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    "title": "BUDDHISM (1)",
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    "verified_text": "the rivalry between hinduism, buddhism and jainism quickened each religion to fresh efforts, in order to retain its own people, to win others, and to secure for itself a dominating position in india. this triangular struggle ts one of the most important and significant facts in the religious ‘the he in parantheses in the article buddhism refer to the bibliography at the end. buddhism history of india for over a thousand years; but it does not take a prominent place in the earliest records. what the buddha preached was a system of teaching and discipline whereby, he affirmed, men could win re/ease from trans- migration, karma, and all the bonds of this world; and he had two groups of disciples, viz., monks and nuns. he also made friends with the laity wherever he went; gave them excellent advice with regard to their daily lives and their political troubles; and from them he received very large help in various ways; but he formed no new lay religion for them. they adored the buddha, and listened gladly to his teaching but they remained in hinduism (2). his death and the stupas in which his relics were enshrined probably led to the beginnings of actual worship within bud- dhism. what is clear is that, as the years passed, the monks drew the laity nearer to themselves; and there gradually grew up a sketchy system which bound the layman and his family to the local monastery and provided them with a simple form of wor- ship and a few rules for their lives as buddhists. perhaps the largest element in the new organisation was the provision of chaityas, or halls of worship, adorned with small stupas and other symbols of buddhist faith, in which monks and laymen worshipped together. asoka, maurya emperor of the 3rd century b.c., ruling three-fourths of india and a huge slice of territory to the west of the indus, became a buddhist early in his reign, and strength- ened the religion of his choice not only by great buildings and monuments erected for it, and by large administrative arrange- ments he made to help it, but also by his royal example and the propaganda of his edicts, set up all over his dominions. he is the greatest of buddhist laymen. the belief that the buddha, “ the enlightened one,” was the crown of humanity, coupled with the doctrine of transmigration, necessarily created the belief that he had gradually risen to per- fect knowledge and supreme character in a long series of lives pre- vious to the culminating life. since, during those previous lives, “ bodhi,” #.e., enlightenment, was believed to have already been the basis of his nature, his followers spoke of him as the bod- hisatitva down through the ages to the moment of his full enlight- enment under the bodhi tree. innumerable tales of the buddha during his lives of prepara- tion appeared; and in each his sympathy with men and animals, his unbounded liberality and his readiness to serve and to suffer were painted in glowing colours. all this appears in the jatakas and later in the avadanas. since truth never changes, buddhists argued that there must have been other buddhas in previous ages, who taught precisely the same truth which gautama taught; and, necessarily, in future ages, other buddhas would emerge with the same message. thus gautama is only the latest of a series of buddhas, which stretches far back into the past and will stretch far into the fu- ture; and there must be bodhisattvas in existence now, who in later ages will appear as buddhas. unity in belief and teaching was not fully maintained. there were numerous variations within the church; yet all buddhists continued to worship together in the chaityas. these divisions were, however, so deep as to be called sectarian differences; and they became more prominent as the years passed. in the teach- ing of some of these sects we meet the beginnings of system- atic philosophy among buddhists. the most important of the groups are the vibhajyavadins of ceylon and the sarvastivadins, the sautrantikas, and the mahasanghikas of india (3). each sect had its own literature. of those which have survived, at least in part, the literature of the vibhajyavadins of ceylon is in a literary dialect called pali, while the other literatures are in sanskrit or what is known as afixed sanskrit, i.e., sanskrit with an infusion of vernacular words and phrases, varying in the several sects. the common memorised tradition of the life and teaching of the buddha and the early history of the movement assumed a more or less divergent form in each sect. ‘the pali canon alone has survived in completeness; of the others only portions, large or small, have come down to our days (4). 465 round about the christian era buddhists began to use images in their worship; and during the first century a.d., in the province of gandhara, both west and east of the indus, where there were still many greeks, images of the buddha of great dignity and beauty were created by greeks or men trained in greek ideas and methods (5). thus the simple cult of the chaityas was transformed into temple-and-image worship. then, towards the end of the first century a.p., all these movements culminated in the creation of a new buddhism called “the mahayana,” 7.e., the great vehicle. clearly, there was already within the church a large and growing party who were convinced that the old discipline was not enough, that the ancient religion of india, founded on the great and impregnable rock of the hindu laity, was far too strong for buddhist monasticism. therefore, the buddhas and the bodhisattvas (6) became the buddhist pantheon, and lofty temples of noble architecture were built for their worship. a rich liturgy of great beauty was formed to accompany a new ritual as gorgeous, as attractive, as emo- tional as anything that hinduism could show. priests and acolytes, incense and music, banners and processions completed the spectacle. the buddhist temple thus became a dangerous rival to the hindu temple. the new system appealed powerfully to the laity. three note- worthy features are to be noticed:— a. they were taught to cultivate rich devotional feeling, bhakti, for the buddhas and the bodhisattvas. b. they were told that the monastic life was no longer neces- sary for the attainment of the highest spiritual ends. marned men and women were urged to enter on the new discipline by tak- ing the vow to toil towards buddhahood, in imitation of the great bodhisattva. asceticism was unnecessary; the family and society were the best training ground for the spiritual life. love, sympathy, service were far more powerful than austerities. the taking of the vow at once transformed the devotee into a bodhisattva. c. a new philosophy was taught, which each bodhisaltva was urged to study, viz., sunyata, the philosophy of the emptiness of all things. a very large, varied, and attractive literature was also created which did much to strengthen the new buddhism. one of the earliest and most influential of these books is the saddharma pundarika, “ the lotus of the true religion,’’ which is the buddhist gita. the mahayana thus gave buddhism a great uplift. while the neo-buddhists spoke of their own system as the muhayana or great vehicle, they depreciated the old monastic discipline as the hinayana, or humble vehicle. but, although the buddhist community thus became organised in two distinct churches, each with its own characteristic worship, teaching and discipline, there was no absolute separation. multitudes of the laity did not definitely join cither side; and, in the universities, the two parties worked side by side in kindly harmony. at a later date, possibly about 500 a.p., another type of theology and practice appeared in buddhism, viz., tantrism, the adoration of goddesses, accompanied by much magic and superstition and a good deal of eroticism. this is the culmination of the hinduising of buddhism. a large literature accompanied this movement also. in spite of the new vigour released in the mahayana, hindu- ism proved victor in the age-long fight. by the 7th century a.p., it could be seen that the struggle was practically over. but meantime buddhism, partly in the hinayana form, but chiefly as the mahayana, had spread to most parts of asia. to the west of india buddhist propaganda failed altogether, but southwards, eastwards, and northwards vast numbers of people passed into the church. in ceylon, burma, siam, and cambodia, it is the hinayana form that is professed; in korea, china, and japan both are held, the mahayana predominating; while the buddhism of nepal, tibet, and mongolia is the mahayana with a considerable infusion of tantrism (7). a large selection from hinayana, mahayana, and tantrik liter- ature was translated into chinese and was at later dates printed 466 and published under the care of the government. this canon contains 1,662 distinct works (8). in tibetan a canon was formed of mahayana and tantrik works, consisting of 1,083 distinct books. it is called the ka-gy#r. a supplementary group of books is called the tan-gyur. this mass of tibetan translations was, at a later date, translated into mongolian (9). when a knowledge of buddhism was first brought to europe, it was received in britain, germany, america, and elsewhere with great enthusiasm; and societies were formed in a number of centres for the practice of the religion. in britain and some other lands the movement has weakened, but in germany and else- where there are still many neo-buddhists. in buddhist lands in asia, christian missions and western education led, at the outset, to a certain amount of scepticism and criticism of buddhism; but in recent years buddhists have developed fresh scholarship (10), and numerous societies for the exposition and defence of the religion have been formed. the movement is specially noticeable in ceylon and burma, in china and japan. buddhist scholarship in europe reached a climax during the last decade. the publication of the pali canon has been com- pleted; and a large number of the books of that collection have been translated into european tongues. great progress has also been made with the publication of mahayana and tantrik texts and translations, while several great works by european scholars at last enable the student to understand clearly the historic movement of buddhist thought and the real significance of the philosophies of the mahayana. bibliography.—(1) three great works which, taken together, deal with the whole history, teaching, and practice of buddhism, have been published since 1921: sir charles eliot, hinduism and buddhism (1921); oltramare, l’itistotre des idees theosophiques dans i'inde, vol. it (1923); keith, buddhist philosophy in india and ceylon (1923). these are referred to in this article by their authors’ names. hastings’ encyclopaedia of religion and ethics (1908-21) is referred toas fre, (2) eliot, 1-185 ff.; oltramare, 87-255; keith, 33-134. (3) keith, 148-159. (4) oltramare, chap. 3. (5) cambridge, history of india, 1-648ff. (6) ere, bodhtsattva. (7) eliot, vol. ti; ere *““lamaism.” (8) bunyiu nanjio, the chinese buddhist tripiiaka, 1883. (9) ere 7-786. (10) £.g., aung (burma), a compendium of philosophy (abhidhammatthasangaha) (1910); sadaw (burma), dissertation on the gamaka (1913); sureyagoda sumangala (ceylon), dhamma pada (1914);suzu i (japan), outlines of mahayana b. (1907); takakusu (japan), abhidhamma lit. of the sarvastivadins (1905). the whole history of buddhism is now known in outline; large masses of its literature are available in mss., and a considerable percentage have been published. many works have been translated into european languages, and a large historical and expository literature has appeared in europe and america. the whole of this literature, as it existed in 1912-3, is discussed and catalogued in winternitz, geschichte der indischen litteratur, 2.,1., 1913. asketch of the whole, published seven years later, may be found in farquhar, an outline of the religious literature of india (1920). (j. n. f.) budenny, simeon mikhail evich (1876-— ), russian soldier, was born in southern russia, the son of a farmer of the cossack country. he entered the russian army in 1903 and rose to be a non-commissioned officer. in 1917, after the revo- lution, he was elected president of the divisional soviet of the caucasian troops. he did not join the communist party until 1919, but soon after the beginning of the civil war found himself in conflict with the whites and, with only a few friends and relations, began to wage guerilla warfare against the cossacks in the district. his forces increased and early in 1918 he joined the red army. with the nucleus of his own men he organised the red cavalry, and after a rapid series of promotions became commander of the first cavalry army. in this capacity he took an active part in the operations against wrangel and in the polish war (1920). he eventually became chief of the red cav- alry and was a member of the military revolutionary council of the soviet union.",
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