic rights in the cameroons with nationals of the members of the league. the re ry ero enflish miles ——— i ee | 100 kilometres oo {00 200 boundary 19/4. ra a925 2 4 oe eo rotlways : . as fee ban, hha rast sram} 239 f a oey ¥ ae an. ants 4 er ie rie ep yo boel ar a “pai sp)-p —campot 4 bight of fpaanentinsoasings ba me ramen ie r longitude fast 2° of greenwic area added to the cameroons in 19r1 was not included in the mandated territory, but was in 1919 restored to french inqua- torial africa. the british sphere is a long strip of territory adjoining nigeria with an area of about 31,000 sq. m. and a population (1924) of 660,024 natives and arabs and 77 europeans. the british sphere includes in the north the emirate of dikwa (dikoa), formerly german bornu, and in the south mt. cam- eroon, the hill town of buea and port victoria. this portion is known as cameroon province. the whole sphere is administered as part of nigeria, dikwa possessing a large degree of autonomy. the cocoa, rubber and banana plantations established in the victoria district by the germans (with 48,000 ac. under cultiva- tion) were in nov. 1924 sold by auction in london, realising £224,670. there are considerable forest areas in which are mahogany, ebony and other valuable timbers. the chief exports are cocoa and palm kernels; two-thirds of the imports are cotton piece-goods. deficits in the public finances are mace good by the nigerian treasury. slave-raiding, reduced latterly to kidnap- ping, and slave-trading had been almost stamped out by 1925. progress was made in hygienic conditions and education. the french sphere has an area of some 160,000 sq. m. and a population estimated (1924) at 1,500,000. it includes duala and kribi, the chief ports of the cameroons, and is administered as a separate entity by a commissioner aided by a council. in 1921 cameroons, operations in the french transferred the capital from duala to yaunde, a town occupying a comparatively healthy position on the central plateau rio m. south-southeast of duala, with which it was connected by railway. the chief exports are palm kernels and palm oil, cocoa, rubber, timber and cattle. lack of adequate neans of transport hindered the economic development of the country. a small military force (under 2,000) was maintained. see i. von puttkamer, gouverneursjahre in kamerun (1912); keports on the british sphere of the cameroons (1922) and subsequent annual reports issued by the cofoniaf office, london; also the annual reports on the french sphere published by the french govt. and by the league of nations. (fy dt co) cameroons, operations in.—the german forces in the protectorate at the outbreak of the world war were commanded by col. zimmerman, an able and resolute soldier, and consisted of approximately 200 europeans and 1,550 natives in the mili- tary force and 40 europeans and 1,255 natives in the police force. some hundreds of settlers were available, as were a num- ber of sailors from ships which made for the cameroons estuary when war was declared. considerable numbers of natives were trained as eskaris during the campaign, and to some extent local levies co-operated, though the natives generally were hostile to their german masters. these forces were scattered, the main portion of them being about duala, the chief port. the offensive was initiated by the allies. bonga and singa, the most advanced enemy posts in the two salients, were cap- tured by the french on aug. 6 and 7 rgr4, a german offensive being thus forestalled by gen. aymerich, the french command- er-in-chicf. two french columns were then dispatched. ‘phe one (ftutin) north along the sanga, with lomie as its objective, the other (morrison) moving west on dume from singa along the lobave. ‘these enemy posts were in the centre of the came- roons, on sept. 21 gen largeau in the north occupied kuscri in the lake chad region, british afovements—meanwhile british forces had moved from nigeria, and a column under capt. tox crossed the frontier on aug. 25, and unsuccessfully attacked mora, a hill post in the north held by capt. von raben. a french column (brisset), sent to co-operate with fox, occupied marua south of mora on dee. 12, with the result that the lake chad region was cleared of the enemy, except the garrison of mora, which gallantly held out through all the campaign, surrendering upon terms at its conclusion. unsuccessful attempts to storm the place were made between aug. 23 and sept. 15 1915. , two other british columns invaded the cameroons on aug. 25. one (lt.-col. maclear) moved from yola on garua, was heavily defeated and retired to yola, its commander having been killed; the other entered the cameroons at the southern end of the northwest border, and, surprised by the enemy from duala, sustained a severe reverse with 168 casualties. the troops employed were nigerian natives under british officers. anglo-prench offensive—about the middle of sept. an anglo- french expeditionary force, 4,300 strong, formed in equal pro- portions from british and french negro troops, and under the british commander-in-chicf, maj.-gen. sir c. m. dobell, em- barked at different ports, and, forcing the barrier at duala, bombarded that port on sept. 26. on the surrender of the port on the following day 400 germans and 30,915 tons of shipping were captured. col. zimmerman withdrew to edea, 4o m. to the southeast. three columns were at once directed in pursuit of the enemy at edca which, after continuous opposition, was occupied on oct. 26. a french garrison under col. mayer was installed at edcea, the german commander-in-chief hav- ing retired to yaunde, ico m. east, on a plateau beyond the forest belt. | mayer, owing to the weakness of his force, being condemned to passive defence, the british forces proceeded to clear the country between the cameroons estuary and nigeria. by the end of 1914 the whole of the northern railway and buea, the enemy administrative capital, had been occupied. on jan. 5 1915 mayer beat off an attack on edea with heavy loss to the attackers. elsewhere the allied offensive had almost ceased, devices used in military camouflage fic. 1. field gun cover, of fish netting, with painted “ scrim" centre, and strips of painted canvas. such a cover is erected horizon- tally over a gun. fic. 2. imitation tree as observation post. the original tree can be seen on the left. fic. 3. imitation tree, as in fig. 2, with side cut away to show position of observer. (fig. 3. crown copyright.) camouflage iiutin’s column alone had made some progress, and he had been joined by a small belgian contingent. reorganisation was ef- fected and brig.-gen. cunliffe was appointed to command the allied troops in the north, where the enemy was taking the offensive. reinforcements reached gen. dobell at duala in february. a concentric advance upon yaunde was decided upon, but was begun prematurely, largely in consequence of the usual dif- ficulties which beset allies who endeavour to co-operate for the first time. on april 7 a british column under col. haywood moved east and mayer left edeaon may 1. on may 3 haywood, moving north of mayer, captured wum biagas after 18 hours’ fighting. the two columns then joined forces under the com- mand of col. mayer. on may 25 mayer resumed the advance, but was strongly opposed in the dense bush. when yaunde was still 40 m. distant, dysentery became rife and withdrawal began, and on june 28 mayer was back in the edea district. in april gen. cunliffe in the north invested garua, held by capt. von crailsheim, a daring and skilful soldier. cunliffe captured garua on june 10, and on june 28 occupied ngaundere, some 300 m. northeast of yaunde. here, simultancously with the return of mayer to edea, a halt was called. hutin occupied lomie—r50 m. south-southeast of yaunde—on june 25 and morrison took dume a month later. the general allied offensive was resumed, and by early oct. gen. dobell was moving in from the west, cunliffe from the north and hutin and morrison from the east. the maximum allied strength, about 15,coo, was now disposed against the enemy, whose forces were estimated at 10,000 (inclusive of 7co europeans). the opposition was, as before, vigourous and pro- tracted. on oct. 9 the british re-took wum biagas, and on oct. 30 the french occupied eseka, the railhead. the british force emerged first from the forest belt and on dec. 17 were at mangas in open country and about 5o m. west of yaunde. on dec. 21 the french column, which had had severe fighting and many casualties, reached mangele’s 20 m. south- east of mangas. the british troops were instructed not to await mayer’s arrival at mangele’s, and accordingly pushed straight on for yaunde, which col. gorges entered unopposed on jan. 1 1916. conclusion of the campaign.—from dec. 22 opposition by the enemy had ceased. col. zimmerman, as soon as he knew that the allied columns were clear of the forest, and that cun- liffe and aymerich were approaching, decided to give up the contest. he evacuated yaunde and, together with the gover- nor and 823 germans, including civilians and his troops ancl carriers, headed southwest for spanish guinea, of which the nearest point was 125 m. distant. he was pursued, and fought a rear-guard action on jan. 8. the next force to reach yaunde was brisset’s column, fol- lowed by aymerich’s troops. cunliffe’s forces had had very stubborn fighting during the closing phase of the campaign, the most difficult operation being the capture (nov. 4-5) of banyo, a hill fortress some 200 m. north of yaunde and on the edge of that corner of the cameroons, the region towards the cross river, where german resistance was continued to the last. in this quarter the enemy continued vigourously to dispute cunliffe's advance, and when, on jan. 1, yaunde had fallen, the latter’s advance troops were still 40 m. distant from that objective. col. zimmerman eluded the columns which had been sent to the borders of spanish guinea and were waiting to bar his entry into neutral territory. the first part of his forces, quickly fol- lowed by the rest, entered spanish territory on feb. 4 and with the surrender of the gallant garrison at mora on feb. 18, the conquest of the cameroons was complete. see e. dane, british campaigns in africa (1919); h. c. o'neill, the war in africa (1919); maj.-gen. sir c. dobell, the campaign in the cameroons, 1914-6 (1922). ct jg.) camouflage.—the word camouflage, in the broad sense of military deception, is applicable to all stratagems designed to mislead the enemy. in the following account it is used in the restricted sense of deception practised by artists. 495 i. military camouflage the application to war of camouflage, as thus defined, is by no means novel; dummy guns have been successfully employed to mislead an opponent on occasion ever since guns became a normal part of military equipment. many historical instances could be brought forward in which camouflage was practised by individuals as an expedient. but it was not till the world war that it was practised by armies as a policy. a transitional stage between the spasmodic use of camouflage in emergencies and its regular and systematic use is marked by the painting, or other treatment, of coast defence forts to blend with their surroundings, in order to render them less conspicuous from the sea. the well-known chequered black-and-white of the spithead forts was an attempt to mislead the enemy as to the exact location of the gun embrasures. the same artifice was used in the case of the loopholes of blockhouses in the south african war of 1899-1902. a further stage was reached in the adoption of uniforms col- oured to blend with the usual or typical colours of the country- side in a theatre of war. the first of these was the indian khaki (see 15.770), and after the experience gained in the south african war, when the importance of concealment came into great prom- inence, the british and most other armies adopted dust-coloured, light-blue, grey or grey-green uniforms. hitherto deception in war had been limited to the compara- tively simple task of deceiving the human eye, at a considerable distance and for a short time. in the world war its rele was extended to circumventing the camera in addition to deceiving for long periods the eyes of observers armed with powerful glasses, and for the first time in history a military unit was or- ganised for the definite purpose of practising scientific deception. this policy was initiated by certain french artists serving in a french battery toward the end of 1914. the interest of a french commander was aroused and his sympathy enlisted, with the result that a “ section de camouflage ” was formed early in 1915, for the purpose of assisting units in the conceal- ment of battery positions and other military works, and the construction of concealed posts of observation. the success attained by this section led to the organisation of the british camoutlage service, as a unit of royal engineers, early in 1916. principles and practice may be dealt with under three heads: (1) the concealment of gun positions and the like from the enemy’s aeroplanes; (2) the concealment of observation posts and ma- chine-gun emplacements from direct view; and (3) miscellaneous applications of camoutlage. protection against air observation the purpose of camouflage is to render objects indistinguish- able or unrecognisable by means of imitation or disguise. con- cealment in the limited sense of “ hiding from view ” is not the primary aim. the ideal is non-interference with the natural or normal aspect of the locality as viewed from the air, with which the enemy has become familiar through the agency of visual observation and photography, the latter being the more accu- rate. a photograph will always record something. the art of camouflage lies in conveying a misleading impression as to what that something signifies. the photograph records colours and accidents of ground (such as bare earth, vegetation, woods, etc.) in terms of light and shade, forming a patchwork or pattern of black and white meeting in varying intensities of grey. a culti- vated district presents a regular chess-board pattern, with large rectangular expanses of monotone, the only accidents to break the monotony being large hedges, banks or houses with their attendant shadows. broken ground, such as demolished vil- lages, shelled areas or patchy vegetation, presents a highly complex pattern, full of merging lights and shades. photographically, the effect of colour is not so marked or im- portant as the effect of light and shade. earth is toward the white end of the scale and grass or vegetation toward the black —not because of their respective colours but on account of the amount of contained shadow or “ texture.” contrasts in tone are much accentuated on snow and the effects of shadows are 496 more marked. consequently it is essential, when judging the colours of a locality, to view it vertically and not obliquely as one is accustomed to see a flower bed. therefore the most practical method of planning the conceal- ment of any work is to plan it with reference to a recent photo- graph which records the ground pattern, and the natural facili- ties for concealment which exist in the locality. such facilities abound in a neighbourhood whose photographic pattern is com- plex. any slight error in exact reproduction may escape notice in the prevailing complexity, because detection depends on com- parison, and comparison is rendered difficult by the very intricacy of the pattern. there are certain characteristic clues which betray new work to the reader of aerial photographs. they are disturbance of soil; tracks; shadows; regularity; blast marks of guns. to achieve success these clues must be suppressed from the very beginning; conversely, if deception is to be achieved by the use of dummies, these clucs must be supplied. shadows.—the form of any erection, or excavation, is revealed ina photograph by theshape of the shadow cast. two intersecting planes, e.g., the two sides of the roof of a building, will show differ- ently on the photograph (except for a very brief period every day) because they receive light at different angles, and therefore reflect it differently. it follows that an artificial reproduction of locality must be erected parallel to the contours of that local- ity, or in other words the planes of the imitation and the real must not intersect. a mound must be imitated by a mound, and a flat surface by a flat surface. any departure from this principle is most easily detected in a photograph taken when the sun is low, the shadows being long in consequence. regularity—no shape in nature is of regular outline; conse- quently anything of a regular shape in a photograph invites scrutiny because it must be the work of human hands. in a bat- tery position, regularity is usually displayed in the geometric shape of the gun-pit and the regular spacing and alignment of the guns. summary.—to sum up the theoretical conditions which gov- ern the concealment of gun positions, and other works, from the enemy in the air, the material of which the camouilage is com- posed must at all times appear on the photograph like the object or surface it represents, and likewise appear natural to the ob- server’s eye. as to material, it must be light, strong, impervious to weather, fireproof and casily manufactured. disturbances of soil, tracks, shadows, blast-marks and regularity must never scem associated with an active gun position or occupied work. natural materials such as branches, grass, etc., are of little use for camouflage purposes if protection from view is required for more than two or three days, for, when withered, they become very conspicuous. the most satisfactory cover is afforded by some form of net having an opaque centre of a boldly irregular shape, with a border becoming decreasingly opaque towards the edges. such a cover is illustrated in fig. r (plate). the centre should be only so opaque as to prevent the object underneath (gun or excavation, as the case may be) being visible from the air and the border opaque enough to mask the shadow of the object without casting a shadow itself. such a cover is erected at a suitable height above the object to be concealed, and parallel with the contour of the ground. it follows that the higher the erection the greater must be the area required to cover object and shadows. evidence afforded by tracks is perhaps the most difficult of all to eliminate. positions which are admirably con- cealed in every other way, are betrayed by the tracks leading up to them, so much so, that it is often possible to count the number of guns in a battery by the paths leading to each gun-pit and to distinguish between gun positions and other works. the following afford good illustrations of methods of concealing approaches to positions in the open: (a) leading the track close past the gun position and on to join an existing track, the con- nection to each pit being treated with camouflage material or cut grass, etc. (6) similarly, but close in front of the gun-pits in order to use the track to hide blast marks. this method has the disadvantage of restricting traffic while the guns are in action. camouflage (c) siting a battery in the midst of an existing network of tracks, taking precautions to reproduce on the camouflage any path interrupted by a gun-pit. it is not practicable to conceal long trenches. if a covering sags or differs materially in tone from its surroundings the mere length and regularity will betray it. material and production.—tjhe principal desiderata in camou- flage matcrial are durability and portability. it is almost in- evitable that production must be standardised in the case of operations on a large scale. it is possible to deal individually only with a few special positions and the exterior of observation posts and the like. square, woven, weather-proofed fish netting pro- vides the most portable foundation. for a field gun 30 ft. x 30 ft. is sufficiently large as larger sizes than this become unwieldy and difficult to erect. wire netting is more durable and therefore best suited for large works. small rolls—3o ft. x 6 ft.—are a con- venient size. open meshed canvas (scrim) is very suitable mate- rial for use on the ground and in conjunction with wire or fish netting. fireproofing should be adopted if possible. for colouration, sunproof dyes are the idcal medium, failing this, water paints. oil paints are a source of danger owing to their tendency to cause spontaneous combustion in stacked material. in order to achieve standardisation it will probably be necessary to adopt four appropriate colourations, viz., all vegetation, all earth, and two mixtures of vegetation and earth. prottection against direct observation the concealment of observation posts, machine gun nests, etc., is comparatively simple, being merely an adaptation of the craft of theatrical property-making. natural features may be selected, in places from which good observation can be obtained, and these must be copied exactly. at night, the real is removed and re- placed by the imitation, e.g., trees, sand-bags, mile-stones, mounds of earth, chimney-stacks, walls. the copy is a thin outer shell containing a bullet-proof lining in order to give con- fidence to the occupier. the loopholes, when subject to scrutiny at short range, can be made quite invisible by the use of gauze, which though painted to resemble the exterior of the o.p., remains transparent from the inside. this method should only be adopted when absolutely necessary, because gauze interferes with vision—especially through glasses; in other cases care must be taken to give the loophole an irregular shape. the following conditions govern the successful employment of such observation posts, particularly in the case of the more elaborate examples such as trees. 1. concealed access is essential, 2. the works connected with installation must, like other works, be concealed from the air, 3. they should not be erected in places that are normally subject to heavy shelling, for the reason that careful observation will be prejudiced and accidental damage will probably reveal the observa- tion post to the enemy. | 4. provision must always be made to prevent daylight showing behind the loophole, thus rendering it transparent to the enemy. s. the comfort and security of the observer must always be studied, otherwise the full value of the observation will never be obtained. imitation trees (figs. 2 and 3 on plate) can be designed either to accommodate an observer at a good height above the ground, or to conceal a long periscope, the user of which is protected in a strong dug-out. in the former case the observer has a better view, but is uncomfortably cramped. the periscope is limited in respect of magnification, field of view and clearness of vision, in proportion to its length (see periscope). on the other hand advantage may be taken of its length to obtain high command with comparative security, or increased security with low com- mand. further, with suitable mountings, it can be used as an instrument of precision in conjunction with map and compass. provision should always be made to give bullet-proof protection to the periscope when in use, and to allow of its being lowered for cleaning and safety when not in use. miscellaneous application the following are examples from the world war. in the dum- my attack, series of painted silhouettes made of stout millboard camouflage (naval) plare il. fig.1 colours on plan are for the purposes r length ._450 if ~~ kx. | of measurement only scale xs= one foot type 8 ¥ ory “seer actual oolfoure as per colour chart | fi na 3 blue black load line light line design kx. length 450 starboard copy scale're= one foot no. o biue grey for fore side of bridge no. 3 blue see bridge plan biack _ light line design kx. bridge copy bridge = — tte. o blue grey fore side fore side — 4 blue — ac @rear of poop <-> ory os forecabtle head stern house fore side fig. 3 after side dazzle painting fic. t. a dazzle-painted merchant vessel, as seen through a periscope. f1g. 2. the same vessel painted gray. fic. 3. typical plan as issued to painting contractors under the dazzle scheme (1-5th scale of original). canada representing the various postures of advancing troops, were mounted in frames, which could be raised or lowered from places of safety, so as to represent the waves of an attack. this was to draw fire off a real attack. dummy heads made of papier mache were used for location of enemy snipers, the exact position of whom could be gauged by producing the alignment of the holes of exit and entry of the sniper’s bullet. sniper costumes painted and garnished with local material enabled a skilful wearer to attain close proximity to the enemy without detection. the screening of roads from observation by the enemy is not in the province of camoullage, in that no deception is attempted. it is unnecessary to erect a screen which is completely opaque in order effectively to conceal traffic on a road. a screen consisting of wire netting with two-thirds of the surface covered with inter- laced strips of canvas is sufficient—especially if a chequered effect of black and white be adopted. (ej. cw) il. naval camouflage camouflage on various lines, but with the invariable idea of reducing visibility, had been attempted in the british navy for many years before the world war. none of these schemes had met with any success, and each in turn had been abandoned after furtive trials. the two factors which led to this abandon- ment were, first, the failure to realise that anything in the nature of invisibility at sea is impossible of attainment, and, secondly, the inability of the proposers of these schemes to provide definite instructions of a practical nature by which vessels could be painted with some degree of consistency. the board of admiralty eventually adopted a partial form of camouflage by painting all vessels a light grey as opposed to the black hulls and light upper works previously in force. but even this simplest form of all protective measures was somewhat haphazard in application, since the individual vessels of a squad- ron varied considerably in colour, ranging from a light bluish grey to a dark slate according to a ideas of the commander. it was not until 1917, during the height of the submarine peril, that a practical scheme having a definite end in view and formu- lated on scientific lines was put forward and officially adopted by the british authorities. this scheme embodied entirely new ideas on sea camouflage, and was rescued from the early decease which had attended all its predecessors by the fact that the proposer was able to supply designs to scale in large numbers, all bearing out a central idea. it was called for distinction’s sake in official documents “‘ dazzle painting.” objects —the sole object of dazzle painting was so to distort the normal appearance of a vessel that her actual course became a matter of doubt in the mind of a submarine officer, the estima- tion of a vessel’s true course being the prime factor required to ensure a successful attack. application—dazzle painting was intended primarily for application to merchant ships. these vessels were in far greater need of protection than warships owing to their slow speed and vulnerability and also to the fact that the enemy were making a concerted attack on england’s supplies of food and materials essential to the conduct of the world war. warships as a rule possessed high speed and were moreover protected by destroyers, a type of vessel which, while being the most deadly opponent of the submarine, was comparatively immune from attack. a certain number of war vessels were, however, dazzle painted. these were chiefly ships engaged on convoy work, although a certain number detailed for special duties such as mine-laying and patrol service valued this special form of protection. at first sight it would appear impossible to treat a vessel with paint in such a way that an experienced seaman could be deceived as to her actual course, but dazzle-painted ships proved that this could be done. juxtaposition of violently contrasting colours, black and white predominating, combined in accordance with the laws of perspective, could make it extremely difficult to judge the accurate inclination of a vessel even at a short distance. colouration.—in the early stages of dazzle painting a large range of colours was employed to achieve the end in view. expe- rience showed that this could be attained by a much smaller num- 497 ber, and toward the end of the war the principal colours in use were black, white and blue, these being employed in varying intensity. a factor which led to the simplification of the colours used was the knowledge that the german naval authorities had introduced the use of colour screens in their submarine periscopes with a view to reducing the camouflaged ship to a silhouette, and so neutralising the effect of the colours used. these screens, however, had no effect whatever on a design depending solely on black, white and blue for its contrast. shortly after its adop- tion by the admiralty dazzle painting was ordered under the defence of the realm act and the whole merchant service was ordered to be painted. numbers of war vessels operating with merchant ships were also painted: these comprised chiefly convoy cruisers, sloops and destroyers. the roth cruiser squadron, en- gaged in blockade duties, was also painted. these vessels were specially liable to attack, being at sca for long periods and con- stantly under slow speed or altogether stopped. on the introduction of the scheme a considerable volume of maritime opinion was directed against it from lack of a proper grasp of its objects and because it appeared to render a vessel more conspicuous than was the case when painted grey. in point of fact, at the date of the submission of the scheme the pro- poser, who was on patrol duty in the channel, had noted that all transports were painted a dead black from water-line to truck. the opposition, however, rapidly disappeared as soon as the objects of the scheme were thoroughly grasped and the rapidly increasing numbers enabled scamen to judge for themselves the difficulties of accurately estimating the exact courses of dazzle- painted ships met with at sea. extension of use.—soon after the establishment of the daz- zle dept., inquiries were made by the allied maritime govern- ments as to the efficacy of this new form of defence against the submarine. the french ministry of marine attached three officers for training under the new scheme and shortly after- wards set up a similar department in paris. the u.s. navy dept. asked that an officer might be sent to washington; shortly after his arrival a dazzle department was formed to deal with u.s. shipping. the belgian govt. arranged for all their merchant vesscls to be dealt with directly in the british department. com- plete scts of plans were forwarded to italy and japan. all u.s. destroyers and other patrol vessels in ekuropean waters were painted from plans supplied from the british department. the number of vesscls saved by this device can never be defi- nitely ascertained, as it cannot be known how many attacks were broken off by enemy submarines owing to wrong position having been taken up as a result of inaccurate estimation of the vessel’s course due to the dazzle painting. but the rapid expansion to all allied merchant shipping showed that the authorities were satis- fied that it played a great part. approximately 4,000 merchant ships were painted and upwards of 400 war vessels, engaged principally in convoy and patrol duties, were also painted. the total cost of painting amounted to some £2,500,000. (n. w.) canada (see 5.142), a dominion of the british empire and a member of the league of nations. its area 1s 3,797,123 sq. m., including the water area, or 3,729,665 without it; its population (1921 census), 8,788,483. i. political history the year 1orr saw the end of a long period of liberal rule. during the previous half century canada had been governed, with but slight interruption, by two prime ministers, sir john a. macdonald and sir wilfrid laurier. laurier had come into power in 1896 and held office until 1911. the chief issue in the election of that year was a proposed agreement for reciprocity in trade with the united states. in 1854 a treaty had been made under which canada had enlarged her markets. it was to endure for at least ro years, but when this period ended the united states, to the chagrin of canada, abrogated the treaty, chiefly, it seems, because of the british sympathy with the south during the civil war; but partly because canada was said to be the chief gainer. from this time freer trade with the united states had been an object of desire to all political parties in canada. 498 the reciprocity issue—it seemed therefore that when, in 1911, mr. taft, the president of the united states, proposed, and public opinion in the united states supported, a renewal of reciprocity, canada would agree. this was the opinion of sir wilfrid laurier. reciprocity was to have two aspects: free trade in a wide range of natural products and raw material and an identical tariff on certain manufactures, including automobiles, farming implements and cutlery. there was to be no formal treaty and either side might end the pact at any time. the opponents of reciprocity pressed the point that canada might first be exploited under the more highly developed system in the united states and then find the door for freer trade suddenly closed upon her. in sept. 1911, though it was still two years before the endl of its term, parliament was dissolved. railway interests urged against reciprocity that lines running east and west, built at great cost to the nation, would suffer by diverting western traffic southward to the united states; finance feared dominance by new york; national sentiment feared political absorption by the united states. it was urged especially that, as against great britain, the united states would have a privileged position in canadian trade. advocates of reciprocity denied all these re- sults. eastern canada was alarmed while the west was for freer trade, and the result of the election was that the conserva- tives, led by mr. robert l. borden, carried 138 seats to 88 for the liberals and sir wilfrid laurier resigned. | naval defence—the govt. of mr. (sir) robert borden was destined to face the crisis of the world war. canada had long been urged to share in naval defence, and with a frontage on both the atlantic and the pacific and the open coasts of the lower st. lawrence, she was particularly vulnerable to attack by a hostile fleet. on the other hand, most of her population lived remote from the sea coast. the rapid increase of the ger- man navy had alarmed the whole british empire. if canada was to aid in naval defence, growing national sentiment favoured a canadian navy, built, if posstble, in canada, controlled by canada, but available in emergency as auxiliary to the british fleet. sir wilfrid laurier, always having in mind that his fellow french canadians centred their political thought wholly in canada and were opposed to adventures in parts of the world where her interests were not affected, had moved cautiously. in 1910 he had created a naval department. there was to be a royal canadian navy which should fly the white ensign and the national flag of canada. but before anything effective could be done he was driven from power. in 1912 sir robert borden visited england for a conference with the british authorities, who convinced him that, in view of germany’s preparations, there was an emergency in naval af- fairs which did not permit of awaiting the formation of a cana- dian navy. in consequence, in dec. 1912, the prime minister submitted to parliament a proposal to build three warships at a cost not exceeding £7,000,000, to be placed at the disposal of the king for naval defence. the plan of a canadian navy was not abandoned, but was postponed in view of urgency. the proposal was hotly debated. even the mild naval policy of sir wilfrid laurier had aroused a nationalist group in quebec which scentec imperialism. its leader, mr. henri bourassa, was as fiery as his grandfather, joseph papineau, had been in 1837, when his at- tacks on arbitrary official rule led to armed rebellion. though formerly a liberal, bourassa had assailed laurier’s dominance in quebec. but now his conservative allies went farther in naval policy. the session of 1913 saw determined obstruction, which led to the adoption of the closure in debate, already found necessary in england. the house of commons, by tor votes to 68, supported the naval bill which, however, failed to pass in the senate. thus on the eve of the world war canada was giving almost no aid in naval defence. the world war.—on the outbreak of the war canadian opin- ion was at once clear. to the measure of her strength she was ready, in an hour of deadly peril, to fight side by side with britain in a great cause. it should be said that canadian national opinion demurred to the widely received view that canada went canada into the war blindly ‘ to help england,” as the phrase ran. the desire to stand by england was indeed dominant in the public mind, but conviction went deeper than this. canada was looking, for herself, at the issues of the war, and, like england, was convinced of the german menace to freedom. when, for a breathless day or two, it seemed doubtful whether britain would declare war, there were some in canada who talked of canada’s entering it on her own account, an impossibility under the con- ventions of the dominion constitution. the point is worth mentioning because it emphasises the growth of a national con- sciousness which became more marked as the war went on. be- fore parliament met on aug. 18 mobilisation had begun. one of the first acts of parliament was to make a gift of 1,000,000 bags of flour to great britain, a gift which required 200 trains, each of 30 cars, to take to the ports. by oct. a volunteer ca- nadian army of 30,000 men had reached england, and a second contingent of more than 20,000 were drilling. the war minister, sir sam hughes, said that 150,000 were then eager to go. in all, canada enlisted during the war 595,441 men; of these about 52,000 were killed in action and somcthing like 10,000 died from other causes. the events of the war are too complex and were too pro- longed to find here more than mention. at the beginning it was doubtful whether non-professional soldiers could receive, in a short time, training adequate to mect in the field the professional german army. when it was first proposed to send to europe volunteer forces from canada, lord roberts supported the plan less, as he said, because such a force would be effective in the ficld than to give to the world an illustration of the unity of the british empire. in fact, after a training of less than a year, the regiments from the dominions were found equal to the best bat- talions of germany. the initiative acquired by the need of self-reliance in a younger society fully compensated for the longer disciplinary training of furopean regiments. in the end the four divisions of the canadian army corps were placed under the command of licut.-gen. sir arthur currie. the canadians fought in some of the hardest battles on the western front; in 1915, in april at the second battle of ypres, and later in the further severe fighting in that region; in 1916, at st. eloi, sanctuary wood and other points and in the pro- longed battle of the somme; in 1917, at the taking of vimy ridge and in the desperate struggle in mud and slime which ended in the taking by the canadians of passchendaele, on the ypres salient; in 1918, in driving back the germans after their success near amicns in march until, early in aug., the canadians helped to break the german lines and, with heavy losses, pressed the germans back, cutting through a part of the supposedly impregnable hindenburg line in sept. and finally, after the great battle of arras, taking cambrai on oct. 9. when the armistice came on nov. 11 the canadians were at mons, whence the british had begun their great retreat in 1914. developments in canada.—mleanwhile in canada the war was the one dominant interest. the destruction by fire of the par- liament buildings at ottawa on feb. 3 1916 disorganised for a time the machinery of government. new buildings were occu- pled in 1920. ‘the term of five years of the canadian parliament expired at the end of 1916, but by consent of all parties it was prolonged for a year. by the end of 1916 a lull had come in vol- untary enlistment and sir robert borden proposed to enforce conscription. the prime minister urged that the pledge of sup- port to the men facing death at the front required the drastic method of raising 100,o00 new troops by compulsion. this developed an issue which has since played a large part in cana- dian politics. 3 | canada is unique in having a population of french and of british origin, united in a single federal state, with one of the provinces almost wholly french. french canadians cling to the language, the religion, the laws and the traditions derived from the older france. their impulses and instincts are not the same as those of the english-speaking canadians; their ancestors became british subjects by conquest, without any root in the culture and outlook of the nation to which they were tied. but canada while they remain french, in the sense that they are devoted to the culture of france, during more than a century and a half they have had no political tie with france. meanwhile france herself has changed; she has broken with her ancient faith and even persecuted its adherents and she has become a republic; while the french in canada still cling to the roman catholic faith and to the principle of monarchy. the expectation that, with france and britain allied, the french canadian would feel doubly called to share in the war was not realised. many french canadians had the outlook, expressed by the president of the united states, that their homes were in america and that europe must be left to scttle its own disputes. while sir wil- frid laurier himself gave strong support to the war, in quebec, as in no other canadian province, there were voices making another appeal. m. bourassa, in his well-written newspaper le devoir, denounced alike german and british imperialism. none the less french canadian voluntecr regiments served in the war with the spirit of that military france from which their ancestors came. conscription.—by may 1917 the govt. of sir robert borden had adopted conscription. the liberal leader’s position was difficult. he was in ardent sympathy with the aims of the allies. if, however, he should support conscription he would endanger his position among his own people of the province of quebec. in jan. 1917 he issued an appeal to all canadians to forget party differences in pursuit of victory in the war. as to conscription, he urged that, on so vital an issue, the example of australia should be followed and a plebiscite taken. this atti- tude lost him many liberal supporters outside of quebec and his resolution in favour of a plebiscite was defeated in the touse of commons, by 118 to 5s, with the minority almost wholly from quebec. when, finally, after announcing conscription, sir robert borden asked sir wilfrid laurier to join in a coali- tion, with half the cabinet liberals, he declined. he could not face quebec as a supporter of compulsory service. on other grounds quebec was resentful and suspicious. in 1913 the conservative government of the neighbouring province of ontario had adopted severe restrictions on the use of french as the language of instruction in the bi-lingual schools, most of them at points in ontario adjacent to the province of quebec. in ottawa, the federal capital, in particular, this action was bitterly resented. canada is in federal affairs bi-lingual, with english and french on an equal footing. many french families live in ottawa but, since it lies in ontario, it has the school law of that province, and the new regulation forbade the use of french as the language of instruction for all but very young children. the i'rench are particularly sensitive as to the use of their language, and the new rule was challenged in the courts. an ultimate appeal to the privy council brought the decision that jurisdiction in respect of the language to be used in the schools lay entirely with the provinces. when some schools in ottawa continued to defy the law, their grants from the govt. were cut off. the resentment aroused by this dispute wa increased by gibes from some quarters at quebec’s backwardness in aiding in the war. when conscription was enforced, riots and bloodshed in the city of quebec led to its occupation by troops. there is little doubt that sir wilfrid laurier judged rightly that his own quebec would desert him should he support conscrip- tion. in 1918 a motion was introduced in the quebec legisla- ture for secession from the rest of canada, but so extreme a step was not encouraged by any considerable section of opinion. a coalition formed.—in oct. 1917 a coalition government was formed under sir robert borden, with seven liberal mem- bers. dissolution followed and sir wilfrid laurier fought his last campaign with but few of his former followers supporting him, except in quebec. the coalition won by 137 to 93 and 62 of the minority were from quebec. the election of 1917 was noteworthy, in that for the first time women voted in a federal election. a war franchise bill passed in ro16 gave votes to women who had relatives serving in the war, the qualifying clause being removed in 1918, when women who had reached the age of 21 received the franchise. the provinces, which control 499 their own franchise, also gave votes to women. during the war knighthoods and other honours were freely distributed by brit- ish ministers in the name of the king, especially in connection with services relating to the war. in england the principle is deeply rooted in social life, but to many it seemed alien to the life of canada, and, in the end, sharp protests culminated im an undertaking by the canadian prime minister to request the king not only to cease conferring hereditary titles on citizens of canada, but also that other honours should only be given on the advice of his canadian ministers. since that time the giving of such titles has ceased in canada. the prohibition issue—the period of the war brought with it great social changes. the agitation of many years in the cause of prohibition was reinforced by the sense of waste which the liguor traffic caused, during the war. a wave of opinion in favour of prohibition swept over both the united states and canada. the united states dealt with the problem as a national one and in the 18th amendment to the constitution decreed prohibition for the whole nation, so that it lay no longer among the issues to be settled by the state icgislatures. in canada jurisdiction in respect of the liquor traffic 1s divided, under the british north america act, between the fedcral and the pro- vincial authorities. the federal authority has control over manufacture and export, the provincial authorities over sale. the federal govt. would not prohibit manufacture and export because of the refusal of the senate, an appointed body, to endorse restrictive legislation passed by the commons, the federal govt. left to the provinces the right to con- trol importation and their right to regulate sale was never challenged. the result of the control of sale by the provinces is that each one has its own type of restriction. in ontario the law is severe; the govt. alone may import and sell, and then only for medicinal purposes, as certified by a physician. private persons may, however, without cost, obtain licences to brew beer for their own use. a beer weaker than lager, containing about 4° of alcohol, may be sold retail. in parts of ontario the grape is easily grown and the law provides that the wine of the province may be sold by the manufacturer in bulk direct to the consumer for his own use. quebec, in contrast with ontario, while closing the bars and closely restricting the trallic, did not prohibit it. the sale of wine and spirits was made a government monopoly. on whisky and other strong drinks the tax is heavy; on wines it is not, with the aim, which appears to be successful, of encour- aging the use of light wines. the laws in the other provinces vary from the severity of ontario to the freedom under govern- ment control of quebec. monopoly of sale by government is making the traffic a source of revenue in all the provinces. a province may at any time remove or increase restrictions by an act of its legislature. in contrast, therefore, with what is pos- sible in the united states, prohibition might disappear in can- ada within a few months. the issue is still acute in political life. rural areas seem fairly content with prohibition; opposition is chiefly urban, but all parties seem to oppose the return of licenced drinking places. post-war politics ~the war unsettled the two old political parties and led to the organisation of dissatisfied elements into new groups. of these the most powerful was that of the farmers, who took the name of progressives and were especially strong in the west. they favoured freer, if not free, trade and, indeed, proposed free trade with great britain. the labour party and the socialist party have never been strong in canada, but in the spring of 1919 labour agitation brought on a general strike in winnipeg. all public services were put out of commission and during five weeks winnipeg was the scene of a struggle unprec- edented in canada. the scenes of violence and intimidation which accompanied the closing down of the street car system and the blocking of the means of distributing supplics aroused sharp antagonism and caused the strikers to lose all public sym- pathy. citizens volunteered to carry on these services with so firm a resolution that the movement was defeated and winnipeg returned to its normal activities. 500 a provincial election in ontario in 1919 showed the strength of the farmers and brought a surprising defeat of what seemed a strongly entrenched conservative government. of 110 seats it held only 24; the liberals had 30; and the i’armers’ party and labour combined secured 56, thus giving them a small majority. with the hon. e. c. drury as prime minister, a new acdminis- tration was formed dominated by the farmers’ party. mr. drury found difficulty in forming a cabinet composed of men sufficiently experienced for the tasks of government. no one doubted his own integrity, but his cabinet had weak elements. after lasting for four years it went to the country in 1923 and the conservatives returned to power with a large majority. in two other provinces, alberta and manitoba, the unsettlement of the other parties led to the coming into office of farmers’ gov- ernments which at the end of 1925 still endured and seemed to command confidence. sir wilfrid laurier died in feb. 1919. the cleavage in the liberal party on the issues of the war left him a rather lonely figure during his last two years and the problem of a successor was not easy. quebec was the chief liberal stronghold and it resented the action of those liberals who had broken with sir wilirid laurier. the choice went to mr. william lyon macken- zie king, minister of labour under sir wilfrid laurier and a sharer of his attitude on conscription. mr. bourassa, leader of the nationalists in quebec, is the grandson of papineau, the rebel of 1837; mr. king is the grandson of mackenzie, who in the same year had led a rebellion in ontario and had had a price put upon his head. the coincidence is interesting as showing that in canada, as in south africa, liberty under british insti- tutions is a great reconciler. a general election —membership of the imperial war cab- inet and of the peace conference at versailles, added to his duties as prime minister, had worn down the strength of sir robert borden. in 1920 he resigned and was succeeded as prime minister by mr. arthur meighen, 2 member of his cabinet. mr. meighen had a difficult task. the coalition was in process of disintegration, chicfly on the issue of the tariff, and one by one the liberal members were retiring. it was in vain that, when dissolution came in 1921, the foundation of a so-called “‘ liberal and conservative party ’’ was announced. the liberals were returning to their former allegiance or joining with some con- servatives in the farmers’ movement. in the election of dec. mr. meighen stood stiffly for protection and suffered overwhelm- ing defeat. the conservatives carricd 51 seats and the liberals 117, among them the entire representation of quebec, and there was the new and advanced group of 65 progressives. labour remained weak, returning only two members. over both parties mr. king had a majority of one. he took office but his path was difficult. though he reached a working arrangement with mr. t. a. crerar, the progressive leader, this support was always conditional. representation —the census of 1921 showed what is always desired in scantily peopled countries, a satisfactory increase of population. the principle of representation in proportion to numbers is applied to the canadian ilouse of commons. quebec has always 65 members and those from the other provinces are in proportion to the number from quebec. a redistribution fol- lows each census and that of 1922 showed the marked increase in population in the west. the members from nova scotia and ontario were reduced by two and one respectively. new bruns- wick, prince edward island and yukon remained unchanged, while the increases in the west were manitoba two, saskatche- wan five, alberta four and british columbia one. such changes indicate that policy must be adjusted to the needs of the rela- tively larger agricultural population of the west. though in- creased expenses probably justified the measure, there was sharp criticism of the action of parliament in 1921 in increasing the pay of members from $2,500 to $4,000 for each session. the liberal govt., which carried its budget in 1923 by a majority of only one, had always to confront an adverse ma- jority in the senate, to which only conservatives had been ap- pointed during the conservative regime. this situation is always canada a feature of canadian political life when a government long in power quits office. in 1923 the senate showed great activity in respect of railway policy. sir henry thornton, the head of the vast government railway system, with more than 20,000 m. of lines, proposed to build 26 small branch lines, chiefly in the west, as feeders of the trunk lines. the house of commons endorsed the building of the lines at an estimated cost of $29,000,000 but the senate objected that, while a few of the lines might be needed, it was unwise to increase an already crushing burden of debt at a time when trade was depressed. the cost, it was also urged, would go far beyond the estimate. when the senate rejected the proposal, its action caused sharp criticism of a body not directly responsible to the people. since that time the liberal party has been committed to the reform of the senate, a well- worn cry of the party in a minority in that body. removal of cattle embargo—the loss of purchasing power in europe after the war so lowered the price of wheat as to make the market price cover little more, and often less, than the cost of production. this brought severe depression in western can- ada. the cattle industry found some relief when, in 1922, after prolonged discussion, the british govt. removed the embargo on the importation of live cattle from canada. it had endured for 30 years, though the cause—disease in canadian cattle— had long since disappeared. canadian cattle can now be sent across the occan to be fattened in england for slaughter. the relief in this direction was timely, for the farmers of the united states were complaining of canadian competition. in 1922, on the plea that both land and labour were cheaper in canada, congress empowered the president to proclaim a tariff against canadian grain and cattle which should represent this difference. at first the duty on wheat was 30 cents a bushel, and on oats 15 cents, but in 1924 the president increased the duty on wheat to 42 cents, with proportionate duties on other produce and on sheep and cattle. ‘the duty on wheat affected but slightly the canadian producer, since the price is determined in the world market, but that on cattle was a heavy blow, owing to the great distances ‘for which cattle must be carried to other markets. when, in 1922, mr. crerar, the progressive leader, retired, the new leader, mr. robert forke, had to face discontent in his own party on the ground of undue subservience to the liberals. in 1924 a so-called “‘ ginger group ” was formed of some ro pro- gressive members and their support was so uncertain that at last in 1925, more than a year before the term of five years had expired, mr. king appealed to the country on the plea that he needed a decisive liberal majority. the election of 1925.—this appeal gave the country an oppor- tunity to consider the effect upon canada of the long strain of war and of unsettlement after war. the public debt had been increased to an amount which represented about $300 for each inhabitant of canada. the cost of government had risen to about $1,000,000,00c0 yearly when federal, provincial and mu- nicipal taxes were included and there was a large deficit on the two great sailway lines united to form the canadian national railways. burdens so heavy necessarily hampered commerce. while the farmers, competing in an unprotected world market, complained of the high prices paid to the protected manufac- iurer, he in turn complained that the tariff was so low as to en- able the mass production of the united states to close canadian factories, and that canadians, unable to sccure employment at home, were going in considerable numbers across the frontier. the reduction of one-third of the tariff in favour of british im- ports, it was claimed, was ruining especially the textile industry. ‘this cleavage on the tariff fortified sectional cleavage. the maritime provinces resented the more rapid development of the provinces further west. in the previous election quebec had sent only liberals to parliament and this unanimity was rather on racial than on political grounds, in antagonism to english- speaking ontario. the agricultural west thought it was being exploited by the industrial east. during the election in oct. all these grievances found expression. the result showed a weaken- ing of the hold of both the liberals and the progressives. the conservatives, with 117, were the strongest party. the liberals canada had 102 and the progressives 23, and there were 2 or 3 independ- ents. no party had a majority. union between the protec- tionist conservatives with low-tariff progressives to turn out liberals who denounce protection would involve a paradox. mr. king consequently did not resign, but faced the new parliament, realising that on any question of confidence he would have the support of the progressives. on june 28 1926, however, follow- ing the refusal of the governor-gencral to dissolve parliament, mr. mackenzie king resigned, and his place was taken by the conservative leader, mr. arthur meighen. religion. —while the roman catholics have the largest single church membership, the total number of protestants in canada is greater by about one-half. union among protestants had long been urged, and in 1925 three groups, presbyterians, method- ists and the minor body of congrcgationalists, finally completed the organisation of the united church of canada. the union has the interesting feature that, while the traditions of presby- lerianism are linked with scotland, and those of the methodists are linked chicfly with england, in canada they have united in one stream distinctively canadian in type. among the method- ists there was no movement against union. many presbyte- rians, however, opposed the break with the long traditions of the presbyterian system. this opposition was chiefly in the cities of eastern canada and, while the methodist church of canada has disappeared, there is a continuing presbyterian church of canada with less than one-quarter of its former membership. the canadian annual review of public affairs (toronto, an- nually) gives full accounts, each year, of political and financial matters in canada. the canada year book, issued annually at ottawa by the govt. of canada, gives elaborate statistics. on political events since 1911, o. d. skelton’s life and letters of sir wufrid laurier (new york, 1921) is a good account from the liberal point of view. soalsoisj.w. dafoe’s laurier, a study in canadian politics (toronto, 1922). the canadian historical review (pub- lished quarterly at toronto) is a guide to current literature relating to canada. (g. m. w. ii. constitutional development the incidents of canada’s constitutional development during the period 1910-25 are important. during the impcrial confer- ence of 1911, dominion delegates for the first time were admitted to what mr. asquith termed the arcana imperit. that is to say, they were received at a special conference by sir edward grey, who imparted to them important confidential information as to foreign relations. at the same conference it was resolved, on the motion of sir wilfrid laurier, that the british govt. should open negotiations with forcign governments with a view to secur- ing liberty for any dominion, which might so desire, to withdraw from the operation of a treaty affecting that dominion, without impairing the effectiveness of the treaty for the rest of the i:m- pire. a rather ineffective resolution was passed as to consulta- tion with the dominions respecting the negotiation of inter- national agreements affecting them. boundary waters—the boundary waters treaty between the united states and canada, negotiated under the direction of sir wilfrid laurier and submitted by him to the canadian parliament in ro1r, established an international joint commis- sion of six commissioners, three appointed by the president of the united states and three by his majesty on the recommendation of the governor-general in council. thus, the canadian govt. in substance, although not in form, appoints the canadian com- missioners. all important questions respecting mghts in, and the user of, boundary waters are referred to this commission, which may also, with the consent of the governments of the united states and of canada, exercise powers still more compre- hensive, including the determination of all rights, obligations or interests of the united states or of canada, either in relation to each other or to their respective inhabitants. in the relations between canada and the united states this treaty is a landmark almost as notable as the convention of 1818, which brought about disarmament upon the great lakes, and in effect upon the entire boundary line. in 1912 sir robert borden, the prime minister, and three of his colleagues attended a meeting of the impcria] defence com- 501 mittee at which the foreign relations of the british common- wealth and the necessary safeguards against aggression were uscfully discussed. in the same year the british govt. gave assurances to the govt. of canada that, pending a final solution of the question of voice and influence in foreign relations, a dominion minister resident in london would be regularly sum- moned to the committee of imperial defence and regarded as one of its permanent members; and that no important step in foreign policy would be undertaken without consultation with such representative. in oct. 1916 the canadian govt. established in london a ministry of overseas military forces with a resident minister. this dept. was charged with the administration of military affairs overseas, and with the expenditure connected therewith. eventually, it became an overseas canadian war office. mili- tary operations in the ficld were under the final direction of british general tleadquarters, but otherwise the canadian forces serving in the war were administered as a thoroughly autonomous body, under the primary direction of the overseas ministry, with ultimate responsibility to the canadian govt. and parliament. canadians and the cabinet—-the prime minister of canada was summoned to and attended a meeting of the british cabinet in rors. this was regarded as an event of constitutional signifi- cance. in 1917, however, a more important step was taken. the british prime minister called into operation the imperial war cabinet. it included the five ministers of the british war cabinet, the prime ministers of the dominions and a repre- sentative from india. thus ministers from all the self-governing nations of the empire sat on terms of equality at a common council board, acting in co-operation and responsible to their respective parliaments. each minister or group of ministers represented a government, and the conference might fairly be termed a cabinet of governments. in 1917 the british govt. advanced the view that it had authority to requisition ships owned and registered in canada. this view was effectively con- troverted by the canadian govt., who held firmly to the prin- ciple that in such case the executive powcr was properly vested in the govt. of the dominion. the legal power which undoubt- edly existed was effectively limited by the controlling force of constitutional right. imperial war conference-—the imperial conference sat as the imperial war conference in 1917 and 1918, and was occu- pied with questions not directly concerned with war measures and operations. in 1917 the question of immigration from india to the dominions was considered, and the principle of reciprocity of treatment between india and the dominions was adopted by resolution as a working basis. the most important contribution of the conference in that year was a resolution to which the brit- ish govt. was a party. this recorded the conclusion that the readjustment of the constitutional relations of the component parts of the empire, while thoroughly preserving all existing powers of self-government and complete control of domestic affairs, should be based upon a full recognition of the dominions as autonomous nations of an imperial commonwealth and of india as an important portion of the same; should recognise the right of canada, the other dominions and india to an adequate voice in foreign policy and in foreign relations; and should pro- vide effective arrangements for continuous consultation in all important matters of common imperial concern, and for such nec- essary concerted action, founded on consultation, as the several governments may determine. this resolution, which formed the basis of future co-operation, gives distinct recognition to equality of nationhood between the dominions and the mother country. the principle thus established was carried to its logical con- clusion at the peace conference of 1919, at which canada, the other dominions and india were distinctively represented by their delegates. there was scrious opposition at paris to such distinctive representation; but the insistence of the dominions, with the strong support of the british govt., eventually pre- vailed. the imperial war cabinet functioned at paris under the designation of the british empire delegation. as a corollary 502 to representation it was determined that canada, the other dominions and india should be parties to the peace treaty and members of the league of nations, and that the treaty should be signed by dominion and indian plenipotentiaries and sub- mitted for approval to dominion parliaments. thus, at the council of the nations, the british commonwealth entered on a new stage of its existence and development. the situation so created may not be free from anomalies; but the governance of the british commonwealth has been developed through effec- tive practice based upon needs as they arise, and is not founded upon speculative theory or strict logic. the outstanding fact is that the dominions and india secured a certain status in the family of nations. an eminent authority has declared that the versailles treaty is the magna charta of the dominions. in ro18 a resolution of the conference acknowledged the inherent function of each dominion government and of india to enjoy complete control of the composition of its population by restricting immigration from any other communities. in the same year the conference by resolution declared that the prime ministers of the dominions should have the right to direct communication with the prime minister of the united kingdom and vice versa. this principle was affirmed at the conference of 1921. canada and the united states —a canadian war mission had been established at washington at the beginning of ror8. it was in effect, although not in form, a diplomatic mission, and during the last year of the war and the first year of reconstruc- tion it proved of immense service. in view of this the canadian prime minister discussed with british ministers in 1919 the right of legation, which was acknowledged by an arrangement an- nounced to the canadian parliament in 1920. the proposed appointment of a canadian minister at washington was not to denote any departure from the principle of the diplomatic unity of the british empire, and was wholly consistent with the gen- eral practice under which canadian ministers in their negotia- tion of treaties with the united states held for the time being an informal diplomatic status. nor was there any advance upon the principle actually in operation in the international joint commission which deals with many matters formerly referred to diplomatic negotiation. in r921 the canadian parliament passed an important meas- ure to define canadian nationals, which was rendered necessary by the status of canada under the versailles treaty and espe- cially as a member of the league of nations. in the same year the voice of canada and of other dominions with regard to the proposed renewal of the anglo-japanese treaty exercised an im- portant influence upon the subsequent course of events. washington conference.—the president of the united states did not extend to canada and the dominions separate invitations to the disarmament conference (1921) at washington. prece- dent existed for separate invitations, and there was a question as to whether certain dominions would not stand aloof. it was wisely decided that the absence of special invitations should be overlooked and that the dominions should be represented at washington by their special plenipotentiaries, to whom full powers should be issued under the practice established at paris in 1919. in the result the status and distinctive consideration that the dominions had received at paris were accorded to them at washington. in the formal parts of the treaties the special representation of each dominion was recognised; and each dominion plenipotentiary signed on behalf of his government. the canadian model for the irish free state —the agreement (dec. 6 1921) between great britain and ireland, that was sub- sequently ratified by imperial statute, provides that the irish free state shall have the same constitutional status as the do- minions and that its position in relation to the imperial parlia- ment and government shall be that of the dominion of canada. by article r of its constitution it is declared to be “ a co-equal member of the community of nations forming the british com- monwealth of nations.” the treaty power. a question having arisen with respect to the signing and ratification of treaties which concern only tlic interests canada of one dominion, the whole subject was under consideration at the imperial conference of 1923, ar principles were formulated and procedure laid down whieh should govern such cases and which fully recognise the right of each dominion to negotiate and enter into a treaty affecting only its own interests, but not without due con- sideration of its possible effect on other parts of the commonwealth or on the commonwealth as a whole. such a treaty, imposing obligations on one part only, should be signed by a representative of the govt. of that part. the ratification of such a treaty is effected at the instance of the govt. concerned. the anglo-french treaty of 1919 (defence of france) which was ratified by the british parliament, but which never came into force as the corresponding treaty between the french republic and the united states was not ratified, provided that it should impose no obligation upon any of the dominions unless and until it should be approved by the parliament of the dominion concerned. the security pact (locarno, oct. 16 1925) between germany, belgium, © france and great britain, provides (article 9) that it shall impose no obligation upon any of the british dominions or upon india unless the govt. of such dominion or of india signifies its acceptance. in the one case parliament, in the other case the government, must approve. at locarno (as at lausanne) the dominions did not take part in the negotiations and it does not appear that they were invited to do so. thus at locarno there was a distinct departure from the spirit of the 1917 resolution and from the precedent established at paris. the reasons for such departure have not been made public. summary.—apart from this incident, the development up to the end of 1925 may be summarised as follows:— | 1. during the war each dominion received a recognised place in the war council of the commonwealth and took an active part in the co-operation and direction of the commonwealth's war effort. 2 the british and dominion governments have definitely agreed that the principles of autonomy and equal nationhood shall govern their future political relations, and that the dominions shall have an adequate voice in foreign policy and relations. 3. at the paris peace conference and at the washington disarma- ment conference there was distinctive representation of the domin- ions; their plenipotentiaries were appointed upon their own nomina- tion and the treaties were signed on behalf of the respective dominions. 4. the dominions entered into international affairs as members of the league of nations with equal representation in the assembly, and with such recognised status as would enable them to be repre- sented on the council. 5. under suitable arrangements approved by the british govt., and without departing from the principle of diplomatic unity, canada became entitled to appoint a minister plenipotentiary at washington who would be the ordinary channel of communication between the governments of canada and the united states, and who would act upon instructions from, and report direct to, the canadian government, in effect the british commonwealth may be regarded as a league of nations, owning a single allegiance. in all essentials touching its continucd existence and development there must be a real unity among its members, based upon the ideals of liberty and autonomy and upon close and sympathetic co-operation between the commonwealth governments, and each, with due regard to its own point of view and special interests, must survey the aspects of external relations from the higher standpoint of commonwealth unity and welfare. bibliography.—sir r. l. borden, canadian constitutional studies (1922); w. p. m. kennedy, the constitution of canada (1922); w. r. riddell, the canadian constitution in form and fact (1923). (r. ll. b.) il. defence after rgro canadian military organisation changed very much. its two most important features were the final war organisation, and the peace organisation which succeeded it. the principal mih- tary effort of canada from ro14 to 1918 consisted in the organi- sation and maintenance of the canadian corps, consisting of the i., 1l., iii. and iv. canadian divisions and corps troops. this force, while technically an army corps of the british army, differed from other army corps in that it was an integral tactical unit, moving and fighting as a whole. iar-time organisation.—lits high tactical value resulted mainly from (a) great mobility, aided by two additional mechan- ical transport companies (for machine-gun battalions and engi- neer briga‘les); (6) high and consistent infantry strength, due to each division having three brigades of four battalions of 1,100 men each, one engineer brigade of three battalions in each divi- sion (eliminating the necessity of supplying working parties from canada infantry) and to the possession of its own system for handling reinforcements; (c) staffs almost double strength and staff officers constantly interchanged; (d) an unique machine-gun organisa- tion, comprising two motor machine-gun brigades with the corps and one machine-gun battalion of 96 guns with each division, also a machine-gun headquarters at corps headquarters; (e) enlarged signal service; (f) high strength in permanently attached artillery (corps troops included one extra divisional artillery unit and one extra brigade of field artillery); and (g) mechani- calisation during stationary periods by extended use of light railways, husbanding strength of men and horses. other cana- dian formations in france were the canadian cavalry brigade and canadian railway troops, which included headquarters, 14 battalions and four operating companies, making a total of nearly 15,900 men and several supply units. there were cana- dian sections with the i. and iti. echelons of g.h.q., the former supplied liaison between canadian units, g.h.q. and the cana- dian ministry in england. the canadian army medical corps operated in france, eng- land and salonika, supplying the regular medical services with the corps and other troops and also 14 general and seven sta- tionary hospitals, four small forestry corps hospitals, 12 conva- lescent hospitals and one mobile laboratory. the canadian forestry corps operated in england and france with 24,000 all ranks. the canadian army dental corps had a strength of 903 all ranks. special formations were the accountant gencral's branch, the canadian army pay corps and the department of the general auditor. canadian troops in france and england were administered by the minister of overseas military forces of canada with a headquarters in london. post-war organisation. during the session of 1922 a na- tional defence act was passed, consolidating the naval service, the air board and the dept. of militia and defence into the dept. of national defence. the act became effective by procla- mation on jan. 1 1923. under it there is a minister of national defence and a deputy-minister; a defence council was consti- tuted to advise the minister. the senior non-civil officer is the chief of the gencral staff. military forces-——the small permanent military force is used for the maintenance of organisation and the instruction of the non-permanent troops, who constitute the first line fighting force. for purposes of training, discipline, mobilisation, etc., the coun- try is divided into 11 districts, each district under permanent commanders with small staffs. infantry is organised on a regi- mental system with active and reserve battalions (122 in all), perpetuating by their names the pre-war militia regiments and units of the canadian corps. the organisation of other arms is such as to provide for the formation of complete divisions with the necessary depots for reinforcements. the strength of the’ permanent militia was limited by the militia act amending act of 1919, to 10,000, but the authorised establishment in 1924 was less than 3,500. royal schools of instruction are conducted at all stations of the permanent force; the canadian small arms school is the only school, however, which is an independent unit of the permanent force. the total establishment of the non-per- manent militia in 1925 was 10,568 officers and 112,893 other ranks. a reserve militia has also been established. naval service—the royal canadian navy and its reserve forces are under the direction of the director of naval service, who is a member of the defence council. the service consists of permanent headquarters at ottawa, and the royal canadian navy, naval reserve and naval volunteer reserve. in 1925 the personnel of the navy was 73 officers and 394 ratings. the majority of the men serve under seven years’ engagements. a proportion of the officers serve periodically in ships of the british royal navy, and training courses are arranged for selected offi- cers at the instructional schools of the royal navy. the royal canadian navy consisted in 1924 of two destroyers and four minesweepers in commission and one light cruiser and two sub- marines in reserve. naval training establishments and dock- yards are maintained at halifax and esquimalt. the naval reserve consisted in 1924 of 70 officers and 430 men, and the vol- 993 unteer reserve of 70 officers and 930 men. in 1925 and 1926 the naval service was in process of reorganisation. air force-—the royal canadian air force in 1924 included a directorate under the control of the chief of the general staff which has its headquarters at ottawa, and units at vancouver, b.c.; high river, alta.; winnipeg, man. (with operating bases at victoria beach, norway house and the pas); camp borden (the main training base); ottawa, ont.; and dartmouth, n.s. the strength of the force on march 31 1924, was 61 officers and 262 men. its functions were air force training and operations, the control of commercial flying and the conduct of flying opera- tions for civil branches of the government service. in 1925 and 1926 the force was in process of reorganisation. (i. cu) iv. finance in rort the net public debt of the dominion of canada was $335,996,850; in 1920, $2,248,862,624 and on march 31 1924, $2,417,783,275. in 1911 the interest on the public debt was about $13,000,000; by 1920 it had risen to $138,824,782, reduced in 1924 to $133,198,052. war pensions, the growth of population, increasing government activities, railway deficits and rising prices, all added to public expenditure, quite apart from the vast sums raised during the war for the maintenance of the army. the expenditure in 1911 on account of the consolidated fund was about $80,000,000. in 1924 it was $324,813,190. to this latter sum must be added various capital expenditures and railway deficits, which brought the total expenditure of 1924 to $370,- 689,247. the national wealth of canada in 1921 was estimated at $22,193,000,000 and the national income of 1922 at some $4,000,000,000. the amount of income assessed for income taxes in 1922 was $1,463,000,000, and in 1924 it was $1,108,000,- 000. this latter change reflects the fall in prices and the depres- sion in trade that began in 1921. the financial problem of the country was made more difficult by the burden of the vast railway system which had to be taken over by the govt. soon after the war. at the end of 1924 the canadian national railways, a combination of practically all the systems not included in the canadian pacific railway, had about $914,000,000 worth of securities outstanding in the hands of the public. not all of these securities were guaranteed by the govt. but all must be reckoned among the national obligations. the railway requirements are met in part by direct advances from the govt. and partly by the sale of guaranteed bonds, which become indirect public liabilities. sources of revenue-—customs duties provided the largest source of revenue in 1925. additional reyenue was obtained by the imposition of war taxes, the most productive of these being the sales tax, introduced in 1920, which was payable by manu- facturers at the rate of 5° of their monthly sales. the income tax, introduced in 1917, is calculated at a normal rate of 4% with a surtax which rises to 65% on incomes over $1,000,000 per annum. allowances include $1,ooo per annum for a bachelor, $2,000 for a married man and $500 for each dependent child. a war tax on business profits was introduced in 1916 but dis- continued at the end of 1920. other war taxes included stamps on commercial documents and various luxury taxes. loans.—canada was still a considerable borrower abroad in 1925, but it is important to note that after 1914 the greater part of these borrowings were from the united states, instead of from great britain which had supplied almost all the foreign capital borrowed by canada before 10914. the increase in the prosperity of the country is clearly shown by the following table giving the sales of canadian bonds in canada, great britain and the united states by five year periods from ro05 to 1924. percentages of the total for each period are shown in parentheses. period canada | g.b. | u.s.a, (in millions of dollars) 1905-9 158(21-7) | 535(73°5) 35( 4°8) igl0-4 199(15-2) | 951(72-7) 157(12-1) iqi5-9 2,222(71-6 i16( 3°7) 768(24°7) 1920-4 _|_1,330(57°4) 18( 0-8) 967 (418) 504 banking the main circulating media in canada consist of dominion notes, issued by the dominion govt. and bank notes, issued by the chartered banks in virtue of the terms of the bank act. un- der the dominions notes act, 1914, passed just before the out- break of the world war, dominion notes were issuable up to 2 total of $50,000,000 with a cash reserve of 25%, any notes in excess to be fully backed by gold. as amended by the finance act, tor4, and the dominion notes act, 1915, the redemption in gold of dominion notes might be suspended by an order-in-council; whilst the volume of notes against which only a partial reserve was required was increased. the finance act, 1923, continued the order-in-council suspend- ing convertibility, at the same time making permanent the sys- tem inaugurated by the finance act, 1914, by which dominion notes could be advanced to the chartered banks against approved security. thus the canadian dollar, though at par with gold, had not by march 1926 been made redeemable at sight in gold; on the other hand, the canadian finance ministry had been given some of the attributes of a central bank of issue. the note issue-—the chartered banks may at all times issue notes up to an amount equal to the sum of their paid- up capital and the holding of gold and dominion notes in the central gold reserve. up to 1923, under special war regula- tions, the banks also ipeseesed the right at all times to issue excess notes, up to 15% of the paid- -up capital and reserve of the bank issuing the notes. this right to issue excess notes was then confined again to the period originally contemplated by the bank act, ¢.e., to the crop-moving season from the beginning of sept. to the end of february. such excess notes are taxable at the rate of 5% per annum. the notes are secured by the main- tenance of a bank circulation redemption fund, to which each bank contributed an amount equal to 5°% of the average amount of its notes outstanding, and by the gold and dominion notes in the central gold reserve, constituted under the supervision of trustees, three of whom are appointed by the canadian bankers’ assn. and one by the ministry of finance. the chartered banks.—canadian commercial banking is in the hands of the chartered banks, incorporated under the bank act, first passed in 1871, and revised decennially. during the present century, the amalgamation movement resulted in a considerable diminution in the total number of banks; their number fell from 34 in 1900 to 25 in 1913, and was further reduced to ro in 1925, the reduction being particularly marked in the years 1922-5. during this last period, one of depression following the post-war boom, some of the smaller banks showed marked weakness. the case of the home bank, which suspended payment in aug. 1923, in particular revealed great maladministration; the bank had to be liquidated, the bankers’ assn. and the government hav- " ing to come to the assistance of the depositors, though the associa- tion advanced on the security of assets of the bank. in spite of the pressure of the progressive party in the dominion legisla- ture, the revision of the bank act in 1923, though resulting in several amendments, did not produce any fundamental changes. inspection of banks.—but in 1924, in consequence of the home bank revelations, the important principle of government in- spection of banks was incorporated in the bank act, a new sec- tion 56a being added. this section, which provides for annual inspection and report to the minister of finance, gives the min- ister of finance power, in case the inspector is satisfied that a bank is insolvent, and so reports, to request the canadian bankers’ assn. to appoint a curator to supervise the affairs of the bank, and such request shall have the same effect as if ae bank had actually suspended payment. whilst the economic set-back from which canada was suffering during the post-war period affected the banks and caused a re- cession both in the number of branches and the volume of busi- ness, the canadian banking system had long ceased to bea purely domestic one. it has expanded to the west indies, central and south america, france, the united states and elsewhere. whilst loans current in canada fell off between oct. 1921 and oct. 1925, from $1,243,000,000 to $906,000,000, current loans elsewhere canada than in canada increased in the same four years from $156,000,- 000 to $227,000,000. canadian deposits increased in the same period by $50,000,000 and deposits elsewhere by $61,000,000. the total assets and liabilities in the four years increased from $2,806,000,000 to $2,882,000,000. (t. e. g.) v. education the british north america act, which was passed in 1867, placed education under the provincial legislatures, subject to ‘fany right or privilege with respect to denominational schools which any class of persons have by law in any province at the union.” ontario, quebec, alberta and saskatchewan provided separate schools for catholics and english protestants, but in manitoba, although there were scparate schools until 1890, there was only one system of public free schools in 1926; an atrangement to which the french catholic population never acceded and which did not satisfy all parties. difficulties in ontario and quebec.—in ontario, a school regula- tion passed in 1912 provided that all instruction, excepting in the first form, should be in english. the claim was made by the catholic minority that this regulation was an invasion of their rights, but it was still in force in 1926. in quebec, where educa- tion is under catholic and protestant sub-departments, there has grown up a third group, the hebrew, living mostly in mon- treal and treated as protestant, although not entitled to repre- sentation on school boards or to separate schools. it is making an effort to obtain recognition and the matter is now before the courts. in montreal, the community of english-speaking catho- lics, who felt that no satisfactory provision was made for them in the high-school system, in 1922 erected by private subscription a high school of their own. the sparsity of rural population, together with the many foreign-born in the western provinces, has necessitated a centralised system, and the departments of education continue to issue all instructions concerning the con- duct of schools, leaving little to the discretion of the local school boards or trustees of separate schools. teachers and teaching.—teachers are appointed by the re- spective school boards. the maintenance of one-room rural schools was becoming difficult in 1925; it was not easy to obtain qualified teachers; the cost of living had increased, and there had been local agricultural depression. in manitoba, for example, the annual cost of maintaining a one-room school-house was as high as $1,300; salaries varying from $850 to $1,100 were mostly paid by the district, a small provincial grant being avail- able. the result was that a large number of schools had been closed altogether. in the rural districts of quebec, where the protestant population is very scattered, an effort was being made to consolidate schools and to provide free transportation for pupils. in saskatchewan a number of schools had been consoli- dated into two-room schools, enabling two teachers to share work and living expenses. the western provinces made a great effort to replace the unqualified foreign-born teacher, too often found before 1918. alberta appointed official school trustees where it was found impossible to obtain satisfactory appointments. in saskatchewan, instruction is allowed for only one hour per day in a language other than english. in manitoba, the clause allowing bilingual instruction has been repealed, and good effects have resulted. these difficulties must not be emphasised without remarking that there were over 1,900,000 children in ordinary day schools in 1925, and that the percentage of illiteracy, much smaller than in 1910, was decreasing. another circumstance affecting education is the evident effect of european systems. in the english-speaking communities one result has been the frecdom of discussion enjoyed by teachers, and the recent vio- lent controversy on this subject in the united states had few echoes in canada. among the french-speaking institutions re- ceiving their inspiration from france, the universities have no faculty of arts; but the bachelor’s degree, given by the univer- sities to graduates of junior colleges conducted by catholic authorities and giving an eight-year course, has now been mace prerequisite to all professional degrees and examinations for admission to professional associations, canada the french-speaking model schools in quebec were abolished in 1924 and replaced by two additional grades in the elementary schools. in quebec the catholic academies teach no classics, but the classical college course for the b.a. has been standardised and improved. the provincial government since 1922 has aided these institutions by annual grants of $10,000 each. the ontario adolescent act requires school attendance up to 16 years of age, and some higher english schools have been opened to cover the post-elementary period. since to18 commercial and technical high schools have been instituted in most large centres, replacing for those attending them the regular high schools; these, with the agricultural colleges, are the only educational institutions which can legally be and are aided by the dominion government. university education.—in the universities, progress has been made both by growth and by federation. mcgill university has absorbed macdonald college and greatly extended its faculties, schools and departments. the university of toronto has been reconstituted on a federal basis, and the ontario agricultural college affiliated to it. the french-speaking university of mon- treal, long a branch of laval university, was in 1920 granted a new charter. western university, which changed its name to the university of western ontario, is now carried on in close co- operation with the municipal authorities of london, ontario, and the neighbouring counties. the university of king’s col- lege was removed to halifax and federated with dalhousic. the western universities of british columbia, manitoba, saskatche- wan and alberta have shown a remarkable growth. recent investigators suggest the need of more co-ordination between school and university courses, and propose that the schools give part of the arts course or satisfy matriculation standards co-ordinated with university requirements. it is probably fair to say, in surveying the whole situation, that the period r910—25 has been one of the most remarkable in the history of canadian education, marked so far as universities are con- cerned by unparalleled material growth, and in elementary education by remarkable improvement in methods, in public interest and in results, (a. cu.) vi. area and population the land and water areas of the dominion, by provinces and territories according to revised calculations made in 1925 are given in table in next column. the population increased from 5,371,315 in 1901 to 7,206,643 in 1911 and to 8,788,483 in 1921. in 1911-21, the net increase was therefore 1,581,840 and the rate 21-95%. within the do- minion, the four western provinces increased in relative impor- tance in rg11-21, the others declined. the heavy immigration movement accompanying the settlement of the western provinces was chiefly responsible for the increase. with regard to natural increase, comprehensive statistics are lacking prior to 1921, but the net increase of births over deaths is set down at 853,566 for the decade rgo01~—11, and at 1,150,659 for the decade 1911-21. the population is of high masculinity population per sq. m. provinces and | land | water! territories of land area nova scotia —. 21,068 360 21,428 24°86 prince edward island 2,184 ae 2,184 40-56! new brunswick 27,911 74 27,985 13:90 | quebec... 690,865 15,969 706,834 3-42 | ontario 365,880 a1,382 407,262 8-02. | manitoba . 231,926 19,906 251,832 2:63 saskatchewan 243,381 8,319 251,700 312 | alberta. , 252,925 2,360 255,285 2533." - british columbia! 353,416 2,439 355,855 1-48 | yukon .. 206,427 649 207,076 0-02 =| northwest | territorics: mackenzie 493,225 34,265 527,490 keewatin 218,460 9,700 228,160 0-006 franklin. 546,532 7,500 554,032 total 3,654,200 3,797,123 1 exclusive of all tidal waters excepting that portion of the river st. lawrence between point des monts and the foot of lake st. peter. as a result of the large part whieh immigration has played; not- withstanding the war, which, both by its check upon immigra- tion and by the toll which it levied upon male lives, considerably reduced the excess of males, there was an excess in 1921 of 3 in the number of males as compared with females in each 100 of the population. through the same causes, the canadian median age has been increasing and in 1921 was 23-943 years of 5-144 years higher than in 1871. the subjoined tables assemble the more important facts of population growth by provinces. a post-censal calculation pro formula of the population as at june 1 in each year since 1921 gave the following results: 1922—8,940,150; 1923~—9,082,840; 1924—9,226,740. racial origin and citizenship —the problem of the assimilation of foreign immigrants, superimposed upon the basic division of the canadian peeutien into two great national groups, makes the statistics of origin of unusual significance. during the decade ended in 1921, the population of british stock increased from 3,896,985 to 4,868,903, or by 971,918, whilst the descendants of the original french colonists increased from 2,054,890 to 2,452,751, or by 397,861. the british ‘‘ races ’’ (using the latter term in the sense of origina family habitat rather than of ethnic strain) increased from 54-08 % of the whole population in 1911 to §5-40% in 1921, but the french declined from 28-52% to 27-91%. ‘those of alien race increased by 206,739, making them 15:-43° > of the whole, as compared with 1594% in 1i9t1. foreign immigrants have been chiefly from scandinavia, russia and austria. the indian, who is treated as the ward of the canadian govt., numbered 111,597 in 1925, a slight in- crease having taken place during the period 1910 to 1925. except in the northern regions the indian population is almost wholly on reser- vations. oriental immigration has been markedly on the decline in recent years owing to restrictive legislation. in 1925 it reached only 547. in 1921 there were 39,587 chinese, 15,868 japanese and 1,016 east indians resident in canada, 69.9°% of the whole being in british columbia. increase (+) decrease(—) 2 excluding the province of quebec, which is not included in the registration area. provinces, population etc, ig0i i911 192! nova scotia. . 459,574 492,338 523,537 prince edward island . 103,259 93,728 88,615 new brunswick ; 331,120 351,889 387,876 quebec 1,648,898 2,005,776 2,361,199 ontario 2,182,947 2,527,292 2,933,662 manitoba 255,211 461,394 610,118 saskatchewan 91,279 492,432 757,510 alberta ' ; 73,022 374,295 588,454 british columbia . 178,657 392,480 524,582 yukon ; : : 27,210 8,512 4,157 northwest territories . 20,129 6,507 7,988 royal canadian navy st se 485 total 5,371,315 7,206,643 8,788,483 11923; birth iqii over 1901 ig2i over iqii rate a 1924 no. a no. ve + 32,764 +t 7°83 + 31,499 -+ 6-40 22-1 — 9,531 =) of23 = yt t3 — $740 21-1 + 20,769 + 6:27 + 35,987 +10:23 26-9 + 356,878 + 21-64 + 355,423 +17'72 32-2! +3445345 + 15°77 | +406,370 + 16-08 23°4 +206, 183 + 80-79 + 148,724 + 32:23 23°9 +401,153 +439:°48 | +265,078 +53°83 26°4 + 301,273 +412-58 + 214,159 + 57°22 22°9 +213,823 +119:°68 +132,102 +33°66 18-3 =. 18,707 —=o8273 — 4,355 = hi 16 ve — 13,622 — 67-67 + 1,481 +22-76 as oe + 485 ee 1,835,328 34:17 1,581,840 21:95 23-4? 506 language is of an interest akin to that of race, especially as be- tween the use of english and french, both of which are officially sanctioned in the province of quebec and in the federal courts and parliament. of a total population of io years of age and over in canada amounting to 6,682,072, some 5,665,527 can speak english, leaving but 15-21% unable to speak the dominant language. the number speaking french, as mother tongue, ic 1,757,193. a good deal of effort has recently been directed toward spreading bilingual- ism as a means of removing misunderstanding between those of british and french extraction in canada. more than half the french- cana:lians speak english, but less than 5 °%> of the british-canadians speak feonch. in 1921, 9-25 % of the population of five years of age and over could neither read nor write, compared with 10:5 % in igii and 14-38 % in igol. movement of population—an outstanding feature of cana- dian progress has been the rapid growth of the towns, and par- ticularly of the larger cities, at the expense of the country sections. in 1871 only 19% of the population lived in urban districts. the piopener ee mounted steadily until in 1921 it stood at 49°52 “%o. articularly marked was the tendency in this direction during 1901 - 11, though the mainspring of the progress of that decade was agricultural development. the period 1911-21, again saw an in- tensification. montreal and toronto both passed the 500,000 mark in the 1921 census. the small towns, as well as the farming com- munities, are helping to feed the cities, most of the older rural sec- tions of ontario and quebec having lost population. only on the prairies is a larger rural than urban growth taking place, over three- fourths of the entire rural growth of the past decade having taken place in manitoba, saskatchewan and alberta, while most of the remainder occurred in british columbia. the population of the 15 largest cities in 1921 was as follows:— cities montreal, que. . population 618,506 toronto, ont. 521,893 winnipeg, man. 179,087 vancouver, b.c. 117,217 hamilton, ont. . 114,151 ottawa, ont. 107,843 ouchec, que. 95,193 calgary, alta. 63,305 london, ont... 60,959 edmonton, alta. 58,821 halifax, n.s 58,372 st. john, n.b. 47,166 victoria, b.c. 38,727 windsor, ont. 38,591 regina, sask. ; 24432 (r..11-co,) immigration and settlement during the years immediately preceding the outbreak of the world war the number of immigrants was steadily increasing. the war period was marked by a great decrease in immigration, particularly from great britain. at the end of the world war, canada hoped to secure many capable immigrants from europe, particularly as the immigration quota laws of the united states restricted both british and continental immigration into that country. instead of this desire being realised, however, immigration into canada decreased from 1921 to 1923. many new immigration policies were adopted in the years 1920-5, but nosolution of this unsatisfactory state of affairs was discovered. during the 10 years following 1911, canadian govt. records show 747,170 american immigrants into canada, while american govt. rec- ords for the same period show the admission of 742,195 cana- dians into the united states. after 1921 the exodus from canada to the united states largely increased owing to the great pros- perity of the united states and the high wages offered. no record was kept before march 1924 of the number of canadians return- ing to canada from the united states. during 1925 about 50,000 returned. the table in next column gives the oflicial canadian figures of immigrant arrivals from 1911 to 1925. land scttlement—immediately after the armistice, canada was confronted with the problem of repatriating her soldiers and sailors. the canadian govt. established the soldiers’ settlement board to assist her ex-service men to establish themselves per- manently upon the land. supervision and substantial assistance by way of loans from the canadian govt. enabled the detinite settlement by the end of 1924 of 30,604 of these men, for which the canadian people advanced over $100,000,000. so successful canada immigrant arrivals from fiscal aia ser oi years nitec nitec ther kingdom states | countries total iqii 123,013 121,451 66,620 311,084 igi2 138,121 133,710. 82,406 354,237 1913 150,542 i 39,009 112,881 402,432 1914 142,622 107,530 134,726 | 384,878 iqi5 43,276 59,779 41,734 144,789 1916 8,664 36,937 2,936 48,537 1917 8,282 61,389 5,703 75:374 1918 3,178 71,314 4,582 79,074 iqiq 9,914 40,715 7073 57,702 1920 59,603 49,656 8,077 117,336 1921 74,262 48,059 26,156 | 148,477 1922 39,020 29,345 21,634 9,999 1923 34,508 22,007 16,372 72,887 1924 72,919 20,521 55,120 148,560 1925 53,178 15,818 2,366 111,362 was this national operation that, up to march 31 1924, $10,309,- 800 had been repaid. recurring war disability and other causes withdrew from this scheme several hundred farms, subsequently mace available for britishsettlers. realising that this land settle- ment machinery was available, the canadian govt. made an agreement under the empire settlement act with the imperial govt. to receive and care for 3,000 british families, to each of which the british govt. loaned for farm equipment, etc., an amount not exceeding £300. during the first year of the scheme, 1925, 482 families were received and placed upon the land. owing to the increased cost of the passage to canada, a further agreement was made under the empire settlement act. the imperial and the canadian govern- ments agreed to share the greater part of the expense of the journey from england to canada, thus enabling a selected british immigrant to cross the atlantic to halifax, st. john or quebec for £3; the expense for further distances into canada was in pro- portion, the farthest destination being vancouver, which could be reached for £9. unfortunately, the agreement applied only to persons of agricultural experience, so that its effect was limited. (j. o. s.) vii. production, industry and trade the expansion of wheat production is the most striking feature of canada’s economic development after rg10. in the years im- mediately preceding the world war canada was passing through aboom period. optimism was rampant, and, underthestimulus of lavish land and cash grants, railways were rapidly pushed into new and thinly settled areas, some 10,000 m. being added to the railway system in five years. in the period 1910-4 immigrants numbered about 1,660,000, and in the same period wheat pro- duction was doubled. the next great stimulus came from the war. the annual exportation of wheat, which averaged 92, 500,- coo bu. in the period 1912-4, reached 150,000,000 bu. valued at $366,000,000, in 1918. the immediate post-war period saw a continuance of this development, and in 1925 the yield was about 400,000,000 bu. from 22,000,000 ac., valued at about $450,000,- ooo—an increase since 1901 of 300% in area, 600% in yield and 1,100 % in value. a most important contributory cause of this expansion was the plant-breeding research of the dominion govt. [experi- mentalists, notably dr. william saunders and his son, dr. charles saunders. in ro903 the world-famous marquis wheat was evolved, and in 1918 upwards of 300,000,000 bu. of it were raised in north america. the fame of marquis wheat is chiefly due to its earlier ripening, heavy yield, weighty and plump ker- nel, whiteness and baking strength, which enable the baker to obtain &@ maximum number of loaves to the sack of flour. to it probably more than to any other single factor did canada owe her high place among wheat producers in 1925. the supremacy of marquis wheat, was, however, challenged by the garnet wheat (a cross between preston a and riga m), which promised to mature in to days less than the marquis—i1oo as com- pared with tro. this quicker maturing, if established, would bring under cultivation vast new areas where the winters are canada abnormally long and the summers abnormally short, though hot (see agriculture; scientific development). the following table shows the great increase in the production of the principal field crops between r9f0 and 1925:— acreage (000’s omit- ted) value (co0’s omitted) yield in bushels (000’s omitted) ig10 | 1925 2: 9,295| 22,000] 149,990! | 400,000! 9,864] 14,670] 323,449! | 515,000! 1,834] 4,000] 45,148!] 112,000! 84 851 1,544'| 15,500! 6,538! 51 12,97 3)$450,000 114,365] 206,000 21,400] 55,850 oats barley rye . flax for seed. a77| 1,128 corn(maize]) 328] 1,000 hay . 8,515] 10,000 total ._130,3971 53,649 ! bushels. 2 tons. adding minor crops, the total area under field crops in 1926 approximated 57,000,000 acres. it is officially estimated that the area suitable for agriculture approaches 300,000,000 acres. 9,500! 15,163? 15,4977 946,166 wheat pools —the war entirely dislocated the machinery by which the agriculturists of canada conducted their business. before the war grain exchanges such as the wheat pit of winnipeg were the normal agencies for marketing grain, which was collected at country points, assembled in large quan- tities at the terminal points, and distributed among the mills of america and europe. insurance against fluctuation in price was developed by the system known as future trading, which made possible the financing of grain by the banks without incurring undue risks. so disturbing were war conditions that in may 1917 the price reached the peak figure of $3 a bushel as contrast- ed with only 94 cents in may 1914. the consequent clamour among consumers, and the urgent war needs of the allies, resulted in the co-operative intervention of the british and canadian governments as buyers and con- trollers. out of these conditions of war upheaval came a remark- able development of co-operative marketing. voluntary wheat pools were organised in each of the three prairie provinces, with a total membership in respect to the 1925 crop of 125,000 out of 255,000 farmers, and a control of about 200,000,000 bu. of wheat, about one-half of the total crop, and about 150,000,000 bu. of other grain. instead of using the former channels of trade these farmers turned over their wheat to their own selling organisa- tion, and all farmers ultimately received the same average price based on the official grading of the wheat supplied. the wheat pools seek to acquire their own elevators at country centres, thus replacing the elevator-owning companies who formerly held the trade. two of the co-operative companies with a capital of $16,- 000,000, mostly provided by the wheat growers themselves, owned 450 and 323 country elevators respectively in the licence year 1923-4, as well as large store elevators at the head of the great lakes and at buffalo (see co-operation, agriculture). stock raising.—as contrasted with grain-growing, the cana- dian stock-raising industry only advanced at a moderate rate. three factors have tended to restrict the industry: (1) the inva- sion by wheat and mixed farmers of the ranch areas of alberta and of areas formerly condemned as “ bad” or “ alkali” land; (2) the high protective tariffs of the united states, which de- prived canadian livestockmen of their best market; and (3) the british embargo on canadian store cattle imposed in 1896 and retained until 1923. nevertheless, the number of becf and dairy cattle increased by some 30% between roto and 1925; in the latter year beef cattle numbered about 5,500,000 head, and dairy cattle some 3,750,000 head. more rapid development was shown in the horse-breeding industry, and the number of horses in 1925 approximated 3,500,c00. sheep increase slowly in num- ber, probably because of the fencing problem and, especially in the west, the danger from wolves. the annual value of the live- stock products as a whole was officially estimated for 1925 at $ 500,000,000. i 997 forestyy.—in canada’s commercial growth the forest indus- tries stand second to agriculture, andin 1925 there were over 3,100 saw-mills at work. the annual production of lumber from 1905 to 1925 varied between 3,200 and 4,900 million of feet, board measure. as well as providing the raw materials for saw-mills and pulp-mills, the forests of canada provide annually about 16,000,000 railway ties, 1,000,000 poles for telegraph, telephone and power lines, 14,000,000 fence posts, and over 8,000,000 cords of firewood, together with piling, round mining timbers, wood for distillation, charcoal and excelsior manufacture, bark and wood for tanning extracts, maple sugar and wood for the manufacture of artificial silk. quebec, ontario and british columbia are the chief producing provinces. the total value of the annual output of forest products is about $300,c00,000, united states buyers taking more than all other customers combined. because of pro- pinquity and the comparative exhaustion of united states home supplies, this preponderance is likely to continue, but british purchases are increasing. minerals.—coal and iron are generally regarded as the basis of industrial strength. to these, in the case of canada, may be added water power and petroleum. upon the coal of nova scotia and the iron ore brought to it from wabana in adjacent newfoundland, are based the iron and steel industries of sydney and new glasgow; and at the other end of the dominion, the coal fields of the crow’s nest pass district and vancouver is. support the smelting industries of british columbia. an econom- ic development of high national importance is the effort to free central canada, ontario and quebec from dependence upon im- ported coal by the rapid development of hydroelectric power from niagara and other sources, the establishment of coking plants, and the wider distribution of nova scotian and albertan supplies. canada has long been the world’s principal source of nickel, asbestos and cobalt. mineral production was greatly accelerated during the war, exports of metals, which averaged $27,000,000 in value in the three years before the war, reaching by 1918 a total value of $92,000,000. an outstanding feature has been the rapid increase of gold production, especially in ontario. petroleum production was not very large in 1925, but an extensive drilling campaign was being carried on in the wes- tern areas, particularly in the mackenzie and peace river basins. the progress of mineral production in the period 1910 to 1925 is shown in the following table:— value in $ (000’s omitted) quantity (o00's omitted) 1,730 oz. 19,494 oz. 73,150 lb. 112,526 |b. 253,964 \b. t1¥,oro jb, 13,022 tons 260 tons 31,983 oz. 37,271 ib. 56,598 lb. 32,988 lb. 12,707 tons 76 tons asbestos 2,459 industry.—canadian policy is increasingly directed to the home conversion of raw materials into finished products. this policy is assisted by the almost inexhaustible supply of these raw materials from lands, forests and mines, by the enormous re- sources of water power, and by the readiness of americans to apply their capital and business enterprise to canadian industry. (in 1925 there were over 700 american branch plants in canada carrying an investment of $150,000,000.) the concentration of population in the region of the lower great lakes and st. law- rence, the nearness of the american coal-fields, and the rapid development of water-power resources go far to explain the fact that some 75% of canadian manufacturing establishments are situated in ontario and quebec, in such centres as montreal, toronto, hamilton, ottawa, oshawa, london, kitchener and quebec. a lesser industrial advancement has been made in winnipeg (manitoba), vancouver (british columbia) and st. john (new brunswick). within the period 1910-25 canada became second only to the 508 united states as a producer of pulp and paper. the output increased fivefold in value; in 1923 it was worth more than $122,- 900,000, over 100 mills being in operation. the iron and steel industry is favoured in an especial dlegree by the abundant supply of cheap hydroelectric power, which helps to offset the disad- vantage that nowhere in canada are workable deposits of coal and iron found in juxtaposition, and also by the abundance of nickel, chromium, molybdenum and other metals used in the manufacture of alloy steels. | the insufficiency of the earlier returns prevents an exact statc- ment of the development in each industrial group, but the fol- lowing table shows, as far as information was available, from the census returns, the numbers of employees in each group in 1910 and 1920, and the value added to raw materials by processes of manufacture :— net value, 2.¢., value of products no. of em- less cost of ma- group ployecs terials (in million dollars) 1910 1920 i9io 1920 wood and paper 132,000 | 143,700 120 416 iron and steel . 48,558 | 146,200 61 365 ‘* vegetable ”’ products . 72,900 236 construction, hand trades and repairs oo 89,000 v 200 textile ; 72,672 | 99,700 64 193 animal products. : _ 48,700 - 153 non-metallic mineral ‘ ied { sed { 54 non-ferrous metal of) tms 23,200 40 53 miscellaneous — 24,900 a 95 the war had a profound and lasting effect upon canada’s in- dustrialism. the war demand was first felt in respect to shells, and brought new employment to many centres throughout the dominion. canada exported for the use of the allied fighting forces over 65,000,- 000 shells, together with many millions of fuses, fuse-parts, cartridge cases, percussion primers, exploder containers, and shell and adapter forgings. of the 1,800,000 tons of steel used about 75% was pro- duced in canada. the forests of british columbia, and to a lesser degree of ontario, quebec and new brunswick, provided spruce for aeroplane purposes and for shipbuilding, while the mines supplied large quantities of copper, zinc, nickel, lead, asbestos, aluminium, carbide and other mineral products. the metals and compounds exported during the war period reached a total of 10,700,000 ib. and the total value of the exports of munitions and matcrials was $1,002,000,000, annual exports increased from a value of $57,000,000 in i915 to $388,000,000 in 1917. water-power.—another all-important new factor in canadian in- dustrialism was the revelation of the extent of available water-powcr. in the official records of 1910 no mention is made of this form of energy, but in 1925 every large industrial centre was served with hydroelectric power and had within easy transmission distance ample reserves for the future. the importance of this water-power to canadian industry cannot be overestimated. it is capable of great development, and during 1925 alone 719,000 ei.i’. was added, bringing the total installation in the dominion to 4,290,000 horse- power, the benefitsof the new motive power are especially felt in the central provinces of ontario and quebec, where there is no coal. a significant contrast in method its presented in the two leading provinces. in quebec the development was left in the hands of private corporations, while ontario led the way in public ownership. hydroelectric power commissions have been set up by the respective governments in ontario, nova scotia, new brunswick and the city of winnipeg to operate power plants and transmission systems as publicly owned utilities. labour conditions —the following table of index numbers of rates of wages for various classes of labour in canada is based on those of i913 as 100:— ing lumbering bh z) & fe = 1s) e oo roe (x) 100-0; [00:0 100:°0 125-9| 155-2 146°8 169°71175°5 1976 prices rose greatly during the war period and reached their max- imum in 1920, when, taking the level of 1913 as 100, wholesale prices canada stood at 243-5 and the cost of living at 192. by 1924 a considerable fall was recorded, wholesale prices in that year standing at 155-1 and the cost of living at 152. after 1920 wages in all groups de- creascd, and the tendency in 1925 was still downward, notwith- standing the higher rates offered in the united states, which induced a serious exodus of artisans from canada. the hours of labour in 1925 were gencrally as follows:— building trades 44] carriage manufactures 44-55 metal trades 44-50} furniture and wood- cutting . | 44-60 printing trades. . /46$-48] rubber manufacture . | 40-55 electric st. rys. . 44-48 | boots and shoes 48-55 textiles - « « | 44-50] automobiles 44-50 clothing and miscellane- common labourers 44-60 ous manufacture 44-56 meat packing . . | 48-60] coal miners . 44-46 pulp and paper making | 48-so} other miners 48-54 in 1907 the canadian parliament passed the industrial disputes investigation act, commonly called ae lemicux act. the primary object of the act was to further the settlement of industrial disputes through the appointment of a board of conciliation and investiga- tion, to which board—representing both interests—any employer or employee might refer a dispute. it was made unlawful for the employer to lockout or for the employee to strike pending the reference made to such board of conciliation, and any breach of this provision was made punishable by a fine. this act worked to the advantage of both employers and employees, and there was general regret at the decision of the privy council in london on jan. 20 1925, declaring that the lemieux act was ultra vires of the canadian parliament, holding that such legislation was only within the juris- diction of the provincial legislatures, some of whom have since enacted similar legislation, which however, can only be effective within the boundaries of a province. trade.—the great increase in canada’s trade from 1911 to 1924 is shown in the following table:— imports for consumption and exports of domestic produce (millions of dollars) (per capita at 1924 prices) exports | imports | exports | imports (per capita) exports | imports the outstanding feature of the period was the growth of trading relations with the united states, largely at the expense of that with the united kingdom. tariff ebstacles on both sides have tended to alter the character of the trade, but its volume in- creases continuously. in 1925.canada was second only to great britain in the list of overseas markets for exports from the united states. the directions of trade in 1910 and 1924 are shown in the following table (percentages of total imports and exports respectively are given in parentheses) :— canadian exports to (in million dollars) canadian imports from (in million dollars) igio ls || nr | rs efs 218 (59%) | 601 (67%) | 104 (37%) | 431 (41 %) u.s.a, ; great bri- tain. | 95 (26%) | 154 (17%) | 139 (50%) | 360 (34%) other coun- tries 57 (15 %) | 138 (16%) | 36 (13%) | 254 (25%) totals 370 (100 %)| 893 (100 %)| 279 (100 %)11,045(100 %) coal, iron ore and products, petroleum, cotton, rubber and other raw materials of industry are largely imported from the united states; the chief exports to the united states are wood pulp and paper. canada’s exports to great britain consist almost entirely canada of vegetable and animal products, chiefly wheat and flour. with regard to imports, canada is a large and increasing purchaser of british textiles and other manufactures. assisted by treaty and tariff arrangements, a substantial increase has taken place in commercial intercourse with other british dominions and colonies, notably australia, new zealand, the west indies and newfoundland, as is shown by a comparison of the following table with the one given above:— canadian exports to canadian imports from (in million dollars) (in million dollars) 1910 1924 1910 1924 british empire foreign countries 258 totals . 370 apart from the united states, the trading relations of canada with foreign countries show the most promising results in the case of japan, france, belgium, germany, italy, cuba, china and the netherlands; and as the abnormal post-war conditions disap- pear canada’s trade with these countries should expand consid- erably. in this expansion the panama canal must take an in- creasing part, for in the transit of goods by sea between vancou- ver and liverpool it saves 5,666 m. and an ever-growing percen- tage of the wheat and other products of the western prairies may be expected to find their cheapest route to market via vancouver and the canal. brpliography.—canada: natural resources and commerce, pre- pared by the natural resources intelligence service of the depart- ment of the interior (1923); w. p. m. kennedy, soctal and econom- ic conditions in the dominion of canada (1923); british department of overseas trade, report on financial, industrial and commercial conditions in canada (1923). (p, hu.) viii. communications the chief development in communications in canada since ro1t has been the great increase in railways on the western prai- rics. in railway organisation, the outstanding event was the union of two transcontinental lines with the existing government railways, and their consolidation into a state railway company. in 1925 nearly 90% of the railway mileage was included in two systems—the canadian pacific and the canadian national. the route mileage of the railways grew from 25,400 m. in 1911 to 39,788 m. in 1924: the canadian pacific railway alone in- creased its mileage in canada from 10,247 to 15,054. the prairie provinces of manitoba, saskatchewan and alberta doubled their mileage, and accounted for 8,200 m. of the increase, whilst brit- ish columbia, with an increase of some 2,500 m. progressed even more rapidly. the rate of growth has been, however, more rapid than the expansion of population, the number of miles per 1,000 inhabitants having increased from 3.52 to 4.42, an abnormally high figure. a feature of the canadian railways is the large amount of mileage owned in the united states. in 1924 the canadian pacific had 5,117 such miles and the canadian na- tional 2,093 miles. the following comparative figures show the growths in traflic, etc., from rg1r to 1924:— 112 195 698 igii 1924 revenue tons carried 79,884,000 106,429,000 revenue tons mileage . 16,048,478,000 | 30,513,819,000 passengers. : 37,098 42,922 locomotives . . 4,219 5,857 passenger cars we os 4,513 6,849 freight cars . 5 127,158 226,163 capital investment : $1,648,305,000 | $3,413,866,000 gross earnings 4%. # $188,733,000 $ 445,924,000 operating expenses $1 31,034,000 $382,484,000 85-8 % operating ratio : 69-4 % number of employees . 141,224 169,970 salaries and wages. $74,614,000 239,864,000 over half the increased capital is accounted for by additional expenditures of the older government lines, the construction of 599 the national transcontinental and government advances to lines absorbed in the canadian national. the remainder is chiefly in the form of securities in the hands of the public. the year 1924 was hardly a typical year in consequence of the poor harvest, and 1925 showed a great improvement in the operat- ing ratio. the railways have a much improved record for safety, as the following figures show :— 1911 1924 passengers killed 1 in 1,300,000 2,200,000 employees killed 1 in : : 620 1,330 whilst the canadian pacific has continued its expansion on sound lines and has maintaincd its dividends at 10%, it has now to meet the competition of two trans-continental lines organised as a government company and backed by the credit of the state. the canadian national system is composed of the intercolonial, ithe national transcontinental, the grand trunk, the grand trunk pacific and the canadian northern railways. the last named came under government control in march 1917, the grand trunk pacific in march 1919 and the grand trunk in may 1920. the consolidation was rendered necessary by war financial strin- gency coming on the top of reckless over-building. between 1918 and 1925 the roads composing the system had $674,975,273 invested in them, $534,026,156 of which was advanced by the government. in 1924 the system had an operating surplus of $17,244,000, but this meant a final deficit after interest had been paid of $54,860,410, only $497,656 less than the deficit in r919 on the constituent lines. the operating surplus increased to $32,- 264,000 in 1925, but the final deficit was still heavy. electric railways have developed considerably, the mileage increasing from 1,223 in 1911 to 1,736 in 1923. the growth in the use of motor vehicles has been very rapid, the number registered increasing from 21,519 in 1911 to 653,121 in 1924. this expansion has necessitated a large expenditure on roads and, under the canada highways act, 1919, the dominion provided $20,000,000 to assist the provinces in road building. grants are usually 40% of the cost of construction or improve- ment. by the end of 1925 some 8,000 m. had been or were being, constructed. the revenue for roads is assisted by registration and licence duties for motor-vehicles, chauffeurs, dealers, etc., each province having its own scale. shipping.—one of the most interesting features of canadian development during the war period was the growth of shipping facilities for canada’s overseas trade. the phenomenal growth of her mercantile marine was indicative of the country’s progress, but during the immediate post-war period construction of cargo steamers by the government outstripped the requirements of trade. in 1923 the tonnage of ships of canadian registry totalled 1,230,830 tons as compared with 896,965 tons in 1911. in 1924 the cana- dian pacific operated, on lakes and ocean, a steamship service of 6o vessels, including car ferries. the national board, under the name of the canadian govt. merchant marine, operated a fleet of 45 ocean steamships, which, however, involved the government in substantial losses. the tonnage of traffic on the canals dropped from 38,030,353 tons in 1911 to 12,869,097 tons in 1924, mainly due to the trans- fer of traffic from the canadian sault ste. marie canal to the united states canal. only the welland and st. lawrence canals are holding their own. in 1925 a new welland canal with a depth of 30 ft. was being built, and a joint board of canadian and united states engineers was investigating a similar waterway from the ocean to the head of the lakes. telegraphs and aviation—the telegraph wire mileage in- | creased from 168,017 in 1912 to 316,113 m. in 1924. in the field of wireless the stations in 1924 totalled 33,456, of which 31,609 were amateur receiving stations. commercial aviation has re- ceived considerable attention, aeroplanes being of particular use as means of communication and transport with the northern areas not yet linked up with the railway system. in 1923 there were 69 licensed aircraft, by which 2,238 passengers and 17,600 tons of freight and express matter were carried. the aeroplanes are also employed in locating forest fires. (e. w. be.) 510 brbliographyy.—sir r. l. borden, the war and the future (1917); a. shortt and a. g. doughty, a [fi istory of the canadian people and their institutions (1917); morrison, british supremacy and canadian self-government, 1830-54 (1919); the times book of canada (1920); sir w. schooling, the tiudson's bay company, 1670-1020 (1920); viscount bryce, modern democracies (1921); w po 4m kennedy, the naiure of canadian federalism (1921); sir j. g. bourinot, canada (1922); h. a, innis, history of the canadian pacific railway (t9623) ¢ ic, bracq, the evolution of french canada (1924); g. t. faris, seeing canada (1924). see also: canada year book (annual); canadian bank of commerce year book; canadian annual review; annual banking number of the monetary times (toronto); axnual se of the dominion and provincial govt. departments. canadian literature, english (see 5.165). the literary history of canada 1910-25, although it falls into three fairly well-defined periods—pre-war, war and post-war—may now be dealt with more conveniently as a whole. of books relating to or growing out of the world war, most have been of ephemeral interest. perhaps the best general survey is canada in the great world war (1917-21). the most important achievement of the period was the publication of canada and its provinces (1913, etc.), a compre- hensive history of the country in 23 volumes, edited by dr. a. g. doughty and dr. adam shortt, and counting among its contributors most of the recognised authorities in canadian history, biography and economics. another notable essay in canadian history was the series known as the chronicles of canada (1920), in 32 volumes, edited by george m. wrong and h. h. langton, a series designed to present in attractive and at the same time authoritative form the outstanding events of canadian history. a new and revised edition, with several ad- ditional volumes, of tie afakers of canada, is in course of pub- lication, including an encyclopaedia of canadian history. of individual works, in history and biography, the more im- portant were h. p. biggar’s voyages of jacques cartier (1924), j. s. mclennan’s leuisbourg (1918), chester martin’s lord selkirk’s work in canada (1916), g. c. davidson’s north west company (1918), william wood’s in the heart of old canada (1913), george m. wrong’s fail of canada (1914), james doug- las’ new england and new france (1913), goldwin smith’s posthumous reminiscences (1910), life and opinions (1913), and correspondence (1913), all edited by arnold haultain, sir richard cartwright’s reminiscences (1912); the lives of lord strathcona by beckles willson (1915) and w. t. r. preston (x914), o. d. skelton’s sir alexander galt (1920) and sir wilfrid laurier (1921), sir joseph pope’s correspondence of sir john macdonald (1921), sit charles tupper’s recollections of sixty years in canada (1914), mrs. skelton’s thomas d’ arcy mcgee (1925), l. j. burpee’s sir sandford fleming (1915), john boyd’s sir georges eticnne cartier (1914), sir john willison’s reminis- cences (1919), e. m. saunders’ life of sir charles tupper (1916), harvey cushing’s life of sir william osler (1925), james mavor’s afy windows on the sircet of ithe world (1924). of agencies which, each in its own way, have been making for the development of intellectual hfe and scholarship in canada, none have been more important than the public arckives, the royal society, the champlain society, and the canadian reviews. the archives perform a triple service, in collecting and safeguarding the manuscript treasures of canada, in aftording facilities for research to stucdlents and in publishing selected documents from the unrivalled collections. the cham- plain society devotes itself to the publication of important works bearing upon canadian history, and the reprinting of old works in the same field. among its publications are j. b. tyrreil’s editions of hearne’s journey (1911), and david thompson’s narrative of his exploration . . . (1916), arthur g. doughty’s edition of knox’s historical journal (1914-6), grant’s and big- gar’s edition of lescarbot’s new france (1911), william c. h. wood’s canadian wear of 1812 (1920-3), and h. p. biggar’s cham- plain (1922, etc.) (to be completed in six volumes), all admirable examples of canadian scholarship. the royal society, in litera- ture as well as in science, has become a stimulating influence in canadian life. the university magazine (which has since ceased canadian literature publication), dalhousie remew and canadian historical review have afforded an invaluable medium for the publication of thoughtful and timely articles. in imaginative literature, the outstanding books of verse of the period are bliss carman’s april airs (1916) and far horizons (1925), william wilfred campbell’s sagas of vaster britain (1914), william henry drummond’s peetical works (1912), marjorie l. c. pickthall’s drift of pinions (1913) and the lamb of poor souls (1916), frederick george scott’s poems (1912), duncan campbell scoti’s beauty of life (1921), arthur j. a. stringer’s open water (1914), john mccrae’s in flanders fields (1919), norah holland’s spun yarn and spindrift (1918) and when half gods go (1924), beatrice taylor’s white winds of dawn (1924), charles roberts’ new poems (1919), louise morey bowman’s dream tapestrics (1924). in 1913 dr. wilfred camp- bell brought out his anthology, the oxford book of canadian verse, and in 1916 sir andrew macphail his beok of sorrow. iiere may also be mentioned the collection of folk songs of french canada by c. m. barbeau, translated by edward sapir (1925). fiction.—in fiction, probably the outstanding figure of the period is mrs. l. adams beck, of victoria, who writes fascinating tales of the orient under her own name, and equally delightful historical stories under the pen-name of e. barrington. frederick william wallace has written a number of stories, long and short, of the deep sea fishermen of nova scotia and the glorious days of the ** bluenose” clipper ship. in the prairie provinces, a rather remarkable group of scandinavian-canadian novelists has been doing excellent work in the interpretation of the hfe of their people in the novel environment of the canadian west. the outstanding names in the group are martha ostenso, philip grove and laura salverson. of the older novelists, sir gilbert parker, ralph connor (c. w. gordon), arthur stringer, harvey o’higgins, basil king and l. m. montgomery must at least be mentioned. an exceptionally efiective group of short stories is marjorie pickthall’s posthumous volume azgels’ shoes (1923). chiliren’s books of distinct merit are cyrus macmillan’s canadian wonder talcs (1918) and canadian fairy tales (1922), isabel ecclestone mackay’s the shining ship (1918), t. s. marquis’ the king’s wisk (1924), marshall saunders’ jimmy goldcoast (1924), helen b. sandwell’s valley of colour days (1924), and the animal stories of charles roberts and ernest thompson seton. essays in a variety of subjects are sir robert falconcr’s idealism i national character (1920), j. l. morison’s british supremacy and canadian self-government (1919), w. l. mac- kenzie king’s indusiry and humanity (1918), r. m. maclver’s labour in the changing world (1919), g. m. wrong’s the uiicd states and canada (1921), w. g. smith’s canadian immigration (1920), a. h. reginald buller’s essays on wheat (1919), w. h. blake’s brown waters (1915) and iu a fishing country (1922), c. m. barbeau’s indian days in the canadian rockies (1923), a. macmechian’s old province tales (1924), and headwaters of canadian litcrature (1924), v.l.o. chittick’s thomas chandler haliburton (1924), r. p. baker’s history of english canadian literature io confederation (1920), stephen leacock’s nonsense novels (1911), and suishine sketches of a little town (1912), lloyd roberts’ the book of reberis (1924), w. b. basil king’s the conquest of fear (1921), peter mcarthur’s zn pastures green (1916) and around home (1925), the last- mentioned published posthumously. (1s. jtb) canadian literature, french (sce 5.167a).—the lit- erary revival which took place in the 2zoth century continued to exert its influence in the period 1910-26, with quebec and montreal as the chief centres of intellectual activity. belles letives—the most striking characteristic, however, waz the increase in output of the more purely intellectual writing— philosophical, sociological and critical. mgr. louis adolphe paquet, a professor at the laval university, perhaps produced the soundest and best written work of this kind. l’organisaiton religieuse et le pouvoir civil (1912), l’action religieuse et la loi civile (1915) and etudes et appreciations, 4 vol. (1917-22), dealing with canal—canberra social science and apologetics, are among his publications. other writers on sociology and political economy were henri - bourassa, the nationalist leader, and edouard montpetit, of montreal university. mgr. camille roy also continued to pub- lish works of literary criticism. these include nouveaux essais sur la litterature canadienne (1914), erables en fleurs (1923) and a vombre des evables (1924). henri d’arles also assisted in the development of this genre. the result of this movement was to attract the attention of the public to the writers of french canada and the creation of an indigenous literature, expressed in both prose and verse. adjutor rivard and frere marie- victorin, the former in chez nous (1914) and chez nos ges (1918) and the latter in recits (1919) and croquis laurentiens (1920), wrote delightfully on french canadian life. fiction.—canadian novelists who formerly confined them- selves to descriptions of the life and customs of their country tended to produce novels on serious questions and historical ro- mances; but the only work of outstanding merit in this period is liappel de la race (1922), by alonie de lestres (abbe l.-a. groulx). poetry.—the school of poets which grew up in montreal during the former period gradually dispersed. the members were united by no common inspiration, and therefore went their several ways. albert lozeau, who published in 1907 l’dme solitaire, produced a further two volumes of poems, le miroir des jours (1912) and lauriers et feuilles d’erables (1916), together with a prose series in three volumes, billets du soir (1911, 1912 and 1918), the subtle and delicate style recalling that of his poetry. paul morin, in his le paon d’email (1911) and poemes de cendres et dor (192 2), displayed a talent, new to canadian poetry, for describing beauty for beauty’s sake as revealed in form and colour. jean charbonneau in les blessures (1912) and les pre- destinees (1923); albert dreux in les soirs (19to) and le mauzais passant (1920); englebert galleze in les chemins de p@me (1910) and la claire fontaine (1913); and hector demers in les voix champetres (1912) have each in turn sought inspiration in the soul and in nature. but quebec has produced the better nature poets. the scenery, the quaint customs, the retired life, of the gaspe peninsula have been best interpreted by madame blanche lamontagne, whose principal works are: les visions gas pesiens 1cs (1913), par nos champs et nos rives (1917) and la vicille maison (1920). alphonse desilets of quebec describes the same scenes without quite the same charm in adon pays, mes amours (1913) and dans la brise du terroir (1922). m. vabbe arthur lacasse mingled religious poetry with natural description in his heures solitaives (x916) and l’envol des heures (1919). hisiory.—historical studies however occupy the first place in the prose of this period. historians, already noteworthy in the preceding period, continued their work. a general study of the history of the catholic church in canada by august gosselin was published in the form of monographs on the bishops of quebec. this work, which was begun in 1910, was cut short in 1918 by the death of the author. two professors of the laval university of quebec have done some very valuable research. mer. amedee gosselin, in his l’instruction au canada sous le regime francais (1911), made an interesting contribution to a little known subject. m. thomas chapais published in rort an excellent biographical study of the marquis of montcalm, who was defeated by wolfe on the plains of abraham, outside quebec, in 1759. in 1916 m. chapais inaugurated, at the laval university of quebec, a course of lectures on english rule in canada. they were published in a collected edition, cours dhis- toire du canada (4 vol., t9tg-23), and form a detailed political history of the country from 1760-1850. although illuminated by a fervent french-canadian patriotism, his method throughout is objective, and his conclusions carry great authority. while m. chapais was writing in quebec the story of the english dominion, m. lionel groulx was delivering at montreal university lectures on canadian history more controversial in tone. among those lectures, the following were published: la confederation canadienne (1918), la natssance d’une race (1919), lendemains de conquete (1920), vers l emancipation sii (1921). the conclusions arrived at tend to be biased by the extreme nationalism of the author, but the work is enlivened by his vivid imagination and keen perceptions. the work of the theatre is almost negligible. this form of literature appears to find difliculty in flourishing in canada. french canadian literature is launching out, however, in many other directions. a higher level of general culture and intelligence is providing native writers with an increasing public, and the universities of quebec and montreal have done much to enlarge the field of french-canadian letters. brn_iocrapriny.—camille roy, ‘ french- canadian literature ” in canada and tts provinces, vol. 12, part 2 (1913); nouveaux essats sur la litterature canadienne (1914), manuel d'histoire de la litterature canadienne-frangaise (1918); k. k. and e. h. broadus, a book of canadian prose and verse (1923): makers h canadian literature, ed. l. a. pierce and v. morin (1923, etc.); c. roy, erables en fleurs (1923); a l’ombre des erables (1924). (c. ro.) canal: see river and canal engineering. canalejas, jose (1854-1912), spanish politician, was born in ferrol july 31 1854. coming of a middle-class family, he graduated in 1871 at the university of madrid, took his doctor’s degree, and became in 1873 lecturer on literature. he entered his father’s engineering works as general secretary and studied railway problems, but continued his literary work, publishing a history of latin literature in two volumes. he was early attracted to politics, first as a republican, then as a liberal. deputy for soria in 1881, he became under-secretary for the prime minister’s department in 1883, then minister of justice (1888), of finance (1894-5), president of the chamber in the moret administration, and prime minister and chief of the liberal partyinrg10. hewasstill in office when he was murdered in madrid nov. 12 1912, canalejas was a remarkably consistent statesman. he believed in the possibility of a monarchy adopting a thorough-going democratic policy both in economic and in all civil and political matters. a sincere catholic, he was neverthe- less a strong anti-clerical, and a champion of the rights of the state against the encroachments of the church. canberra, austrratta.—in 1909 the commonwealth govt. acquired from new south wales an area of g12 sq.m. for the purpose of establishing a new federal capital. the terri- tory is situatcd some 150 m. southwest of sydney and 60 m. direct from the east coast. it is traversed by the murrum- bidgee and molonglo rivers, on the latter of which is the site for the federal capital itself. in 1913 a further area of 28 sq. m. was acquired at jervis bay, 70 m. east-north-east of canberra, to be used for a port. the right to join the two places by a railway accompanied the transfer. the actual vesting of the larger area in the commonwealth govt. dated from jan. rt 1911, and the jervis bay area was formally taken over byan act of ro15. the plan for the newcap- ital was adopted after world competition, and before building was begun a water supply was provided by impounding the cotter river. after the official commencement of work on march 12 1913 the main lines of the city were laid ovt and a consider- able amount of afforestation was done, but this was practically stopped between 1916 and 1920. in 1923 the director-general of works moved to canberra and work was begun on parliament house, which was nearly com- pleted in 1926, and it was expected that parliament would meet therein 1927. by the beginning of 1926 a considerable number of roads had been metalled and many miles pegged out; a number of bungalows and two hotels had been built in the residential quarters to accommodate the state officials; and a power house with a capacity of 1,350 kw. was supplying power and light to the brick, tile and cement works, carpenters’ shops, houses and camps. parks and avenues had been planted, sewage works and reservoirs constructed; and a school built at telopoea park. the railway from queanbeyan to canberra was opened for goods traffic in 1914, and for passengers in 1923. before 1925 it had been extended to the power house and beyond, about eight miles in all, a survey had also been made for the line to jervis bay. the estimated population of the federal territory in 1924 was 3,677. much of the land not required for the capital had been 512 let on lease, about 24,000 ac. of it to ex-soldiers. the plan was to classify the whole of the lands in the territory with a view to granting them out on long leases, those referred to above being short leases of from 5 to 25 years.