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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:bulgarian literature:7bdf6d8c7f82",
    "title": "BULGARIAN LITERATURE",
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    "verified_text": "since the liberation of bulgaria (1878) bulgarian literature has been under the two- fold influence of the modern literature of france and russia. the three principal inspirations of contemporary bulgarian writers are mysticism, realism and philosophy, and the general impres- sion left by their works is sadness. a nation of peasants, depend- ing almost entirely for their existence on the forces of nature cannot fail to endow her with supernatural powers and this ten- dency has created innumerable bulgarian legends. as to realism the simple and patriarchal life of the bulgarians offers a wide field for such studies. national trials encourage philosophical speculation. sadness is an attribute of the slav. two poets.—the greatest poet of the modern schoo! is pent- scho slaveikoff (1866-1912). he died at como, italy, just after his name had been submitted for the nobel prize. german as well as russian influence is apparent in his work. his style is bold and beautiful; his poems, philosophical, pessimistic and deep, are always dedicated to lost joys, vain enthusiasms and hopeless causes. he was an exponent of new ideas and tendencies, but the individual note is always clear and strong. in his island of the fortunate (1910), he develops the idea that a strong per- sonality can shake off the fetters of convention and so reach the “ superstate.”’ his most remarkable work is the song of blood (1913), an epic poem in nine cantos. k. yavoroff (1877-1914) is almost his equal, but the influence of the french symbolists and of henri de regnier are apparent. he is fired with pity for the oppressed and has thus gained great popularity. he also 476 glorifies both social idealism and individualism. his arguments are passionate and convincing, his method is synthetic, his style full of harmony and beauty. he is the author of lyric poems and two dramatic plays: ou the slopes of the vitoche (1g11) and when lightning strikes (1912). but, with a few exceptions, the works of the writers of this period show a strong russian influence and indicate a tendency toward extreme realism. petco thodoroff (1879-1916) has written some excellent dramas (zidari, 1899; samodiva, 1910), national legends and folk songs. his style is original and vigor- ous, and reflects a hopeful and strong personality. eline peline, (b.1878), the pen name of dimitri ivanoff, in his village songs and poems, describes nature with the eyes and experience of a born peasant. nicolas raynoff (b.1889) 1s one of the most interesting contemporary bulgarian authors, and draws his inspiration from bulgarian history, the gospels and mythology alike. he is quite unaffected by foreign influence, and writes with all the art of a great painter. his historical dramas are very remarkable, the best known being once upon a time (1923). ivan vasoff—the real foundations of modern bulgarian literature were, however, laid by the great national poet and novelist, ivan vazoff who died in 1921. of his disciples stoyan michaelovsky (b.1850) is by far the most important. his works eastern legends (1904), a play, when the gods laugh (1921) and satirical essays reveal his logical mind, great powers of analysis and the influence of the french classics. the other disciples of vazoff are constantin velitchkoff (b.1856), dramatist and literary critic; m. gheorgicfl, an author of popular tales; v. vlaikoff; tzerkovsky; and a. strachimiroff. cyril christof (b.1875) is the leader of a more individual and modern school. he is a lyric poet, his chief works being mymus to the dawu (1git) and songs of victory (1916). | the new bulgarian school includes geo mileff, lyric poet, eci- tor of two literary reviews, author of ballads (1920) and excellent translations in verse of trench and belgian poets including verhaeren; gheorghi raitcheff, novelist, a disciple of dostoy- evsky; tchavdar moutafoff, novelist and art critic, author of puppet shows (1921); gheorghi stamatoff; yordan yovkoff, and. nicolas yaneff, 1888—r1g2tr. the lyric poets, dimitri schichmanoff, critic and novelist (b.1888), emanuel dimitroff (b.1887) and lioudmil stoyanoff (b.1888) are working for a national literature. todor trayanoff is the leader of symbolism tn bulgaria, and author of bulgarian songs (1922) and the hymn of hymns (1922), but his verses lack the vigour of dimtcho debelianoff’s offertory (roto). this gifted young poet died in 1921. nicolas lilieff (b.1885), author of flowers for him and songs for her (1919), 1s one of his most promising disciples. tzanko bakaloff (b.1866), a popular writer, is the author of village songs and poems. alex- ander stambolisky (1879-1923) the agrarian prime minister published several books of social interest, namely awthority, anarchy and democracy (1910), what @ politician ought to be (1915), the psychology of prisons (1916). other writers of merit are michael kremen; wladimir moussakoff, who died in 1916, the author of clever studies of the war; k. konstantinoff; petar ghenoff; and nicolas rakitin. the best known bulgarian historian and political writer is simeon radeff, author of the founders of contemporary bulgaria and the history of afacedonia. dimitri stancioff, bulgarian minister in london till 1924, has written many important dip- lomatic studies and political essays. literary womten.—several gifted women have contributed in- spired poems to the modern literature of bulgaria. among them are anna karima (b.1871); dora gabe-peneva, author of yesterday (1920); mara beltcheva, poet and philosopher; and elisabeth beltcheva, whose lyric verses are full of beauty. nadejda stancioff (b.1895), formerly in the bulgarian diplo- matic service, has written historical and political essays and short stories. since the war the best periodical is the z/atorog which often achieves consilerable literary merit. bullard—bunin order to develop a strong national character authors will have to avoid the cross-currents of foreign influence. the craving for instruction shown by the bulgarian people is a great and valuable asset as regards the expansion of literature; but it may suffer from lack of discernment and the tendency toward imitation. by cultivating their natural gifts, and dedicating them to the service of their country alone, without attempting to invade forcign ground, bulgarian writers may yet hope to furnish an original and sound contribution to international literature. (n. mvu.*) bullard, robert lee (1861- ), american soldier, was born at youngsboro, ala., jan. 15 1861. he graduated from west point military academy in 1885 and was appointcd first lieutenant in 1892. he served in various capacities in the span- ish-american war, and in the philippines from 1902 to 1904. he was made lieutenant-colonel in 1906. in 1907 he was special investigator for the u.s. provisional govt. in cuba, and the fol- lowing year was superintendent of public instruction there. in to1r he was promoted colonel, and in 1917 brigadier-general. he commanded the 2nd brigade of the rst div. of the american expeditionary force in france in 1917, and was made major- general, national army. from the middle of dec. 1917 to the middle of july 1918 he commanded the tst div.; and from oct. 1918 to the following july the ii. army. in nov. 1918 he was appointed major-general in the regular army. bullet: sce ammunition. bulow, bernhard heinrich karl martin, prince von (1849- }, german statesman (see 4.793), after his resigna- tion of the german chancellorship in 1909 lived principally in retirement at his villa in rome. on the outbreak of the world war he was once more employed in the service of his country. italy, which had declared her neutrality at the outbreak of the war, had already intimated (july 5 1914) that she considered the action of austria-hungary against serbia to be aggressive and provocative. prince biilow was entrusted with the tem- porary charge of the german embassy in rome in dec. 1914. he was active in the negotiations between italy and austria concerning the trentino and trieste; his chief aim being the preservation of italian neutrality and to this end he used every means in his power. he was, however, unable to prevent the entry of italy into the war on the side of the western powers, although he was instrumental in concluding certain economic agreements between italy and germany which deferred italy’s declaration of war on the latter country until aug. 1916. on may 24 1915 he left rome. during the war he lived in berlin, but after the peace he returned to rome and continued to reside there for part of every year. in a ministerial crisis of 1921 his name was mentioned as a possible chancellor, but he was en- tirely unacceptable to the vast majority of the german people and of the reichstag. bulow, karl von (1846-1921), german soldier, was born in berlin march 24 1846. commissioned to the 2nd guards regiment in 1864, he served in the campaign of 1866 and the franco-prussian war of 1870. after a distinguished career, he was placed in charge of the ii. army on the outbreak of the world war, and was at the head of the invasion of belgium. during the subsequent advance into france, von kluck’s i. army was also placed under his direction, a faulty arrangement soon abandoned but not replaced by effective control from ger- man headquarters. from this time the two armies were re- peatedly taking divergent action, a confusion which ended in the retreat from the marne. the responsibility for this strate- gical disaster was the subject of acute controversy, and public opinion in germany was induced to fix the blame on von bilow. but the view of the supreme army command was shown by their placing von kluck on the retired list and promoting von bilow to field marshal in jan. 1915, and post-war knowledge has confirmed this verdict. in june 1916 he was, at his own re- quest, placed on the retired list. he died in berlin aug. 31 1921. bunin, ivan alexeyevich (1870- _), russian poet and novelist, was born oct. 10 1870 of noble family in voronesh. the literature of to-day in bulgaria is full of promise, but in | his first poems were published in 1889. his poems were awarded burbank—burian the pushkin prize, the highest academic distinction in russia, and the same distinction was awarded to his translation of longfellow’s ‘‘ hiawatha.” his other masterly translations from english poets include those of byron’s “ manfred ” and ‘“ cain,’ and of tennyson’s “ lady godiva.” in 1909 he was elected a member of the russian academy. bunin’s poetry stands outside all modernist tendencies and has very distinctive qualities and high merits of its own. it is mainly descriptive—not lyric—impassive, of classic simplicity and harmony, of jewelled perfection, minute observation and vivid perception of colour. he derives his inspiration from many sources. a fine nature poct, he also gives realistic descriptions of human life and his pictures of the east display his keen sense of colour. he ranks highest, however, as a prose writer. the best known among his novels, tales and short stories are the village, a gentleman from san francisco, suchodol, an evening in the spring. the first two have been translated into english as also dreams of chang and other stories. the principal theme of all his novels and tales is the decay of the old russian gentry which he views in the melancholy poetic colours of an autumn sunset in the country, and the life and psychology of the peasantry and its relation to the town. far from idealising the peasants he de- scribes them under a very gloomy aspect. there is much affinity in his novels with turgeniev and chekhov—but he might be best described as the russian flaubert. he is a great master of classic prose. the complicated structure of his style has been likened to a tree with innumerable branches; and shows a great love of detail in his realistic rendering of life. burbank, luther (1849-1926), american naturalist and experimental botanist, born at lancaster, mass., march 7 1840. after attending the public schools and lancaster academy, he worked for two years in afactory at worcester, massachusetts. at the age of 21 under the stimulus of darwin’s animals and plants under domestication, he bought a 17-ac. tract of land at lunen- burg, mass., and began experiments for the improvement of economic and ornamental plants. among his earliest achieve- ments was the evolution of the burbank potato (1872), which became one of the leading varieties in many parts of the world. attracted by its horticultural potentialities, he moved to cali- fornia in 1875 and established a nursery and experimental farm at santa rosa. here he conducted many experiments on plants and trees, and produced many new varieties, including various forms of the edible thornless cactus; plumcots, derived from a cross of plum and apricot; improved forms of prunes and plums, peaches, and grapes; the burbank, abundance, giant and other cherries; the burbank and other new roses; gigantic forms of amaryllis; the shasta daisy, and giant and fragrance callas. at times he had over 6,000 experiments in hand and grew over 1,000,000 plants yearly for testing. he was a special lecturer on evolution at the leland stanford jr. university and published luther burbank, his methods and discoveries, 12 vol. (1914-5); and [ow plants are trained to work for afan, 8 vol. (1921). he died at santa rosa, cal., aprjl 11 1926. bibliography.—h. de vries, commenis on the experiments of nilson and burbank (1907); d. s. jordan, the scientific aspects of luther burbank's work (1909); h. s. williams, luther burbank, his life and work (1915). burbidge, sir richard (1847-10917), british merchant, was born in wiltshire march 2 1847. at the age of 13 he was apprenticed to a provision merchant in oxford street, london, and at 19 started in business on his own. fourteen years later he became general superintendent of the army and navy auxil- iary stores. in 1882 he was appointed general manager of white- ley’s, westbourne grove, and in 1891 entered the service of harrods, brompton road, of which he was afterwards managing director. under him the stores became one of the largest in london. he anonymously presented about £30,000 to the fund for acquiring the crystal palace for the public in 1913. during the world war he was a member of the advisory committee of the ministry of munitions. he was created a baronet in 1916, and died in london may 31 1917. see mrs. a. c. stuart menzies, modern men of mark (1920). 477 burgenland, a province of the austrian republic, com- posed of districts ceded to her by hungary. area, 1,586 sq. m.; population (1923), 286,299, about one-third of whom are mag- yars and croats. capital, eisenstadt. the burgenland forms a long, very narrow strip, bounded e. by hungary, w. by lower austria and styria, and touching czechoslovakia n., yugo- slavia south. | | immediately after the war this small district became an in- ternational problem. the statesmen of czechoslovakia and yugoslavia desired to make of it a “ slav corridor ” connecting their countries; while austria claimed it on ethnographical, ywungary on historical grounds. the peace conference decided (july 20 1919) to allot the whole strip, including its local centre odenburg (sopron) to austria without a plebiscite. a commis- sion headed by an italian, a french and a british general entered sopron aug. 6 1921; the hungarians were to withdraw on aug. 29. meanwhile, however, the hungarians had been carrying on a violent propaganda, based on austria’s financial collapse and socialist tendencies. hungary’s ex-premier, friedrich, and others, organised and armed bands on the estates of the magyar landowners; and these attacked the austrian gendarmerie when it entered the country on aug. 29, repelling it and the troops sent to support it. the hungarian govt. declared itself power- less over these irregulars. the generals, whose sympathies were confused, recognised the brigands as a local police force, and referred the matter to the conference of ambassadors. the question of sopron.—the difficulties centred around the town of sopron, which was mainly magyar in population, but all communications centred here and the country districts de- pended on it. the italian govt. offered its mediation; a con- ference of the italian, austrian and hungarian foreign ministry agreed by the protocol of venice (oct. 13) that a plebiscite should be held in sopron and the eight surrounding communes. the generals were to conduct the plebiscite eight days after they were satisfied that the country was pacified. the conference of ambassadors ratified this agreement oct. 27 1921. on oct. 20 the ex-king charles landed in the district by aero- plane; the local brigands formed themselves into a legitimist army, and only with difficulty was charles induced to withdraw. the little entente renewed its claim for a corridor, and pro- tested against the venice arrangement. allied troops reached the plebiscite area on dec. 8, austria having already occupied the other districts. the hungarian troops only left sopron dec. 12, and the plebiscite was held dec. 14 and 19, giving a majority for hungary in sopron. austria protested that the voters had been terrorised and the lists manipulated, and ap- pealed against the verdict, but the conference of ambassadors recognised the decision (dec. 23) and persuaded austria to do likewise (feb. 29 1922). sopron and district were handed back to hungary jan. 1 1922. the result of the decision was to leave the burgenland without a proper centre. communications be- tween austria and southern burgenland were very bad, and these rich fruit-growing districts suffered economically in con- sequence, although the completion of the friedberg-pinkafeld railway, in oct. 1925, will doubtless bring an improvement. see austria. (c. a. m.) burian von rajecz, stephen, count (1851-1922), aus- tro-hungarian statesman, was born at stampfen, near pressburg (bratislava), jan. 16 1851 of a hungarian noble family and early in life entered the consular service. from 1882-6 he was consul-general at moscow and he lived for many years at sofia as envoy extraordinary. from 1903-12 he was finance minister and as such administered the provinces of bosnia and hercego- vina. in june 1913 he was appointed hungarian minister to the court of vienna, and on jan. 13 1915 he succceded count berch- told at the foreign office. the monarchy was at this time in the midst of negotiations with italy. burian, however, was unable to prevent the secession of that country into the ranks of the entente, but he did great service to austria-hungary in arrang- ing the alliances with bulgaria and turkey. with regard to poland he advocated the creation of an independent state 478 co-equal with austria-hungary. in general, he maintained that in military, political and economic matters austria-hungary must be treated as an equal partner with germany, her ally. on the question of peace, too, there was a sharp antithesis be- tween the views of burian and those of german statesmen. he proposed, as early as nov. 1915, that germany should make a public declaration of her willingness to guarantee the national independence of belgium, and during 1916 repeatedly urged that the way should be paved for negotiation with the enemy on the basis of the renouncing of conquests in the west. the peace note of dec. 12 1916, which put an end to this quarrel, was the last important official act of burian as foreign minister. a few days later he laid down his office, but was recalled after the res- ignation of his successor, count czernin, on april 15 1918. bur- lan now worked energetically for peace. on sept. 14 1918 he addressed to all the belligerent nations an invitation to end the war by diplomatic negotiations. the invitation had no success; he therefore resigned, and from this time onwards ceased to take an active part in politics. he died at vienna oct. 20 1922. see s. burian von rajecz, drei jahre aus der zeit meiner a mtsfiih- rungim kriege, 1923, eng. trans., austria in dissolution, 1925. burma (sce 4.838), a province of british india, has an area of 238,738 sq. m. and a population of 13,212,000 (1921). when the pacification of upper burma, after the annexation of king thebaw’s territory, had been completed, the country settled down under regular administration. 1. political history consolidation of the border —the years 1910 to 1928 fall into four periods: tigto-4, 1914-8, 1918-22 and 1922 onwards. the history of the first period, under sir harvey adamson as lieutenant-governor, was one of internal development hampered by straitened finances; but action was taken to avoid chinese encroachment upon the “no man’s land” between burma, china and tibet by the occupation of hpimaw, and the con- stitution of the putao district to enable the hkamti long shan states north of myitkyina and the northeast border tracts to come under supervision and control. the area covered was about 10,000 sq. m., and posts of military police were established at suitable points to preserve order in these borderlands. tribal unrest.—with the second period, rumours of the world war began to cause unrest in tribal areas, and there was a rising of kachins at the end of 1914, which was, however, soon sup- pressed by the military police aided by some regular troops. the ringleaders were captured and sentenced to death. during 1915 sir harcourt butler became lieutenant-governor; he was succeeded by sir reginald craddock in 1917. the principal disturbing events of rorg§ were the successive efforts of revolution- ary sikhs to enter burma from siam and incite mutiny among the military police as part of a larger scheme of the sikhs on the pacific coast of america to start a general rising in india. these efforts entirely failed. in 1917 the chin hills on the west and northwest became the scene of a local rebellion among the haka chins in sympathy with similar revolts among the tribes under the govt. of assam. this rebellion had its origin in local excitements caused by re- cruitment fot labour corps from tribes on both sides of the burma-assam border. the haka rebellion was followed by a further rising among the kukis on the manipur border. in both cases the military police of the two provinces co-operated. the operations against the kukis in 1919 were controlled by the general officer commanding the burma division, and the somra tract on the northwest of the upper chindwin district was taken under administration. once these risings had been suppressed the hills settled down peacefully, the rebels were pardoned and the chins now supply excellent materia] for the army. since these risings there were two incursions from over the chinese bor- der in ro2rt and 1922, heralded beforehand as serious invasions with mandalay as the objective, but in reality pitiful raids by the dupes of burmese pretenders across the chinese frontier. with these exceptions a profound peace reigned in all these wild areas. war centributions.—the efforts made by burma during the burma world war are deserving of mention. the people subscribed rs.29 lakhs to a special war gift and contributed most generously to red cross and other funds, including £60,000 for the “ our day ” fund. they put up about £2,000,000 in the 1917 war loan, and £337,000 in the war loan of 1918. before the wara single burmese company of sappers and miners had been the sole con- tribution to the indian army, but, under the spur of the em- pire’s demand for men, 2,500 were raised for labour corps in france, and sufficient recruits to man four battalions of burmese infantry, as well as three or four mechanical transport companies for service in mesopotamia. service in the army in peace time is, however, very unpopular among burmans, and in the four battalions of the zoth burma rifles there are now only two com- panies of burmans remaining and one company of shans. kach- ins supply 53 companies, chins 32, and karens two and three- fourths. the british garrison in burma has since the war been reduced to two british regiments. politics —before 1918 there were no politics in burma. with the people, at large, pleasure came first, business second and poli- tics nowhere. the morley-minto reforms had scarcely modified conditions at all, and by the end of 1917 the legislative council consisted of only 19 members, of whom 2 only were elected mem- bers representing the chamber of commerce and the traders’ association. there were only 2 burmans proper, with a shan chief, a karen, a chinaman, a parsee and an indian mahomme- dan, the rest being europeans, mostly officials. in 1920 the num- bers were raised by nomination to 30, the maximum provided by the morley-minto reforms. the period 1918-22 represents a development of politics in burma so rapid as to be without parallel. recruiting campaigns during the war had stimulated the idea of nationality, and when mr. montagu and lord chelms- ford made their famous inquiry the doubtful position of burma under an india progressing to self-government leapt into such prominence that the small group of burmese lawyers and jour- nalists in rangoon were carried off their feet. rangoon contained its group of indian agitators, with whom the young burmese party, hitherto so aloof, began to coquet, while the indians in their turn were rejoiced to find congenial soil in which to sow their own doctrines. each side was glad of the help of the other, while each was ready to throw over the other if the occasion offered. the exclusion of burma from the montagu-chelmsford scheme was regarded by burmans as an insult to their national pride. they had accepted without demur british control, but they had no idea of submitting to indian rule. the task of devising a constitution specially suited to burma as a politically backward country devolved on the lieutenant- governor (sir reginald craddock), but while he was devising a scheme, and promulgating it for criticism, the new political party made such strides that a scheme which would have ex- ceeded all expectations in 1917 was rejected as inadequate by the now ardent burmese politicians. two deputations of bur- mans visited london in 1919 and 1920 to demand that burma should have the same constitution as the indian provinces; but when, after long consideration by rangoon, simla, whitehall and a parliamentary committee, it was decided to accede to their request, the second deputation returned only to find themselves completely thrown over by a political party asserting that noth- ing but complete home rule would satisfy burma’s dignity. during this period of agitation the new university and the government schools were boycotted, and temporarily lost a large number of their pupils; and a general boycott on the lines of gan- dhi’s non-co-operation, but professing to be quite original, was proclaimed by the national party. these movements were met by enforcement of the ordinary law against sedition and by the passing of the anti-boycott act to combat organised intimida- tion which the ordinary law was unable to deal with effectively. the defence of india act was used in a few cases to check the indian-inspired agitation to boycott the prince of wales, and, when the people were thus relieved of the intimidation of the boycott, the prince received a magnificent welcome in burma. the principal features of politics in burma are the participa- tion of the religious orders, viz., the yellow robe, the emancipa- burnand—burnett tion of the women and the ease with which political organisa- tions are extended to rural areas. burma has now been given a much wider franchise than india, and women qualified by prop- erty tests have been accorded the vote. at the first elections in 1922 the proportion of the electorate exercising their vote was exceedingly small—about one-sixth. the legislative council now contains 103 members, about four-fifths elected. the reformed government has been carried on without any serious crises and in the new councils elected in 1925 the extreme swara- jists were discomfited. sir harcourt butler returned to burma as its first governor in 1923. ii. economic and financial history population.—in spite of straitened finances and the set-back of the war burma has continued to progress rapidly under orderly government. the population, hich was 10,490,000 in i9goi, had risen to 12,115,000 in 1911 and by 1921 had increased further to 13,212,000. but for heavy plague mortality during the last decade and the effect of the great influenza scourge of 1918-9, which claimed over 200,000 victims, the increase would have been greater. the population of rangoon has mounted rapidly to 341,000 and mandalay, which has steadily lost population as a dethroned capital and has been stricken by frequent epidemics, has now begun to recover, and shows a rise of 10,000 to a total of 149,000. these two cities account for more than half of the population of the 24 towns of 10,000 and over in burma, but the rural population still amounts to 90 °4 of the total, and so vast are the forests and hills that over the whole area the density of population is still only 57 per square mile. by religion 85 % are buddhists; hindus and mahommedans together number 73%; animists 5°; and christians only 2%. by race the burmans proper amount to 72°, karens number 1,250,000, and indians 900,000. europeans and anglo-indians total 25,000, shans nearly 500,000, and cinnese 150,000. the rest of the population consists of the numerous tribes on the frontier, of whom 9,500,000 are engaged in agriculture, and 2,500,000 in industry and com- merce. public services, railways and professions employ 750,000. commercial products.—rice, timber and oil are the chief com- mercial products of burma. since 910 the occupied area has grown from 17,000,000 to 19,500,000 ac., and the cropped area from 13,500,000 to 15,500,000 acres. the area under rice has risen from 10,000,000 to 11,500,000 ac., and the normal yield of paddy is 7,000,000 tons, of which 3,000,000 are available for export. the normal yield of ground-nuts is 120,000 tons. sesamum covers a large area, but is not much exported. cotton is of importance only in the dry zone. there are numerous rubber plantations, of which the most important are in mergui, the shan states produce pota- toes and oranges. fisheries are more important than in any indian province. the burden of interest paid by the cultivator has been somewhat relieved by the growth of co-operative credit, from 172 societies with 5,363 members in i910, to 5,563 societies with a mem- bership of 157,000 in 1924. petroleum is the most important of the mineral products, the output from seven districts totalling 280,000,000 gal. in 1922, of which the principal oil-fields, yenang- yaung and singu, supplied about 90 %. the burma corp. bawdwin silver-lead mine in the northern shan states has developed very greatly. some 250,000 tons of silver-lead ore were extracted in 1923, yielding 45,000 tons of refined lead and nearly 5,000,000 oz. of silver. zinc concentrates are now being exported in quantity. the mogok stone area administered by the burma ruby mines co, has continued to give fluctuating outputs of rubies, sapphires and spinels. one beautiful ruby, cut in london to 11-22 carats, was sold for £4,000. jade and amber continue to be produced from the jadeite area north of myitkyina. the tin mines in tenasserim have developed, and produced 2,400 tons in 1923; while the mawchi mines in karenni have recently been reopened. wolfram produced in the same area enjoyed a remarkable boom in the war, but has dwindled into insignificance since. coal exists in mergui, on the chindwin, and in the southern shan states, and prospecting continues vigorously. the gold dredging in myitkyina has been abandoned. forests, etc.—one of the greatest assets of the province consists in its forests of which 28,000 sq. m. are now reserved forest and 94,000 sq. m. unclassified forest. the teak extracted in 1923 amounted to 500,000 tons, and 200,000 tons were exported, mostly to india. many other valuable woods exist, and specimens were exhibited at wembley, but the process of exploiting them has been slow. the extraction of bamboo pulp for paper manufacture is still in a nascent condition, but there is immense scope for this industry if it can be made a commercial success. commerce.—the imports and exports forming the external trade of burma, taking the average for periods of five years, 1909-14, 1914-9 and 1919-24, are as shown in the table in the next column the.development of the port of rangoon has been rapid. in 1911 the port revenues were rs.36 lakhs. in 1924 they had risen to rs.77 lakhs. the tonnage of shipping using the port was 3,500,000, 479 values in lakhs of rupees ex- ports im- ports foreign indian 1909-14 1,310 1,095 oe 8 oe. lqtt foreign 6 1,931! i9il4-19 7 og 1,907 es ‘ ; 1,0 indian f ; ; ‘ : : i,2 foreign : 2,053 indian 1,829 3,127 3,009 provincial finances.—the provincial finances, partly by normal expansion and partly by more favourable adjustments with the govt. of india, have risen from under five crores of rupees in ig10- 1 to over nine crores in 1923-4. the province also enjoyed a windfall of over nine crores from the control of rice in 1918-9, which has enabled it to pay off its debts to the central government and to spend large sums on railways, irrigation works and roads. communications.—an eastward extension of the railway into the southern shan states to heho, and new branches in the yamethin, magwe, sagaing and shwebo districts, and a line from mouimein to ye in the tenasserim peninsula, are the chief railway developments. water communications in the delta have been improved by the twante canal connecting the rangoon river with the china bakir. large sums have also been spent on roads, but construction is very costly, as in many areas road metal has to be brought from long distances. general progress —among other indications of progress, be- sides the constitutional reforms, many important administra- tive developments have signalised the post-war period. a high court has been established at rangoon; the federation of the shan states has been effected as a separate entity from the rest of burma; district councils elected for the administration of rural areas have been brought into being; a development trust has been created in rangoon; and the rangoon municipality has been elevated into a corporation with largely increased pow- ers. burma has always been famous for its elementary education, imparted at monastic schools; but secular education, imparted by public schools, has greatly developed. there are now 6,280 schools with 345,000 pupils of whom 121,000 are girls. since the establishment of the rangoon university in 1920 further pro- gress has been attained in higher and technical education by the establishment of an agricultural college and of university courses in forestry, medicine and engineering, while the numbers at- tending the two arts colleges in rangoon have very largely increased. there are now also 284 hospitals in burma, attended by 2,000,000 patients. the burmans are also devoting more attention to commerce and industry, hitherto almost entirely | in the hands of europeans, indians and chinese. the province affords enormous possibilities of further development. bibliography.—c. w. chater, ‘‘ mining in burma,” trans. inst. min. eng., vol 49 (1914-5); “* report on the bawdwin mine of the technical committee of the burma corporation,” afitning mag., vol. ro (1914); j. coggin brown, “ geology and ore deposits of the bawdwin mines,’’ rec. geol. surv. india, vol. 48 (1917); a. b. par- sons, ‘‘ operations of the burma mines ltd.,” exg. afin, jour., vol. 107 (1919); c. duroiselle, list of inscriptions found in burma (1921, etc.); f. k. ward, zn farthest burma (1921); n. m. penzer, the amfineral resources of burma (1922); j. w. moule, burma cor- poration ltd., ‘‘ a description and review of early chinese and present day operations,”’ proc. inst. aftn. met. melbourne, no. 46 (1922); h. t. white, burma (1923); f. a. leete, regulation of rivers without embankments, etc., in burma (1924); j. g. scott, burma: from the earliest times to the present day (1924). see also ethno- graphical sureey, burma (rangoon, 1906, etc.), (ik fi cr.) burnand, sir francis cowley (1836-10917), british humorist (see 4.848), died at ramsgate april 21 1017. burnett, frances eliza hodgson (1840-1024), ameri- can writer (see 4.853), published in to11 the little princess, a plav for children and grown-up children, in three acts. her subsequent writings include afy robin (1912), t. tembarom (1913), a lady of quality (1913), the lost prince (19015), the one i know the best of all (191s), the little hunchback, zia (1916), the way to the house of sania claus (1916), the white people (1917) and the head of the ifouse of coombe (1922). she died oct. 29 1924 at plandome, long island. 1919-24 a80 burnham, daniel hudson (1846-10912), american archi- tect, was born at hlenderson, n.y., sept. 4 1846. he was educated at chicago and at waltham, mass. he worked as an archi- tect in chicago, and in 1871 formed a partnership with john w. root. they were entrusted with the planning of the chicago world’s fair (1893). on the death of root this work fell wholly upon burnham. in 1894 he was elected president of the ameri- can institute of architects. his success with the chicago world's fair buildings soon led to his being called upon to design other large structures, including ‘‘ the rookery ” and “ railway ex- change” in chicago; the ‘flatiron building ” and new wana- maker’s store in new york; the pennsylvania railway station in pittsburgh; filene’s store in boston; the union station in washington and selfridge’s stores, london. he also was asked to propose plans for improving several cities, including cleve- land, san francisco, chicago and baltimore. in 1905 he was asked by the u.s. govt. to design plans for cities in the philip- pines, including manila. he was made chairman of the national committee appointed for beautifying washington, d.c. he died in heidelberg, germany, june 1 1912. burnham, edward levy lawson, ist baron (1833- 1916), english newspaper proprietor, was born in london dec. 28 1833 and educated at university college school. his father, joseph moses levy (d. 1888), acquired the daily telegraph and courier in 1855, a few months after it had been founded by col. sleigh, and, aided by his son, soon changed the current of its fortunes, raising it to a leading position among the london dailies, of which it was the pioneer penny paper. edward levy (he took the added name of lawson under his uncle lionel law- son’s will in 1875) acted as editor of the daily telegraph till his father’s death and then became its managing proprietor and sole controller till 1903, when he was made a baron and passed over these duties to his son. he had received a baronetcy in 1892. for many years edward lawson was one of the outstanding figures in english journalism. no one in great britain did more than he to brighten and humanise the daily newspaper and trans- form it from a plain, severe chronicle of the day’s events—only mitigated by the occasional ferocity of its political judgments— into a readable and entertaining presentation of the world’s news. the abolition of the last of the paper duties in 1861, in which edward lawson himself bore an active part, called into being a host of fresh newspaper readers among the middle classes, which welcomed the popular features of the new journalism. ed- ward lawson’s conception of a popular daily paper was that it should be a faithful mirror of the times and make a strong appeal to the sentiment and the emotion of its readers. under his direc- tion the daily telegraph raised many large funds for various national, patriotic and charitable objects, dispatched missions of exploration and discovery to central africa and elsewhere, and started many novel features, such as popular correspondences on live topics of the day, which have since become the estab- lished commonplace of journalism. for many years the daily telegraph warmly supported the liberal party, but it strongly dissented from mr. gladstone’s anti-turkish policy and the final severance came on his irish policy of home rule. edward law- son was not by nature a strong political partisan; what inter- ested him most was the social advancement of the people, and the development of the british empire, to both of which causes he gave strong support, whatever the political complexion of the government of the day. he was more than once president of the institute of journalists and the newspaper press fund, and in rg9o9 presided over the first imperial press conference in london. on his 8oth birthday his long and eminent services to journalism were fitly recognised by the presentation of a laudatory address, signed by the leading journalists of the british empire, the united states and many foreign countries. a man of keen business discernment, sure intuition, rapid decision, generous sympathies, unfailing kindness of heart and catholicity of interest, lord burnham enjoyed the honour of king edward’s friendship. he married henriette georgiana (d. 1897), daughter of the actor-manager, benjamin webster (see 28.459), and died jan. 9 1916. (bak) burnham, d. h.—burns, john burnham, harry lawson webster lawson, ist viscount (1862- ), eldest son of the rst baron burnham, was born in london dec. 18 1862 and educated at eton and balliol college, oxford. entering political life when young, he represented, as a liberal, west st. pancras from 1885 to 1892, east gloucestershire from 1893 to 1895, and the mile end division of the tower hamlets from 1905 to 1906, and again, but this time as a unionist, from 1910 to 1916, when he succeeded to his father’s title. he also served on the london county council from 1889 to 1892 and from 1897 to 1904 and was mayor of stepney in 1908 and rgoo. in 1903, when his father retired from the active duties of the managing proprietorship of the duily telegraph, the ion. harry lawson, as he then was, became the sole director of the conduct and policy of that newspaper. these duties, however, did not prevent him from devoting a large share of his time to public work, and few busy men of the period have responded more generously to the claims of public service. lord burnham was a member of the committee which drafted the reform act of 1918, and of lord bryce’s committee on the problem of the reform of the powers and constitution of the second chamber. he has been a member of innumerable committees, commissions, conciliation boards and the like and has been chairman of many. he was chairman of the officers’ resettlement committee and of the promotion committee of the war office, and was a member of lord tennyson’s empire settlement committee and lord justice shearman’s seditious literature committee. for three years he was chairman of the executive committee of the king’s fund for disabled ex-service men and a leading member of the overseas settlement committee of the colonial office. in 1921 he was unanimously elected president of the international la- bour conference of the league of nations at geneva and was re-elected to the same post in the following year. another con- spicuous public service rendered by lord burnham was in con- nection with the salaries of teachers. he presided over the standing joint committees and made an award on the proposed new scales of payment. the burnham scales, as they are universally called, received the support of the teachers, the local authorities and the ministry of education, and when they came up for revision in 1924 lord burnham was again asked to undertake the task. during these years of parliamentary and public activity, he gave the closest attention to the direction of the daily telegraph and was prominent in the various organisations of the newspaper press. he succeeded his father as president of the newspaper press fund and the newsvendors’ benevolent institution. in 1910 he was president of the institute of journalists, chairman of the newspaper proprietors’ assn. from its foundation, during the war he was chairman of the press conference, to which the govt. consigned the responsible duty of the regulation of news. lord burnham succeeded his father as president of the empire press union and presided over the national press conferences in canada in 1920 and in australia in 1925. in 1917 lord burn- ham was made a companion of honour and in 1rg19 a viscount. he married in 1884, olive, daughter of sir henry de bathe, bart., and he has one daughter. the heir to the barony is his brother, col. the hon. william arnold webster lawson (b. 1864). clb. fs) burns, john (18s8- }, british politician (see 4.855), held the office of president of the local government board for more than eight years, during which he underwent comparatively little hostile criticism save from his old friends of the labour party. he was zealous in forwarding substantial measures of social reform, but did not take a prominent part in the great party disputes over the budget of 1909 and the parliament bill. his activity and success in the administration of his department were recognised—much against his own wish—by the raising of the president’s salary in rgro from £2,000 to £5,000 a year; but his policy was thought to be too conservative even by some members of the conservative party, and early in 1914 he was promoted to the presidency of the board of trade. he left the govt. in the following aug., as he disagreed with the cabinet’s decision to join in the world war. he resigned without making burns and scalds—butcher any public statement of his reasons, and took no further active part in parhament. at the general election of 1918 he desired to stand again for battersea in the labour interest. as, how- \" ever, he refused to join the labour party, he was unable to get local support. he therefore withdrew his candidature and con- tinued in private life.",
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