BURNS AND SCALDS

burns are caused by dry heat of 140° i’. and over, and scalds by moist heat of over 120° f, their severity is dependent on the degree of tempera- ture, the duration of the exposure and the size of the burnt area, the gravity being proportionate to the extent rather than the depth of the injury. burns vary in degree from a slight scorching of the skin to complete charring of the affected parts, extending down to the muscles, and even the bones. the most superficial burns are characterised by redness, swelling and tenderness, and on heal- ing either leave no trace or a slight pigmentation. in more severe burns blisters follow, associated with considerable inflam- mation and pain, or the tissue becomes devitalised, forming a dark, leathery patch, known as the eschar. this at first is adherent to the underlying tissue, but in a few days suppuration occurs beneath it, followed by sloughing, and a raw surface, covered with a purulent discharge, is left, which, on healing, results in a reddish scar. in burns of greatcr severity the suppuration may be so great as to lead to absorption, associated with symptoms of septic poisoning. in severe burns healing takes place slowly, with the formation of an uneven, unsightly scar, which, owing to contraction, may be followed by deformity and disfigurement. 1 the constitutional effects of burns vary with the situation and the extent of surface involved. they may be primary, consisting of pain, shock, collapse, or death; or secondary, consisting of toxic symptoms due to absorption of poisons from the dead tissue, or of inflammation of the underlying internal organs. . when burns are fatal, death usually supervenes during the period of shock, within 36 hours of the burn. it may occur later from toxaemia, septicaemia or even from sheer exhaustion from the pain and weakening discharges. the outlook in burns, except in those of slight degrce, is invariably grave, especially when they occur on the chest and abdomen, and, should an -area larger than a third of the cutaneous surface be burnt, a fatal issue is almost inevitable within a few days. treatment.—the treatment is both general and local. the general treatment in severe burns consists in dealing promptly with shock before attempting to treat the burn itself. stimu- lants should be avoided, and every effort made to soothe the patient, a useful aid being immersion in a hot bath. after the stage of shock has passed, the secondary effects, such as toxaemia and septicaemia, must be dealt with on general medical principles. the local treatment should aim at preventing sepsis, avoiding frequent dressings, favouring the removal of the eschar, and of obtaining a pliant scar and avoiding deformity. greasy applications, such as carron or carbolic oil, have been largely replaced by moist dressings with soothing astringent lotions, containing bicarbonate of soda, lead, aluminium acetate, etc. blisters should be opened with proper antiseptic precautions, and a moist dressing applied. this dressing should be left untouched as long as possible, and only when the lesion becomes septic should it be soaked off and renewed. when the eschar has separated and an ulcerated surface is left, the best method of healing it is that known as the “ open” method, in which healing is allowed to take place under a natural scab, produced by powdering the moist surface with an aseptic powder, such as sterilised magnesium carbonate or stearate of zinc. where the granulating surface of a burn is large and deep, it may be necessary to graft to ensure healing. to avoid deformities, it is essential that the affected parts should be put in proper position during healing. scars from burns may be reduced to some extent by radium and x-rays, provided the treatment is commenced within a few months of the injury. asi bibliography.—j. m. h. macleod, handbook of the pathology of the skin (1903); burns and their treatment (1918); the diseases o0 the skin (1920). (j. m. h. mcl.) burroughs, john (1837-1921), american naturalist and writer (sce 4.863), continued to write frequent essays on out-of- door life, some of which were assembled in the following volumes: ‘time and change (1912), the summit of the years (1913), the breath of life (1915), under the apple trees (1916) and field and study (1919). in 1910 the degree of litt. d. was conferred on him by yale university and in the following year he received that of l.ii.d. from colgate university. he died march 29 1921 while returning from california to his country home in new york state. burrows, ronald montagu (1867-1920), british scholar and archaeologist, was born at rugby aug. 16 1867 and educated at charterhouse and christ church, oxford. while assistant to prof. gilbert murray in the greek department at glasgow uni- versity, 1891-7, he started his excavations at pylos and sphac- teria (1895-6), which had the important result of vindicating thucydides as an accurate historian. from 1898 to 1908 he was prof. of greek at university college, cardiff, and from 1908 to 1913 at manchester university. in 1905 and 1907 he excavated tombs at mycalessus (rhitsona) in boeotia, thereby systema- tising for the first time the study of boeotian archaeology, and in 1907 published the discoverics in crete. he also published many archacological papers in the classical journals. from 1913 until his death in london on may 14 1920 he was principal of king’s college, london, being the first layman to hold that post. from 1913 onwards he was the leading british philhellene, having “‘ discovered’? veniselos in 1912, and being invited by veniselos during the world war (1916) to be the semi-oflicial diplomatic representative in london of the greek provisional government. in 1915 the british cabinet adopted his plan for bringing greece into the war by the offer of cyprus. confidant and adviser of veniselos, he wrote and lectured extensively on near eastern political problems. at king’s college, he founded the many chairs concerned with european history and litera- ture, and the school of slavonic studies. see george glasgow, ronald burrows: a memoir, with foreword by e. k. veniselos (1934). (g. gr.) siness organisation: see office management; scien- tific management. busoni, ferruccio (1866-1924), italian pianist and com- poser, was born at empoli, near florence, april 1 1866. after studying in vienna and at graz, he became a member of the accademia filarmonica of bologna. in 1888 he was appointed professor at helsingfors and in 1890 became professor at the moscow conservatoire, when he won the rubinstein prize. after giving recitals and piano lessons in u.s.a. his concerts in different countries brought him world-wide fame as a virtuoso. in 1913 he became director of the liceo musicale at bologna and in 1920 of the meisterklasse for composition in berlin, where he died july 27 1924. asa pianist busoni possessed a superb mastery over the keyboard, probably unequalled since the time of liszt, to- gether with a great sense of beauty. his compositions include an opera brautwahl (1913), chamber music, orchestral works, piano solos and songs. his brilliant and scholarly arrangements, notably of bach’s “‘ well-tempered clavichord ” have been in- valuable to pianists; while his talent as a writer is shown in his essays, which include extwurf einer neuen asthetik der ton- kunst (1916). see h. leichtentritt, f. busoni (1916) and g. seldon-goth, f. busoni (1922). butcher, samuel henry (1850-19010), british scholar, was born in dublin april 16 1850, being the eldest son of sam- ucl butcher, bishop of meath. educated at marlborough and trinity college, cambridge, he graduated as senior classic tn 1873 and was awarded a chancellor’s medal. after a year as assistant master at eton he returned to trinity college as fellow and lecturer in classics. in 1876 he married rose, daughter of archbishop trench of dublin, and was elected tutor and mar- tied fellow at university college, oxford. in 1882 he succeeded blackie as professor of greek at edinburgh university. in 1904, 482 two years after his wife’s death, he resigned and took up resi- dence in london. in 1906 he was elected unionist member for cambridge university. butcher sat on several royal commis- sions on education and was president in turn of the english classical assn., the irish classical assn. and the british acad- emy. in 1908 he was made a trustee of the british museum. his written works include some aspects of the greek genius (1891); aristotle’s theory of poetry and fine art (1895); greek idealism an the common things of life (1901); and jtarvard lectures on greek subjects (1904). in 1887 he published, in collaboration with andrew lang, a prose translation of the odyssey. he died in london dec. 29 1910. butler, henry montagu (1833-1018), british education- alist (see 4.882). in 1914 he published some leisure hours of a long life. he died at cambridge jan. 14 1918. see edward graham, the harrow life of h. m. butler (1920). butler, nicholas murray (1862- ), american edu- cationalist (see 4.885), was elected a member of the american academy of arts and letters in rorr. in 1912 he was chairman of the new york state republican convention and also a dele- gate to the republican national convention. vice-president sherman was renominated, but died shortly before the general election, and the republican electoral votes were cast for dr. butler for vice-president. tle was, however, overwhelmingly defeated on the ticket with president taft, wilson receiving an electoral vote of 435 (40 states), roosevelt 88 (6 states) and taft 8 (2 states). on the outbreak of the world war in t9r4 he supported the peace policy of wilson’s administration as respond- ing, he declared, “ to the best wishes and hopes of the whole people.” he disapproved of the organisation of the american legion. in 1916, however, he urged amcrica’s entrance into the war. the same year he was again a delegate to the republican national convention. he favoured woman suffrage and was an advocate of the short ballot. at the republican national con- vention in 1920 he received 69 votes for the presidential nomina- tion on the first ballot, the number gradually falling to two on the tenth and last ballot. as an educationalist butler was a bold critic of many contem- porary tendencies in american education. iie upheld the old theory of mental discipline, and in the face of the widespread vocational movement in schools and colleges remained a stead- fast and eloquent defender of liberal education. under his guid- ance columbia university became a cosmopolitan institution, its total registration in 1926, including university extension and summer session, barnard teachers’ college and the college of pharmacy, being 33,647. he was chairman of the national committee of the united states for the restoration of the uni- versity of louvain, destroyed by the germans in 1914. in 1920 he resigned the editorship of the educational review, becoming instead advisory editor. in 1923 he became a member of | ’insti- tut de france, taking the place of the late lord bryce, and in 1924 was chancellor of the american academy of arts and let- ters. he was the author of why should we change our form of government? (1912); progress in politics (1913, a pamphlet); the meaning of education (1915, an enlargement of one pub- lished in 1898); -l world in ferment (1917, interpretations of the war for a new world); js america worth saving? (1920); scholar- ship and service (1921); building the american nation (1923). butler, sir william francis (1838-1010), british soldier (see 4.888), died in tipperary june 7 1910. | buysse, cyriel (1859- ), flemish writer, published his first book in 1893. in his portrayal of the lives and people of eastern flanders he is a follower of the french naturalists, and maurice maeterlinck was able to declare him the equal of mau- passant. he has the gift of making his characters living men and women; certainly there is no writer of fiction who shows us with more realism every aspect of the flemish people. he is an ex- cellent story-teller, not without humour, and with his virile art and sober, yet vivid, style he knows well how to accentuate the essential characteristics of men and things never losing sight of their natural environment. he has written over 40 novels and short stories, three of which have been translated into french. butler, h. m.—byrd byeluy, andrei (1880- ), pen name of boris bugaiev, russian writer, was born in moscow oct. 7 1880, the son of a well-known mathematician. when he graduated in 1904 from the moscow university, he had already published poetry of a symbolic type. his books of poetry and rhythmic prose: gold in blue (1904), ashes (1909), the urn (1909), four symphonies: the northern (1903), the second-dramatic (1902), the third- return (1905), the fourth cup of snowstorms (1908), are sym- bolic phantasies, in essence spiritual, yet expressed in realistic images. his prose is best represented in three novels: the silver dove (1910), a psychological study of russian religious sects, reminiscent of gogol, petersburg (1916), a gloomy, fantastic tale about russian pre-revolutionary realities, koiik letaiev (1922), an imaginative autobiography—the problems of life and the mind, seen through the soul of a child. in his books, symbolism (1910), poetry of words (1923) and others he founded a sugges- tive theory of phonetic values of words. his mystic tendencies turned to anthroposophy, and from 1912~6 he was an ardent disciple of the famous dr. rudolph steiner at dornach, switzer- land. later, he went to live in moscow and one of the most remarkable of his later books is the reminiscences of a. blok. tlis outstanding gift is that of word creation, and as a master of an ultra-modern style in poetry and prose he greatly influenced the younger generation of russian poets and novelists. byng, julian hedworth george byng, ist baron (186 2- ), british general, was born sept. 11 1862, son of the 2nd earl of strafford, and joined the roth hussars in india in 1883. he passed through the staff college, and was a major when the south african war broke out; there he raised and com- manded the south african light horse, and later a column, gain- ing promotion to brevet colonel. in 1912 he was sent to egypt to take command of the army of occupation. in oct. 1914 he took the 3rd cavalry div. to france, and he succeeded to the command of the cavalry corps in june tors. but two months later he was despatched to the dardanelles to take charge of the ix. army corps there and he became respon- sible for the suvla area, from which he withdrew his troops most skilfully in the following december. called back to the western front, in may 10916, he took over the canadian army corps, a tenure distinguished by the capture of vimy ridge on april 9 1917. in june 1917 he succeeded to the leadership of the iii. army, which he retained till the close of the war. on nov. 20 he carried out the now famous tank surprise attack on the cambrai front. in oct. t919 he was raised to the peerage as baron byng of vimy and stoke-le-thorpe, and received a grant of £30,000. in june 1921 he was appointed governor-general of canada, retaining the position until 1926. | byrd, richard evelyn (1880- }, american naval officer and explorer, was born in winchester, va., oct. 24 1888. he was educated at the shenandoah valley academy, win- chester, and at the age of 12 made a trip round the world unac- companicd. he attended the virginia military institute from 1904 to 1907 and the university of virginia in the session 1907-8. entering the u.s. naval academy may 25 1908, he graduated in jan. 1912. after four years’ sea service he was placed on the retired list with the rank of senior lieutenant, march 15 1916, through an incapacity resulting from an incident of service. this retirement was in reality nominal since he continued in active setvice, taking up the study of aviation. during the world war he held the temporary rank of licut.-commander in command of the u.s. naval forces operating in canadian waters, and built up the naval aviation stations at north sidney and halifax, nova scotia, the latter of which he was in charge. he was appointed lieutenant sept. 2 1918, and was promoted lieut.-com- mander on the retired list by special act of congress in 1922. in 1924 when amundsen requested help from the u.s. navy in his projected flight across the north pole, byrd volunteered but, being married, was not accepted. in 1925 he went to greenland with the d. b. macmillan expedition ‘under the auspices of the national geographic society. acting as flight commander he supervised 6,000 m. of arctic flight and himself flew 3,000 miles. the experience thus gained convinced him that a flight to the bywater pole was feasible if undertaken in the month of may, and on his return he immediately commenced making preparations with that end in view. the machine he selected was a fokker mono- plane equipped with three wright air-cooled motors—a com- mercial type—which had already flown more than 17,000 m. in the united states and cuba. leaving new york city in april 1926 spitsbergen was reached without mishap and byrd made his attempt may 9. accompanied only by his pilot, floyd ben- nett, he started from spitsbergen at 12:30 in the morning of may 9 1926, having two objectives, viz.,a flight to the pole 680 m. distant and back and alternatively a flight to peary land. 483 taking off from king’s bay, amsterdam i., he flew in a straight line to the pole, which he reached and circled around several times, incidentally verifying the observations of adm. peary in 1909. returning his course was to verlegen hook, new friese- land, thence west to his starting point, amsterdam i., which he reached at 4:20 in the afternoon. his flying time was 154 hours and the total mileage covered was 1,600. bywater, ingram (1840-1014), british scholar (see 4.906), died in london dec. 17 1914. he left a bequest to provide for the study of byzantine greek at oxford. see w. w. jackson, alemoir of ingram bywater (1919). 484 abell, james branch (1879- _—s+), american author, c was born at richmond, va., april 14 1879. ile was in- structor in french and greek at william and mary college 1896-7, graduating with the degree of b.a. in 1898. he then engaged in newspaper work at richmond and was on the staff of the new york herald 1899-1901. he also contributed short stories to magazines and interested himself in genealogical research. his first novel, the eugle’s shadow, was published in 1904. his work has a distinct individuality, presenting a central conception of human hife fitted to an im- aginary medieval country, poictesme, in which the principal actions take place, its inhabitants being ancestors of the other characters appearing in his novels. his method, more or less consistently followed, is the depiction of a decisive event in the lives of two persons, then a similar untying of knots in the life of a child of that couple, and, subsequently, in one of the grandchildren’s life history. following the publication of jurgen (1919) the new york society for the suppression of vice brought action to have the book suppressed on the ground of obscenity. when the case came to trial, however, in oct. 1922, the publisher, as defendant, was acquitted and the work released for circulation. among his best known works are the line of love (1903); gallantry (1907); chivairy (1909); domnei, originally published as the soul of milicent (1913); the cream of the jest (1917); beyond life (1919); figures of earth (1921); the tigh place (1923); straws and prayer-books (1924); the silver stallion (1926). cable, george washington (1844-1925), american au- thor (sce 4.920), dicd at st. petersburg, fla., jan. 31 1925. among his later publications were posson jone’ and pere raphael (1909), gideon’s bund (1914), the amateur garden (1914), the flower of the chapdelaines (1918) and lovers of louisiana (1918). cable: sce telegrapity, submarine. cadbury, george (1839-1922), british manufacturer and philanthropist, was born sept. 19 1839 at edgbaston, birming- ham, of quaker parents, and was brought up a member of the society of friends. in 1861, when he succeeded to his father’s business, it gave employment to 12 workers only, but under the management of himself and his brother richard (1835-99) it developed rapidly, and in 1879 he founded for the employees the garden village of bournville, which served as a model for other social ventures of this kind. he became chief proprictor of the daily news (london) in roo1, and his family acquired an interest in the star (london) in 1909. he died oct. 24 1922. see a. g. gardiner, life of george cadbury (1923). cadorna, luigi, count (1850- ), italian general, was born at pallanza, lake maggiore, sept. 4 1850. his father was count raffaele cadorna, a distinguished soldier of the wars of the risorgimento and the crimea. luigi cadorna entered the army in 1866, and served in the infantry, in the artillery and on the staff, becoming colonel in 1892. in 1905 he became hieutenant- general, and a year later was chosen as an army commander in the event of war. in the manoeuvres of 1911 he opposed caneva, who as victor was given the command in tripoli. in 1914, however, on the death of gen. pollio, chief of the general staff, cadorna was appointed to succeed him (july ro). he found the army in a deplorable condition, with regard to personnel and material; moreover, within three weeks, the out- break of the world war forced the problems of army reform to the front. one of cadorna’s first acts as chief of staff was to adopt the deport field-gun, and this prompt decision was of the greatest value to italy. though handicapped by lack of money and by italy’s low industrial capacity, in the interval between aug. 1914 and the entry of italy into the war cadorna iashioned a weapon with which it was possible to strike, and to strike hard. for 29 months, handicapped always by lack of means, cadorna directed the operations against austria-hungary with insight, vigour and determination. facile critics have found fault with cabell—caillaux his plan of campaign, but the more carefully and objectively this is studied, the more it justifies itself. for a year cadorna had the full confidence of his country. the first check came with the initial success of the austrian offensive in the trentino- asiago area in may 1916. as time went on, and signs of war- weariness became visible among the troops, cadorna entered the strongest protest against the policy of the govt., which, he said, permitted an anti-war propaganda which was detrimental to the morale of the army. though these protests were largely justified, 1t must be admitted that a part of the responsibility for declining morale lay at cadorna’s own door, for he did not seem to have fully realised the strain of modern war upon the troops. the disaster of caporetto led to cadorna being trans- ferred in nov. 1917 from the command of the italian armies to the newly formed allied military council at versailles. but before leaving his command he had organised the defences on the piave-monte grappa front, and thus had made a stout resistance possible. cadorna came to versailles under the shadow of defeat, but his personality and military insight soon impressed his colleagues and removed the initial handicap. it was a misfortune for italy when, in feb. 1918, consequent upon the appointment of the caporetto inquiry commission, it was thought necessary to remove him from versailles. as a result of the inquiry he was placed on half-pay on aug. 29 1918, and four days later his definite retirement was gazetted. in march t921 cadorna published a book dealing with his tenure of the post of chief of staff (la guerra alla fronte ital- zana), which effectively answered much of the criticism that had been directed against his leadership. this work was followed by alire pagine sulla grande guerra (1925). but with the passage of time this criticism had already begun to lose force. more and more it was realised that cadorna had fitted the italian army for war, and that he had conducted the campaign under grave handicaps. perhaps the most serious defect in cadorna’s leader- ship was that he failed to secure the loyal co-operation of many of his subordinates. but his achievement was great, and he remains, in spite of the disaster which closed his carcer, the fore- most italian military figure of the war. on the sixth anniversary of the italian victory (nov. 4 1924), the newly created rank of marshal was conferred on him. cadorna has literary gifts and among his writings is i] generale raffaele cadorna nel risorgi- mento italiano (1922). (w.k. mcc.) cafeteria: see food service. caillaux, joseph marie auguste (1863- ), french politician, was born march 30 1863 at le mans. his father, eugene caillaux, was an engineer and represented the dept. of the sarthe first in the national assembly and later as senator; he was minister of public works from 1873 to 1875 and minister of finance in the year 1877. in 1888, after a brilliant academic career, joseph caillaux was admitted to the ministry of finance. later he was appointed lecturer at the ecole des sciences politiques in paris. it was not until 1898 that m. caillaux, at the instigation of the re- publican delegates of the sarthe, decided to become a candidate for the arrondissement of mamers. his eloquence, his genuinely democratic opinions, his force and readiness in argument, en- abled him after a hot contest to defeat the royalist member, the duc de la rochefoucauld-doudeauville, by 1,800 votes. he continued to represent mamers until 1917. in 1899, m. caillaux’ great political career began. waldeck-rousseau, a name still dear to republicans, made him his minister of finance. during the 3 years that he held this office, m. caillaux showed not only great financial but also great administrative ability. he inau- gurated several important measures, such as the reform of the method of taxing alcoholic drinks, the increase in the scale of the inheritance tax and the reform of the sugar laws, thus introduc- ing into french fiscal legislation the progressive policy which cairo characterised his future work. he left office in 1902, but four years later was re-appointed by m. clemenceau. during this second term of office he introduced an income tax, the first seri- ous attempt at a just and democratic form of taxation in france. the agadir crisis in 1911 marked the next important stage in his career. the monis ministry resigned in june and m. cail- laux was entrusted with the formation of a new ministry. as head of the govt., he conducted with signal ability the difficult negotiations with germany. no small part of his title te fame and the gratitude of his fellows is due to the fact that he suc- ceeded in postponing the war which in 1914 was to overwhelm the world. in 1912, however, he was obliged to retire before the hostility of the commission of the senate, appointed to enquire into the franco-german treaty. in nov. 1913 he returned to his former post as minister of finance in m. doumerguc’s government. though his re-appointment was approved by public opinion in general, a virulent press campaign was started against him in the figaro. not only was m. caillaux’s policy in 1911 attacked but also his private life. intimate letters which had passed between m. caillaux and his wife before their marriage were published. the latter deeming her honour to have been assailed shot the editor, m. calmette. m. caillaux was forced to resign, and at the subsequent trial of madame caillaux defended her with such force and eloquence that she was ac- quitted. had it not been for this affair, it is probable that he would have been asked to form an administration after the general election and the war might then have been averted. on the outbreak of hostilities he was appointed paymaster- general to the forces and some months later was entrusted with an economic mission to south america. during his absence the campaign of calumny and insinuation broke out afresh. he was accused of desiring a premature peace and of caballing in secret against the government. he returned to france in 1915, how- ever, and entirely ignored the accusations. in july 1917 m. clemenceau led the attack upon the ribot govt. and m. malvy’s administration. the govt. was overthrown and m. clemenceau came into power with the one idea to carry on the war, despite all obstacles. his one serious rival was joseph caillaux. mi. clemenceau, therefore, on dec. 11 1917, demanded the suspen- sion of caillaux’ parliamentary immunity, moving 4 vote of no confidence in the chamber. if m. caillaux had attempted to oppose the motion his cause would have been lost. he proclaimed his innocence in one of the finest speeches ever made in the chamber, and was checred to the echo by members of the left. nevertheless, he demanded to be heard in the courts. his parliamentary immunity was suspended and on jan. 4 1918 he was arrested. the case for the prosecution was based on vague rumours and more or less distorted conversations. it was said that germany had counted upon m. caillaux’ support to secure favourable peace terms. various cases of high treason were pending at this time and an attempt was made to connect these with the accusations against m. caillaux. it was not until feb. 1920 that he was brought before the senate sitting as the high court of justice and indicted for “ plotting against the security of the state abroad.” after a lengthy debate of the utmost vigour on both sides, the accusations fell to the ground one by one. by 213 votes to 28 the arguments of the procureur-general, lescouve, were refuted. nevertheless, he was not completely exonerated. he was con- demned to three years’ imprisonment, the loss of his civic rights for ten years and to five years’ residence within a zone to be indicated by the govt., as well as the costs of the case amounting to about 53,000 francs. the venerable m. demange, the senior advocate of the court, rose in his seat and said indignantly: “ remember, gentlemen, that you are condemning a man on a count on which he has not been defended.”’ as he had already spent three years in prison m. caillaux was released the next morning. he returned to mamers and devoted his time to writing two books which appeared also in english under the titles of my prisons (1921) and whither france? whither europe? (1922). their success was widespread and the popu- larity of the exiled politician increased. 485 the amnesty passed by the national assembly in 1924 re- stored his political and civic rights to m. caillaux. in 1925 he was asked by m. painleve to join his govt. as being the one man capable of reducing french finances to order. he accepted the duty and it seemed that at last this difficult task would be accom- plished. ie attacked first the problem of inter-allied debts. he initiated conversations in london with mr. churchill and in washington with the united states debt commission. but political considerations proved too strong. he was accused of belonging to the radical socialists. serious friction arose, with the result that m. painleve handed in the resignation of the govt. on oct. 28 and formed a new ministry, excluding m. caillaux. the latter had, in the meantime, been elected senator and president of the council of the sarthe. he retired from office with dignity, preferring failure to the countenancing of measures which, in his opinion, would almost certainly prove ruinous to the country. in june 10926, after another cabinet crisis, m. caillaux again became minister of finance. (a. du.) cairo, egypt (sce 4.953), the largest city in africa, has a population estimated in 1925 at over 850,000. at the 1917 cen- sus the inhabitants numbered 790,939, of whom 79,867 were foreigners. italians and greeks each numbered over 15,000; there were 12,000 turkish subjects, mostly syrians, 8,252 french and 7,524 british, including maltese and naturalised subjects. much has been done between 1910 and 1925 to improve the amenities of the city. a new main drainage system was made, the bulaq and zamalik bridges built across the nile, motor roads constructed to helwan, alexandria and upper egypt, the tram- way system extended and a garden suburb laid out near qasr el ‘aini. the suburbs have extended considerably, particularly that of heliopolis, where a large aerodrome was constructed during the world war. after 1918, heliopolis became the chief air station in north africa. the inland ports of atar en nabt and rod el farag, at the northern and southern ends of the city respectively, increased in importance during the war. a progressive housing policy has been followed by the munici- pality since the end of the war; many private houses and blocks of flats have also becn built, particularly on roda island and at heliopolis. several public buildings have been erected, including the lord kitchener memorial hospital for women at shubra, the houses of parliament in shari dawawin, a building for the ministry of the interior and an ophthalmic laboratory at giza, a gilt by the british in memory of egyptians who lost their lives in the world war. at zaaferan 40 ac. of ground were taken in 1925 for a hospital and a university. while modern requirements received attention, care was taken of arab monuments, a law passed in 1918 enlarging the scope of the department charged with the preservation of such monuments, so as to include all buildings dating from the arab conquest to the reign of mchemet ‘ali. coptic ecclesiastical buildings and the roman fortress of qasr esh sham at old cairo were specially cited. important excavations were made at the roman fortress; the mosque of ibn tulun was carefully restored, while the mosque of bibars was rescued from being a slaughter- house and its great court was turned into a public garden. a public garden was also constructed round the daher mosque. after the abolition of the british protectorate there was, how- ever, a slackening in the work of preservation, to which public attention was called in the summer of 1923, with good results. the palace of mussafer khan and the mosque of “abdin were restored and other urgent work put in hand. pains were also taken to make the royal egyptian library fully representative of arab literature: by 1925 the library contained over 100,000 volumes, about half being in the oriental section. excavations conducted at the giza and saqqara pyramids and at abu roash, all places in the neighbourheod of cairo, yiclded valuable results. certain of the finds were transferred to the cairo museum, to which were also brought the remark- able statues of the pharaoh akhnaton, found at karnak, and many beautiful funerary objects from the tomb of tutankhamfiin, including the golden coffin of the king. see e. reynolds ball, cairo of today (10th ed., 1926). 486 calais, france (see 4.965), had in 1921 a population of 73,001. the tonnage of the port almost doubled between 1913 and 1918, in spite of the stoppage of civilian traflic, owing to the enormous quantity of war material that was dealt with. the port equipment was much improved to cope with military necds; a quay, 280 metres long, was finished in 1918, and the new west dock has a depth of from 26 ft. to 30 ft. on the sill. work on the entrance to the port, which was stopped during the world war, was resumed in 1921, and the west jetty was near- ing completion in 1926. by the construction of an elevator, canal boats of 300 tons can reach the large canal dock. the dover-calais mail and passenger service, stopped during the war, was resumed at the end of 19109. calais is the principal centre of the french lace trade. in 1923 goods worth 80,000,000 fr. were exported to the united states, as against 43,000,000 fr. in 1922 and 60,000,000 in 1913. the lace machines are driven by electrical power. calais under- went some 60 aerial bombardments during the war; there were many casualties and a large amount of material damage was done, the church of netre dame and the town hall being ruined. the town was awarded the croix de guerre.