BRIDGES

in the general anatomy of steel bridges no sensational developments have occurred since 1910 and evolution in this respect took place along lines previously laid down. extreme simplicity and truthfulness of outline are the leading characteristics of modern long-span bridges, and dignity is obtained by the rigorous avoidance of meaningless curves and redundant members. modern practice continues to favour bridges whose anatomy is so simple that the total loads carried in the main members can be determined by the simple methods of rigid body statics, and there is a growing tendency to eliminate stresses arising from deformations and temperature variations by the introduction of suitably arranged articulations. this point is illustrated by the three-hinged arch. by the introduction of a third hinge at the crown in addition to the hinges at the abutments, the compu- tation of the thrust in the arch is brought within the scope of rigid body statics, and stresses due to temperature variations are reduced to insignificance. although there have been no radical! alterations in the anatomy of bridges, yet in the details of design and in the methods of manufacture the vast change in the eco- nomic conditions which have taken place since 1g10 are clearly reflected on both sides of the atlantic. in the bygone days of cheap and abundant labour large bridges bridgeman——bridghs were built up 77 stt#, plate by plate, just as a ship is built. econ- omy in labour was a relatively minor consideration, and it was possible and legitimate to indulge in features of design which would have to be ruled out under modern labour conditions ow- ing to their prohibitive cost. nowadays as much work as pos- sible is done in the machine shops, and field work operations are cut down to a2 minimum. design in consequence turns more and more on case of erection and the transportation of massive mem- bers, and when inviting tenders for a large bridge it is custom- ary to allow manufacturers to submit their own designs where- by they can avail themselves of their own special experience and equipment. in short, the main difference hetween modern bridges and those of the past may be fairly well summed up by saying that the latter were made by hand whereas the former are machine mace. advances in metallurgy have provided structural engineers with alloy steels which possess every advantage except that of low cost. for instance, nickel steel containing 3-5 °% of nickel is, roughly speaking, twice as strong as ordinary structural steel. this particular alloy was used for the central suspended span of the quebec bridge, reduction in weight in this case being an urgent necessity. with special steels, higher working stresses effect a saving in weight, but too often this economy is more than neutralised by the extra cost per ton demanded by the steel makers, and until this difficulty is overcome ordinary mild steel is likely to remain the standard material for structural purposes. this objection does not apply tvith equal force to high carbon steels, and for compression members in particular there is a tend- ency to increase the carbon content and make use of the en- hanced strength thereby obtained. the use of high tensile alloy steels greatly increases the limit of span associated with any particular type of bridge, and if spans are to exceed by any considerable amount those already in existence the employment of special steels is almost inevitable. among the most notable steel bridges constructed since 1910 are the quebec cantilever bridge over the st. lawrence river and the hell gate arch bridge over the east river, new york city. but the suspension bridge continues to be a favorite with engi- necrs. at bear mountain, across the hudson, a span of 1,632 ft. has been achieved, and at philadelphia, the delaware is crossed by a bridge of this design, the span of which is no less than 1,686 feet. (see camden.) the quebec bridge (see fig. 2 on plate).—the quebec bridge is constructed on the site of the one which collapsed in aug. 1907, when in an advanced stage of construction. forming an important link in the transcontinental railway system, it carries a double railway track across the st. lawrence river, about six m. above quebec. the design and construction was the work of the st. lawrence bridge co., acting under the supervision of a board of control appointed by the canadian government. the bridge is a cantilever construction. itsclear span of 1,800 ft. establishes a record, and the central portion, 640 ft. long, resting on the projecting ends of the cantilevers, is also the record length for a single span. the triangulation adopted for the cantilevers is a novelty known as the k triangulation, so called because the letter k appears prominently tn the pattern, and the advantages claimed by its designers in the matter of ease of erection and freedom from deformation stresses have been so am- ply justified that its adoption for other cantilever constructions is confidently anticipated. in contrast to the forth bridge, there is no tapering in width of the cantilever arms cither vertically or horizontally. the trusses being truly vertical, erection was facilitated and the parallel arrangement of the top chords provided a convenient track along which the erection traveller could advance during con- struction. the bottom chords of the cantilevers are straight, and in view of the failure of the previous bridge great care was bestowed upon their design and manufacture; an elaborate set of experiments with quarter-size models being carried out to verify the validity of the calculations. these great compression members consist of four parallel i section girders braced together with a very rigid system of diaphragms and lattice bracing. the section of this lower chord reaches the value of 1,941 sq. in. as it approaches the piers and it is considered to be the largest compression member in existence. the top chords, being tension members, are altogether different in design. they consist of a number of eye bars packed side by side in two tiers, and, since the length between panel points was 1 engineering, vol. 106 (sept. 13 1918). bridges plate a i, = oa or wi - — _ = = examples of modern bridge construction fic. 1. reinforced concrete bridge over the seine, at st. pierre du vauvray, france (1924). fic. 2. quebec bridge over the st. lawrence river, canada (1917). fic. 3. hell gate arch bridge, over the east river, new york (1917). (fig. 2. courtesy of canadian national rys. fig. 3. photo by ewing galloway, n. y.) bridges, robert—bridging, military excessive for single length eye bars, these members are made in two iengths and joined together with a pin at the centre. to prevent sag occurring, the weight of the central pins is carried by a light steel truss which bridges the distance between the panel points. with the object of facilitating erection, pin joints were extensively used throughout the bridge for connecting the ends of adjoining members, the length and weight of the central suspended span precluded the possibility of building this out as extensions of the main canti- levers, and this great girder was accordingly floated into position and hoisted up bodily by hydraulically operated slings. as the weight to be lifted was over 5,000 tons, and the lift was 150 ft., this constituted a weight-raising effort of unprecedented magnitude. the first attempt ended in failure. owing to the fracture of an in- significant cast steel pedestal one of the corners of the girder escaped from the supporting sling and, under the torsional stresses thus produced, the suspended span collapsed and plunged into the deep waters of the st. lawrence. noharm was done to the cantilevers. a new span was constructed, and a year later this was successfully hoisted into position, the process occupying only three days. hell gate arch (sce fig. 3 on plate).1—this bridge (1911-7), which achieves a high degree of aesthetic perfection, carries four lines of railway track across the east river in new york city. measured between the faces of the abutment towers it has a span of 1,017 fect. | technically it is classified as a two-hinge spandrel-braced arch, and it is*the lower chords of the arch framework which constitute the real backbone of the bridze. these members, constructed of a fairly high carbon steel, are of box section. their width is 6} ft. throughout, but in depth they vary from 7 ft. at the crown to io {t. 10 in. at the abutments, this latter dimension reaching the limit fixed by railway transport considerations. the heaviest length of bottom chord transported to the site weighed 150 tons. «a novel method of butt joint was employed to connect adjoining lengths of these compression members. close contact was male over only the middle third of the adjoining edges, and for the outer two-thirds a slight taper clearance was provided. when the member received its full working thrust this clearance practically disappeared, but this device ensures that there is no scrisus eccentricity of load, and that the resultant thrust in these lower chord members is approximately axial in position, the bearing surfaces at the ends of the lower chords are perfectly plane, but in order to give the desired dezree of articulation the opposing bearing surface provided at the abutments is curved to a radius of 96 feet. the bearing pressure is 120 tons per lineal inch measured along the line of contact, but, owing to the clastic deforma- tion of the surfaces, contact actually occurs over a strip instead of along a line, and the maximum bearing pressure is thereby reduced to about 12 tons per square inch. the arch truss was buiit out from the two ends as cantilevers. to balance these cantilevers during erection a ponderous system of back stays and counterweight was required, most of this being material subsequently incorporated into the structure, powerful hydraulic rams were provided by shortening or lengthening the back stays. dy slightly shortening the back stays the middle lengths of the lower chords were inserted and then with great care the hy- draulic rams were cased off until the arch became self-supported. the bottom chord at the crown being comparatively flexible, the bridge at this stage was in effect three-hinged. the upper chord and the two centre diagonal members were subsequently inserted free of stress, and these members come into operation only under the influence of train loads. vhus for dead loads the bridge may be regarded as a three-hinged arch, and for live loads it possesses the additional rigidity associated with an arch of the two-hinge varicty. the ilell gate arch was designed by gustav lindenthal. it is the longest span arch but a very similar arch now in process of con- struction across the entrance to sydney ilarbour is designed to have a clear span of 1,000 feet, reinforced concrete bridges —the use of reinforced concrete for bridging purposes have made such rapid progress that brick and stone have been practically ousted from the list of bridge-build- ing materials. short-span highway bridges are almost invariably made of reinforced concrete; for moderate spans this material is a formidable rival to steel, and it is orly in the case of really long spans of soo ft. and upwards that the supremacy of metal bridges remains unchallenged. reinforced concrete bridges are in effect castings poured 7 situ. the construction of the timber moulds constitutes a bridge problem in itself, and for long spans the expense of this temporary work is such a high proportion of the total cost that this system of construction ceases to be an economical proposition. 1 engineering, vol. 108 (aug. 8 and 22, sept. 5 and 26, oct. 17, nov. i and 21 1919). 437 forspans up to 50/t. or thereabouts, construction may ta ke the form of a deck slab supported on longitudinal beams, but reinforced con- crete work is secn in its most economical and artistic form when applied to the construction of arches or bowstring girders, unlike metal girders of the same character, no diagonal members are included in its anatomy, experience having proved that such members in concrete constructions are a source of weakness rather than strength. he vertical posts which support the decking are generally of slender build, and in this form the bowstring girder approximates in principle to an arch, the horizontal thrust on the abutments being taken by the ties which connect the opposite ends of the arch members at the level of the springings. the abutments, being free from horizontal thrust, need not be very substantial in character, and this fact, added to certain obvious advantages of clearance under the roadway, are sufficient reasons to account for the extensive adoption of the bowstring type of bridge. the longest reinforced conerete bridge in 1926 was an arch over the seine at 5t. pierre du vauvray2 this bridge (see fig. [on plate) is a road bridge having aclear span of 432 ft. 6inches. it wascompletedd in 1924, and was constructed by messrs. limousin et cie. to the design of m. freyssi- net. the two arch ribs supporting the roadway are hollowed rein- forced concrete tubes of rectangular section. they have the uniform width of 8 ft. 24 in., but in depth they vary from 8 ft. 23 in. at the crown to 13 ft. 6 in, at the springings. a novel feature in their con- struction was the method of removing the timber frames on which the curved ribs were constructed. each rib was discontinuous at the centre, the two halves being separated by a small gap. in this intervening space hydraulic jacks were installed and, when the time arrived, these jacks pushed the opposing halves slightly more apart, and the centering relieved thereby of its load was readily removed. this having been done, into the gap a key consisting of metal plates coated with cement was inserted, and as the hydraulic pressure was rcleased the gap closed up on the plates and the arch became self- supporting. reinforced concrete arches are usually of the hingeless type, but during the process of construction it is customary to introduce tem- porary hinges at the springings and crown, in these regions the section of the rib is cut down until only a short and small diameter strut of heavily reinforced conercte remains, and the local flexibility consequent on this local reduction in section provides in effect the action of a hinge. when the centering is removed, the arch, by a small rise or fall of its crown, can adjust itself to any slight change in span arising from abutment movements or contraction in the con- crete arch during the process of setting. after the arch has settled down into its natural position it is made hingeless by filling in with concrete the reduced sections which provided the temporary hinges. reinforced concrete bridges of the arch or bowstring type by their simplicity and truthfulness of outline convey a sense of fitness which never fails to please, and if sufficient attention is given to details of design bridges of these types can attain the very highest pitch of artistic perfection. brprtograruy.—f, c. kunz, design of steel bridges (1915); j. a. l. waddell, bridge engineering (1916); w. l. scott, reinforced concrete bridges (1925). (coe. 13 bridges, robert seymour (1844- ), english poet (sce 4.532), was appoiated poct laureate in succession to alfred austin in r9r3. in later years he wrote little, but he published october and other poems in 1920, and new verse, written during 192t andin 1923. however, his nobly conceived anthology, phe spirit of man (1916), was perhaps a more satisfactory offering to these troubled years than the official odes which his critics called for in vain. dr. bridges was a founder of the society for pure english. in 1924 he visited the united states to deliver university lectures. bridging, military.—the construction of light bridges for the passage of attacking infantry is one of the most important duties of engineers in battle. in the warfare of the future, when tanks are employed, more use will certainly be made of physical obstacles, particularly canals and rivers, to hamper or prevent the employment of tanks. the crossing of a river will usually commence by the infantry establishing a footing on the far bank, and_ pack artillery fol- lowing in close support. then for the armoured cars, field artillery, transport and supply lorries, as soon as the bridgehead is pushed forward sufficiently, substantial bridges must be constructed. when the crossing is fully established heavy bridges must be got into place and these must have approaches that are firm enough to carry the heavy artillery, tractors and heavy mechanical transport. 2 concrete and constructional engineering, vol. 19 (may 1924). 438 initial operation .—in the face of an enemy holding the river bank and strongly defending it, the tactical operation of forming a bridgehead is by no means simple. all existing approaches will be fully commanded and will probably have been damaged by explosives; existing bridges have probably been destroyed, and in any case their position is so well known that an attack on these lines is likely to be repulsed. to effect success, therefore, the first crossings must be made well away from the known lines of approach. moreover, surprise is an important element, so that the cover of darkness is needed for the collection of material and the actual commencement of the operation. the engineers who have to bridge the river, or get the leading infantry across by any other means, must be equipped with the bsg fic. ‘1.—kapok float assault bridge. lightest possible material that will stand the rough handling of carriage across broken, and often swampy, ground, some distance from the nearest point to which it can be brought by transport. the standard equipment for this purpose is the kapok assault bridge shown in fig. 1. this bridge consists of a canvas float stulled with kapok and bearing, strapped to it, a wooden tran- som plate, or saddle, with a metal coupling to which is affixed the timber duckboard which forms the bridge from float to float. at each end of the float are handles so that the bridge, afterits parts have been assembled at a convenient spot near the river, can be lifted bodily by two men for each float and carried forward for launching. the operation of launching and pushing the bridge across the river can be effected in a few seconds, and as soon as it has been secured on the far bank the assaulting infantry can commence to cross. the articulation of the saddle joint allows suflicient play for the bridge to be carried and launched over rough ground whilst providing sufficient lateral rigidity to steer its head across the stream, even against cross-wind and current. the buoyancy of the floats is ample and the bridge is stable in the water. the use of such an equipment, with which the sappers are fully conversant, immensely facilitates the operation of assault bridging, providing that suflicient material, and men skilled in its use can be provided; but other means may often have to be improvised. such expedients take the form of petrol float bridges of similar design, but with floats made of petrol tins crated to- gether, or of cork floats, or little ferry boats made of water- proof sheeting lashed over a timber framing, or tarpaulins _ stuffed with straw, or planks and hurdles made into rafts; in fact almost any floatable material may with some ingenuity be pressed into the service. for the formation of a pack bridge three of the kapok assault bridges are laid side by side, with chesses to form the roadway, or where the water is not too deep a planked trestle bridge may be suitable. bridging, - which engage with slots in the saddle. military pontoon bridge—for the next stage of the operation the pontoon equipment is brought up. the pontoons are large, flat- bottomed boats with a scow bow and completely decked in, having a buoyancy each of about 6} tons. they are built to give the maximum flotation for light weight with a skin of consuta two or three-ply wood on a mahogany framework and are designed so that two pontoons may be coupled stern to stern. a lifting handrail is provided along nearly the whole length of each side and additional detachable lifters are fixed by hooks and chains to bow and stern. the keelson gunwales and chines are of oregon pine to protect the light mahogany skin from rubbing. a saddle bed of oregon pine carries a saddle formed of two mild steel channels on which the roadbearers rest. the road- bearers are of nickel chrome steel and are fitted with steel pins the roadway is formed of planks of oregon pine and, when laid, they are held in place by ribands which are racked down by chains with a screw attach- ment for binding the members together. the equipment formed into a bridge is shewn in fig. 2 which illustrates the three forms in which the pontoon bridge may be made up: as a light bridge to carry field artillery and horsed transport, the pontoons being used singly with five steel road- bearers from saddle to saddle; asa medium bridge to carry medium artillery and lorries in which two pontoons are coupled stern to stern and seven roadbearers are used in each bay; as a heavy bridge to carry heavy artillery and track vehicles up to the 18-ton tank in weight, the piers of which are formed of four pontoons coupled in piers and carrying an extra central saddle on which 11 roadbearers are placed to carry the roadway. in either form each bay of bridge spans 21 ft. an integral part of the pontoon equipment is the steel trestle; this is used in place of the pontoons to form a pier of the bridge heav aor pas 5 va a aa ut =f bees —o : ee re se ee ee & ones es se ee ne ae uy 3 3 rere’ ietnans? pobadeybche bi ai = aray = a ——— we a zin medium oo fic. 2.—light, medium and eae types of pontoon bridge and ‘tower trestle bridge. in shallow water, to bridge over dry gaps, or to form the tidal ramp when the floating bridge has to rise and fall with the tide. it consists of two mild steel legs with pitch pine mud shoes, a nickel chrome steel transom and two jacks for raising or lower- ing the transom. the legs are drilled with holes along the centre of the web into which the pins of the transom engage so that the transom and, with it, the roadway can be raised or lowered by means of the jacks as occasion requires. when used in conjunc- tion with a heavy bridge, as shown in fig. 2, a double trestle pier is formed, but with a medium bridge a single trestle suffices to form the pier. the pontoon equipment carried with an army is so essential to its mobility that it cannot be left long in place on one river. as soon as the crossing has been effected or whilst it is sti in progress, stecl girders or other form of semi-permanent bridges must be constructed on all the main crossings to take the place of the pontoon bridges which must go forward. these will be of various patterns to suit the different spans and conditions met with according to the theatre of war, but only one standard type of portable stcel girder is retained for practice. briggs—brisbanhe, arthur box girder bridge-—this is known as the martel box girder bridge; it is designed to enable all spans, up to about 100 {t., to be bridged in the simplest manner and also to secure that the bridge so built will be strong enough to carry either light, medium or heavy loads, or tanks. the bridge is of the deck type and the chesses lie flat on the top of the box girders. the girders are skeleton steel box girders made up in sections, each 8 ft. long. the sections are joined together by plain pin joints; no nuts or bolts are required. there are thus only two essen~ tial parts, viz., the box girders and the chesses. three types of bridge can be built by using two, three or four box girders under the chesses. in fact the gap is to all intents and purposes spanned by using skeleton steel roadbearers which can be made up to any desired length in 8 {t. sections. a further advantage is that any desired width of roadway can be laid. to obtain a wider bridge it is merely necessary to add more box girders and use longer chesscs, or a double row of chesses. the decking is held in position by angle steel kerbs fixed down by hook bolts, and the handrail consists of posts which fit into the sockets in the centre of each 8-ft. length of kerb and piping. the handrail pipes are also used as carrying bars for carrying sections of the girders. the bridge will usually be fitted with horn beams at each end, a construction which enables the girders to be lowered onto masonry abutments, or onto a timber bankseat so that the level of the roadway may be kept down and a ramped-up approach avoided; but where headroom under the bridge is required, or the approach level is suitable, these are not necessary. launching the bridge-——launching is usually by means of a derrick and winches. a derrick is erected on the far bank, and the bridge, having been placed on rollers, is hauled bodily across by means of tackle, a preventer winch and tackle being used from the near bank to check it. the cantilever method may in some cases be more convenient, especially when the bridge is a heavy one with three or four girders, as each girder can be used in turn as the countcr-weight for the next, the last girder being rolled across on deck planks laid on those already in position and then jacked down. the third alternative, the cantilever method with launching nose attached to the horn beam, may be the quickest, and at the same time more advantageous as it can be used with lighter tackle. the erection and launching into position of a girder bridge cannot be carried out under fire and the sequence in which the operation has been described involves a space of time which will usually place this work at a safe distance, except for intermittent long-range shelling. the construction of approach roads to a heavy bridge is often a work of greater magnitude than the construction of the bridge itself, as they must be sufliciently permanent to carry the heavy strain of mechanical transport. thus, whilst the assault bridges are intentionally thrown well away from the main lines of trafhe and the lighter forms of pontoon bridge can be used wherever a reasonable cross country approach track can be made, the heavy bridges are confined closely to the route of the main roads. this site will probably be continuously shelled until the enemy’s artillery 1s silenced and so artillery and aerial co-operation is essential to aid the rapidity with which full communication may be established. the engineering opcrations connected with a river crossing are subject to tactical requirements and it is by no means certain that a set sequence will be followed; for example, it may be essential for the tanks to go forward with, or in front of, the leading infantry. the bridging problem then is one of extreme difficulty; but it has been solved. an instance occurred in 1918 in the crossing of the selle where, under the nose of the enemy holding the opposite bank, a crib causeway for tanks, built of railway sleepers bolted together and sunk in the bed of the river, was constructed during the nights immediately preceding the attack and kept concealed from view and from aerial photog- taphy by being completed just below water level. bridging in wartime. —in uncivilised countries the chief prob- lems for the bridge-builder are to devise the best use to which to put the scanty supply of materials available, and to adapt the 439 local resources of the country to advantage. but, great as is the task of bridge-building for an army in undeveloped countries, greater still is the work of reconstruction during an advance in a highly developed theatre of war such as france. there the accumulation of means of attack and defence on a grand scale is made possible by the fullness of the communications, yet at the same time each of these many lines of communication is sensitive at every river crossing. almost without exception the bridges are destroyed by the enemy on his retirement, and an army cannot safely push on its advance without its full equip- ment and without clear routes for its supply transport. hence, in the final campaign of 1918 in france, the power of the british army to advance depended on the speed with which the royal i-ngineers could construct bridge crossings and roads. during the period august-november 1918 no fewer than 539 heavy bridges were erected on this front alone, of which 326 were standard steel bridges and 213 of heavy timber or salved material. this does not include the innumerable light improvised crossings and footbridges by which the leading infantry were enabled to attack, and the pontoon and light trestle bridges for field artil- jery and horse transport. (see engineers, minttary.) (e. n.s.) briggs, charles augustus (1841-1913), american theo- logian (see 4.566), died in new york june 8 1ror3. his last published works were: church unity (1909); the fundamental christian faith (1913); and, posthumously, theological sym- bolics (1914). brighton (sce 4.570) has developed its amenities in many directions. the population was 142,427 in 1921, and the area of the municipal borough, which includes preston, is 2,545 acres. in 1923 part of patcham was added. the whole seafront of brighton and hove is now one long promenade, with a memorial to king edward vii., unveiled in 1913, on the boundary between the two boroughs. a winter garden was made in 1912, and since 1921 there have been im- proved facilities for embarking on or disembarking from steamers. an amphitheatre to seat 1,600 was built at the head of the chief pier in 1913. new buildings for the grammar school were opened in dyke road in 1913, and a municipal day training college in fastern terrace in ro11. vlollingbury park, a large tract of downland north of the town, was acquired. the royal pavilion and dome were used as a hospital during the world war and until 1920, and in 1921 the south gateway was replaced with one presented by the princes and people of india in gratitude for the hospitality shown to sick and wounded indian officers and men. three new parishes have been formed: st. matthias, preston, in 1913; st. alban, preston, with a new church in coombe road, in 1915; and st. wilfred, with a church in elm grove, in 1922. two roman catholic churches have been built, one in hove in 1915, and one in preston park in torr. after the war some 700 disabled ex-service men were employed in the dlamond- cutting industry here, and a large factory was built in 1920, but was sold in 1924. the brighton war memorial, a roman colon- nade and water garden, is at the bottom of st. james street, and that of hove is at the junction of grand avenue and the drive. in 1924 the railway station and its approach were improved; the electric supply system was reorganised, and plants at shoreham and kemp town extended. {100,000 was voted by the corporation for extensions to the water-supply undertakings, with {60,000 for a tidal bathing pool. in the same ycar it was arranged to clear the aquarium site, and lay it out as gardens, with a theatre and restaurant, but later it was decided to retain the main part of the fish tanks. brisbane, arthur (1864- ), american newspaper editor, was born at buffalo, n.¥., dec. 12 1864. after an educa- tion in the american public schocls and five years spent in france and germany, he entered the employ of the new york suz in 1883 as a reporter, later becoming its london correspondent and subsequently editor of the evening sun. from 1890 to 1897 he was connected with the new york herld, as managing editor of different editions, and from 1897 to 1921 he was editor of the new york evening journal. we purchased he washington 440 times of washington, d. c., in 1917, and the evening wis- cousin of milwaukee, wis., in ae8. sclling both papers to william randolph hearst in poin: after 1918 he was editor of the chicago herald and examiner. his editorials, which for over two decades appeared in all the newspapers owned by w. r. hearst, obtained for mr. brisbanea national reputation. he pub- lished editorials from the icarst newspapers (1906) and the brishane editorial review (1922). brisbane (see 4.574) had a population (1924) of 248,015. south brisbane and suburbs were merged in 1925, giving greater brisbane an area of 380 sq. miles. it is the capital, chief sea- port and commercial centre of queensland. a comprehensive sewage system was installed in 1924. the first part of the cathedral was consecrated in 1910, and the queensland univer- sity established in rottr. brisson, eugene henri (1835-1912), french statesman (see 4.574), was again elected president of the chamber in jan. 1912, and died at his official residence april 14 1912. bristol (see 4.579) had a population of 377,c6r in 1921 and an estimated population in 1925 of 386,400. since r910 many public buildings have been erected or enlarged. mr. h. hi. wills built and endowed st. monica’s home for incurables at an expenditure of upwards of £1,000,000, and sir george a. wills, bart., a public library in the bedminster district at a cost of f10,000. at avonmouth the lending library was removed to more commocdious premises and new rooms were opened in 1916. a branch library was opened at knowle in 1922. a library of commerce was instituted in the central building in 1920. senarately administered children’s libraries have been opened in the four quarters of the city. in ro2r, the st. george branch library was reorganised and reopened as an open access library, and since this date the central and remaining branch libraries have been similarly reorganised. the premises of the grammar school, opposite the main university buildings, have been enlarged and a new wing was opened in ig14. in1ror2a new organ was placed in the church of st. mary redcliffe and in 1913 the south porch was restored. the berkeley chapel in the cathedral has also been restored. the royal west of eng- and academy was rebuilt in tor2 and the hippodrome, a large variety theatre, was opened. at the city’s lowest point, near st. augustine’s bridge, old buildings have been razed and premises for the co-operative wholesale society erected upon the site. additional playing- fiel is were provided for clifton college at its jubilee in ror2 and a war memorial gateway in college road was unveiled in 1922. the king edward memorial wing of the royal infirmary was opened in 1912, and the victoria gibbs memorial home for homeless babies at kingsdown in 1921. colston hall was bought by the city in ro1g. other improvements include ex- tensions to temple meads station, new central police and fire stations and a central y.m.c.a. building in colston street. a wesleyan hall was opened in old market street in 1924. a contract for the extension of the avonmouth docks was placed in january 1924. <a low-level road between bristol and avon- mouth has been made, and the railway station at hotwells abolished to make room for it. british columbia (sce 4.598), a province of the dominion of canada. its area is 355,855 sq. miles. the population is pre- dominantly of british stock. in 1921, out of a total population of 524,582, 221,145 were english, 104,965 scotch and 54,208 irish. other racial groups were scandinavians 19,002, french 11,246, chinese 23,533, japanese 15,co6 and indians 22,377. the population in 1925 was estimated at 587,000. the principal cities are vancouver—population 117,217 in 1921—victoria, new westminster, nanaimo, north vancouver and prince rupert. vancouver is the chief canadian seaport on the pacific coast. the opening of the panama canal has led to the devclop- ment of grain shipments from the prairies to europe via van- couver. for the crop year 1923-4 shipments of wheat from vancouver amounted to 53,800,505 bu. and there was a consider- able trace in other commodities. the provincial legislative assembly has 48 members, with brisbane—british empire an executive council of seven. the province was represented in the dominion parliament in 1925 by 14 members in the house of commons and six senators. except in cities having charge of their own schools, to which grants are made, the school system is financed and administered by the provincial authorities. two normal schools for the training of teachers are maintained. the british columbia university at point grey, near vancouver, is financed by the provincial government. production and industry—the area of farming land is limited to approximately 19,000,000 ac., and is distributed in widely separated valleys. small mixed farming is predominant. com- mercial fruit-growing has rapidly increased in importance. the area devoted to fruits in 1891 was estimated at 6,500 ac.; in 1924 the acreage under tree fruits was approximately 30,716, and under small fruits about 6,310. in 1924 the total value of agricultural products was $60,029,224. the amount of standing timber of merchantable size in 1925 was estimated at 360,000,- 000,000 and 47,500,000 cords of pulpwood, posts, etc. in 1924 there were 359 sawmills, 78 shingle mills, two pulp and paper mills and three wood-pulp mills in operation. timber produc- tion was valued at $80,702,000 in 1924. pulp production in the same year was 216,243 tons, and 136,281 tons of newsprint and 9,653 tons of other paper were produced. the total value of the fisheries in 1924 amounted to $21,257,567; salmon yielded $13,027,251, halibut $5,427,542 and herring $1,392,580. cod, clams and quahaugs, black cod, pilchards, crabs and oysters are also marketed. fish canneries and curing establishments numbered 134 in 1924. since 1907 british columbia has occupied second place among the canadian provinces in regard to the value of mineral pro- duction. in 1925 the output was valued at the record figure of $61,491,600. lead, coal, copper, zine, silver and gold are the most impcrtant metal products. manufacturing industries developed considerably during the war and post-war periods: in 1924 there were 3,345 industrial establishments in the prov- ince, employing some 75,000 hands. the tourist industry is increasing in importance, its value in 1925 being placed at $45,000,000. (s'ce canada.) jerliography.—a, g, brown, british columbia, 1912; f. fair- ford, british columbia, 1914; a. short and a. g. doughty, canada cnd its provinces: british col urnbia, 19014; l/andbook of brilish columbia, ig2i, and year book of british columbia. (d. a. maacg.) british empire (see 4.606)—the area is 12,389,874 square miles and the population 438,761,015. the british em- pire or british commonwealth of nations, as it was styled for the first time officially, in the irish treaty, comprised, in 1926, the following classes of territory :— (1) the united kingdom of great britain and ireland, con- sisting of england, wales, scotland and northern ireland. it possesses full sovereignty, external and internal, with the sole right to declare war and peace, but is limited in action as regards the dominions by certain recognised conventions. northern ireland has a parliament and a government responsible to it for local matters. the channel is. and the isle of man, are in an anomalous position inasmuch as they have independent legisla- tures and semi-independent executives, subject to the supremacy of the united kingdom parliament. (2) the self-governing dominions, possessing membership in the league of nations and therefore a quasi-international status, but not full sovereignty, and, though subject to the su- premacy of the united kingdom parliament, enjoying in practice autonomy in internal affairs and membership of the imperial conference. these are canada, australia, new zealand, south africa and the irish free state. (3) a self-governing dominion with membership of the im- perial conference, but without membership in the league of nations: newfoundland. (4) two self-governing colonics, with a wide but not unre- stricted autonomy, and not entitled to representation at the imperial conference: malta and southern rhodesia. (5) crown colonies, or colonics not possessing responsible government, that is, colonies in which the executive government british is controlled by the british govt. through the secretary for the colonies. the legislatures in these cases may be entirely inde- pendent of the executive, as in bahamas, bermuda and barba- dos, with their nominee upper houses and their elective as- semblies, but normally are, either in case of emergency as in ceylon or regularly, subject to control either because there is an official majority or because the governor alone constitutes the legislature. (6) protectorates administered on colonial lines. these differ from colonies mainly in that they are not annexed to the british crown, and their inhabitants are not british subjects. the protectorate status in such cases normally preludes annexa- tion when administration has become more developed; it usually rests on promises of protection granted to more or less uncivilised tribes and the administration often makes wide use of the agency of chiefs in government, especially in nigeria and uganda. (7) protected states, retaining distinct personality. some of them, as sarawak, possess internal autonomy, while others, like zanzibar, are administered in effect by british officers. (8) mandated territories, held under mandates granted with the approval of the council of the league of nations and subject to a certain measure of supervision. (9) india, including british india and the indian states. the former is administered under the governor-general; the latter possess various degrees of internal autonomy. india as a whole possesses membership of the league of, nations and representa- tion at the imperial conference. (see inpra.) (10) to the australian commonwealth are attached, as de- pendencies administered on crown colony lines, papua and nor- folk i.; to new zealand the cook is. and the ross dependency. these dominions and also the union of south africa hold man- dated territories. nauru was mandated to the british empire, the administration to be entrusted first to the australian com- monwealth, and then as might be agreed upon between the com- monwealth, the united kingdom and new zealand. i. constitutional history conference of r9tz.—the imperial conference of 1911, con- vened in accordance with the constitution decided upon by the colonial conference of 1907, met under the iniluence of the pre- vailing tension in european relations, and the most important part of its deliberations centred in the question of the control of foreign policy. the dominions by that date had secured the right to adhere to, or remain exempt from, commercial treaties concluded by the british govt. and at their request their repre- sentatives were from time to time empowered by that govt. to negotiate, subject to its approval, special commercial arrange- ments with foreign powers. moreover, in political matters directly affecting them, they had established the right to be consulted before the british govt. ‘came to any decision. in general political issues the dominions had no say, but their acquiescencein this state of affairs had been disturbed by the controversy which had arisen regarding the declaration of london of 1909, which wasthought to diminish the power of the british navy in time of war. hence sir j. ward, on behalf of new zealand, propounded what was virtually, though not in name, a scheme of impcrial federation, contemplating the creation of a federal government and parliament to deal with issues of foreign policy, war and peace; this scheme, however, was rejected by canada, australia and south africa, and nega- tived by mr. asquith for the united kingdom. it was, however, agreed that in such cases as general peace conferences, agreements arrived at should be communicated before signature, to the dominions for their observations, and that the general policy adopted by the british representatives at such conferences should, as far as practicable, be discussed with the dominions prior to the meetings. moreover, at a secret mecting of the committee of imperial defence, the dominion representatives were informed of the british position in regard to the grave political issues of the time, including the menace due to the friction between germany and france. ‘the conference also decided the terms on which the dominions could maintain pnupire aai distinct naval forces, which, even in time of war, would only come under the control of the british admiralty on transfer by the government concerned; areas were assigned for the normal operations of the dominion fleets, and it was laid down that in any contact with foreign governments the commanders would act on any instructions given by the british foreign office. the fall of sir w. laurier’s govt. in canada in rort installed a government more inclined to intervene in world politics, and sir robert borden, on a visit to london in 1912, was fully in- formed by the british govt. of the state of european politics. a definite offer was made to canada and to the other dominions to afford them greater opportunities of taking part in foreign affairs through the appointment of resident ministers in london, who would be given full information and be able to express dominion views, though the final responsibility must continue with the british government. canada alone, after some delay, accepted the suggestion for a time, while sir r. borden’s pro- posal to strengthen the british navy by a grant of $35,000,000 was defeated by the senate. in 1g12 also a significant step was taken to assert the distinct personality of the dominions. hitherto at international confer- ences the king had been represented by one delegation only, which might contain dominion representatives, but which acted as a whole; at the radio-telegraphic conference of that year the king was represented by distinct delegations acting un- der separate full powers, those granted to the dominion repre- sentatives empowering them to act for the dominions. this recognition for external purposes of a distinction long familiar for purposes of internal sovereigniy was followed in the con- ference on the safety of life at sea in 1913-4. the empire in war-—the world war came so swiftly, on aug. 4 r914, that 1t was impossible to consult the dominions, but all the dominion govts. promised aid, placing under the ad- miralty their naval forces, comprising the australian fleet and the small forces of canada and new zealand. similarly, the troops raised by the dominions for oversea service were volun- tarily placed under british command, though in the last year of the war a certain measure of independence was secured for the canadian expeditionary force. in the earlier period of the war the governments were too busy to hold the imperial conference due under its constitution to meet in 1915; but, on the resignation of mr. asquith in 1916 and the advent to office of mr. lloyd george, the determination to secure greater efficiency in the conduct of the war and the more complete mobilising of the strength of the empire led to the summoning of representatives of the dominions and of india —not a member of the conference under the constitution of 1907—for discussions with the british government. meetings in 1ot7 and 1918 took a double form; on the one hand the immedi- ate issues affecting the war and the conditions on which peace might be made were debated at sessions of the imperial war cabinet, while matters of secondary importance were dealt with by the impcrial war conference. the imperial war cabinet, closely connected with the british cabinet, was a cabinet of quite new character, a “ cabinet of governments ” as sir r. l. borden described it. there was no prime minister on whom it depended; each dominion, india and the united kingdom were represented by independent del- egates, the british prime minister presiding merely as primus inter paves. there was no joint responsibility, and the cabinet could only pass resolutions, not take decisions. it remained for the several cabinets to decide what effect to give to the reso- lutions, to which the dominion representatives agreed only on the understanding that they must be approved by their colleagues and parliaments. on the other hand the meetings afforded a valuable opportunity for the dominion and indian representa- lives to express their views, and thus, in some measure, to share in the supreme direction of the forces of the empire, though final responsibility necessarily rested with the british govt. in view of the preponderant share of the burden of the war borne by british resources. it was recognised that the new departure was essentially due to war conditions, but it was agreed, in 1917, 442 that the constitutional relations of the empire should be recon- sidered at a conference to be summoned after peace was achieved. the peace conference-—the second meeting of the imperial war cabinet held in 1918 was followed shortly by the final defeat of the german forces, and the body was reconvened to consider the terms of peace, being transformed finally into the british empire delegation to the peace conference of 1919. the unity which had hitherto marked the representation of the empire was now difficult to maintain; it had been contemplated by the british govt. that the empire should speak at the peace conference through a single delegation. it was, however, felt by the dominions that they must have the same measure of recogni- tion as the minor powers taking part in the conference. a com- promise was, accordingly, reached. under this, in addition to the british empire delegation on which the dominions might be represented from time to time on the panel system, there were recognised delegations from canada, australia, south africa, new zealand and india, newfoundland being omitted in view of her small population. the delegations were accorded the right of being heard on matters specially affecting them on the same footing as the minor belligerent powers, but importance really attached to the influence which the dominion representatives had in deciding, in the discussions within the british empire delegation, what attitude should be adopted by that body, or, when matters were increasingly left to the heads of the dele- gations of the five great powers, by mr. lloyd george. the dominions insisted that the ratification of the treaty with germany should not be carried out until approval of it had been expressed by their parliaments, and, after demur, this demand was conceded by the british government. in the form of the treaty the participation of the british empire was marked by its signature, generally, by the delegates of the united kingdom and, specifically for each dominion and for india, by their rep- resentatives, a plan adopted from the precedent of the radio- telegraphic convention of 1912. this form, however, was not followed in the supplementary treaty by which the british em- pire, like the united states, undertook to aid france in the case of german aggression, but that instrument, which failed to take effect through refusal of ratification by the united states, expressly provided that the obligations of the treaty would not apply to the dominions unless undertaken by their parliaments. the mode of procedure in the case rested on two fundamental principles, the right of the british govt. to conclude treaties binding the whole empire as a matter of international law, and the duty of that govt., in any international arrangement, to respect the autonomy of the dominions; its importance lay in the fact that it negatived the claim made in the canadian parlia- ment in 191g and also by gen. smuts that signature by domin- ion representatives was requisite if any treaty were to bind the dominions in international law. this paramount power of the british govt. stood on the same footing as its sole right to declare war or conclude peace in the name of the crown, although the effect of a declaration of war was immediately to impose on the dominions, without their consent, the burden of belligerent status and liability to attack. membership of the league of nations.—of paramount impor- tance was the decision reached after hesitation, but at the request of the dominions, to secure them an independent position in the league of nations as created by the treaty of versailles. this was done by including in the list of original members the british em- pire, followed immediately by the dominions and india, ignor- ing the united kingdom altogether. the effect was to confer on the dominions and india for all purposes of the league of nations an international status apart from the british empire, which was to be represented at assembly meetings by dele- gates appointed by the british government. it was ruled, too, that the dominions were eligible for election to the council of the league to fill the places left open to election, despite the fact that the british empire as such had a permanent place on the council. in the rather unlikely event of a dominion obtaining election to the council, it was presumed that it would not be regarded as a distinct entity for voting purposes if any occasion british empire should arise in which the british empire was involved in a dis- pute and the matter fail to be decided by the unanimous vote of all other members of the council. the dominions instructed their representatives at the league assemblies without regard to the views of the british govt.; cases not rarely occurred of voting in different ways by british and dominion delegations. mandates were held direct by the dominions from the league, and this responsibility rested on them only. similarly, as regards the permanent court of inter- national justice, the dominions had a distinct status, and it appeared that the court would have jurisdiction in cases of dis- agreement between a dominion and the united kingdom, or between two dominions. the british govt., however, asserted in 1924 that it did not consider that the provisions of the cove- nant of the league as to the registration of treaties applied tothe treaty between the united kingdom and the irish i'ree state, but a contrary view was taken by the irish free state, apparently with the sympathy of some of the dominions. on the other hand, it was understood that the action of the british empire, as a member of the council, should have regard to dominion and indian interests, and the equity of this understanding was obvious, since the permanent membership of the council allotted to the british empire inevitably greatly reduced the probability of the election of a dominion to that body. a dominion, how- ever, is entitled to special representation on the council in the event of any matter specially affecting it, coming before that body to the same extent as that right is enjoyed by other members of the league. the obligations of the covenant were regarded, in one vital matter, rather differently by the united kingdom and by the dominions and india. as a european power the united king- dom accepted as necessary the implications of the guarantee of the territory and independence of members contained in article to. canada, however, only acquiesced in it originally under protest, and jater pressed, though unsuccessfully, for the formal modification of the article; similarly the geneva protocol of 1924 proved unacceptable to the dominions and india, and except in new zealand considerable reluctance was manifested in respect of accepting obligations under the locarno pact of oct. 16 1925, which exempted the dominions and india from obligation unless expressly accepted by their governments. on the other hand, the dominions and india showed interest in the carrying out of the labour clauses of the treaty of peace under which their distinct individuality was expressly recognised. the demand for recognition as distinct entities conceded in the treaty of versailles was admitted in the negotiation and signa- ture of the other treaties with ex-enemy powers and the succes- sion states in 1919, and it led, inevitably, to the claim by canada for the right of separate diplomatic representation where that was desirable in her own interests, and primarily in the united states. the claim was conceded, subject to the willingness of the united states govt., to permit such representation, and to the declaration that it was not the intention of either the british or the canadian govt. to diminish in any degree the diplomatic unity of the empire. the assent of the united states was at first doubtful, as one of the objections there urged against the constitution of the league of nations was that it accorded sepa- rate votes to different parts of the empire, but ultimately the necessary approval was accorded. difficulties in canada delayed an appointment, and advantage of the concession, which had automatically to be extended to all the dominions, was first taken in 1924 by the irish free state. the functions of the irish minister at washington were declared to be to deal with matters affecting solely irish interests, but no indication was given of the mode in which this restriction would be insisted upon in practice. the conference of 1921.—owing to the development of national consciousness nothing came of the movement for closer union in foreign affairs induced by the war, which had led to the resolu- tion of 1917 in favour of holding a constitutional conference after the war. a conference met in 1921, only to declare itself satisfied that no reconstruction of imperial relations was desir- able. feeling in the dominions indeed rendered any closer union british empire out of the question. labour in australia, which had defeated conscription during the war, was resolutely opposed to anything even suggesting loss of autonomy; french canada, which had bitterly resisted conscription in the dominion and rendered it largely ineffective in quebec, was definitely hostile; nationalist opinion in south africa had adopted the ideal of a republic, and the great majority of the people in the dominions were indilf- ferent, satisfied that an organisation which had weathered the war would be adequate for the future. the value of the plan of conferences, on the other hand, was strikingly confirmed by the meeting, for it was found possible to adjust the very discrepant - views of the dominions and the united kingdom regarding the renewal of the japanese alliance by adopting the policy which culminated in the washington conference and the treaties of 1922 regarding the maintenance of the sfaius guo in the pacific, the limitation of naval armaments and the relations of the western powers with china. a difficulty arose regarding the representation of the empire at the washington conference; the invitation was addressed by the united states govt. to the british govt. only, but the proposal of that govt. for a single delegation was objected to by gen. smuts, and ultimately it was arranged to send distinct delegations, as in the case of the paris conference. the delegations, however, when at washington, were regarded and regarded themselves as a unity, and no question of separate voting arose. later in 1922, however, a distinct discrepancy of feeling be- tween the united kingdom and canada was manifested when mr. lloyd george asked the dominions to support his chanak policy. the dominion view was that, as it had not been effec- tively consulted on the policy which led to the situation, it could not be expected blindly to pledge itself to military support. the resignation of mr. lloyd george and the settlement of the immediate issues removed the difficulty for the moment; but further questions were raised in march 1923, in connection with the signature of a treaty with the united states regarding the halibut fisherics. canada successfully contended that such a treaty, as predominantly of canadian interest, should be signed by a canadian representative alone, contrary to the rule laid down by lord ripon in 1895 and sir e. grey in 1907, under which any such agreement should be signed also by a british representative. conference of 1923.—the whole matter was considered at the imperial conference of 1923, at which the irish free state was represented, as well as india and the other dominions. it was agreed that treaties should normally be negotiated and signed, under full powers granted by the king, by representatives of the part or parts of the empire affected, and that in negotiating any treaty it should be the duty of the government primarily con- cerned to secure that any other government which was affected should be invited to take part in the negotiations; in the case of international conferences the procedure adopted at the paris conference should be followed. ratification of treaties thus ne- gotiated should be expressed under the same conditions—that is, on the request of the government or governments concerned. this mode of procedure left to the british govt. a final re- sponsibility, for it must, in the first place, issue full powers to negotiate and sign, and secondly, it must advise ratification; the primary responsibility rested indeed with the dominion concerned, but the british govt. was bound to secure that nothing was done by one part of the empire likely to be gravely detrimental to the interests of another part; doubiless in the event of a serious diffcrence of opinion recourse would be had to discussion by an imperial conference. at the same time the conference recognised and approved a practice which had gradu- ally grown up but had hitherto been deemed irregular. ‘this was the conclusion of minor agreements, mainly of a technical or administrative character, by dominion govts. with for- eign powers. these were not negotiated by plenipotentiaries or ratified by the king, and such agreements thus escaped any intervention by the british government. it insisted, however, that in concluding such agreements dominion govts. should have due regard to the interests of other parts of the empire. 443 the conference also discussed foreign policy. it approved the principle of supporting the league of nations, and reaffirmed the doctrine laid down in 1921, that each part of the empire should make provision for local defence; it also approved the view that the naval forces of the empire should be equal to those of any other power, and that suitable bases should be provided, thus homologating the british govt.’s proposals regarding singa- pore. the absolute autonomy of the dominions was, however, stressed, and no pledges of aid in the maintenance of the navy were offered, the decision resting with the dominion parliaments. an unfortunate misunderstanding, however, arose out of the conference. apparently it was held that the discussions there of the terms of peace to be made with turkey involved the do- minion govts. in responsibility for the treaty of lausanne when finally agreed upon by the british representatives, who alone took part in the discussions. when, however, canada was asked to approve of the ratification of the treaty she made it clear that her attitude was that, while she took no exception to ratification, responsibility for it, and for the obligations which might be imposed on the empire under its terms, must rest with the brit- ish govt. only. the doctrine was thus established that the do- minions would only accept active obligations when they had taken part in the negotiations and agreed to their results. a further representation from canada resulted in the admission of the principle by the british govt. in connection with the london reparations conference of 1924, though lack of time prevented the adoption there of any other than a makeshift arrangement for their special representation. the british govt. then proposed that the question of more effective consultation on international subjects should form the subject of a special con- ference, but its fall from office was followed by an intimation that further experience of the working of existing arrangements was desirable, a view acquiesced in by the dominions. in 1925 the prime minister of the australian commonwealth arranged to station in london a liaison officer to keep him fully informed on foreign political questions and the views of the british govt.; but neither this device nor the alternative of send- ing a member of the dominion cabinet to act as minister resident in london received general approval in the dominions, largely because such a minister would inevitably cease to be in effective touch with dominion fecling and would be apt to commit his government to british views, while, if he merely acted as a channel of information, his employment would hardly serve any useful purpose. consultation, therefore, was conducted freely by telegram, both as regards the geneva protocol of 1924 and the security pact of 1925. the attitude revealed by these consultations was one of re- luctance on the part of the dominions to take an active part in british foreign policy save in so far as it directly concerned their interests. it was admitted that the dominions might be involved in war by british action, which they could not as matters stood effectively control, but it was recognised that it remained for each parliament to decide whether in the event of hostilities it would afford aid, and, if so, in what manner, to the united kingdom. the constitutional position was summed up in article 49 of the irish free state constitution, which provided that, except in the case of invasion, the state could not beinvolved actively in war save with the assent of its own parliament, a doctrine which was also definitely approved by canada and accepted by the other dominions. the irish treaty—the aspect of the british empire as an informal alliance of autonomous states, special powers as to foreign relations being vested in the united kingdom, was em- phasised by the conclusion of the treaty of 1921 between the united kingdom and the irish free state. the status of a do- minion was by that measure formally granted and the instrument was styled a treaty, although concluded by the british govt. merely with representatives of forces in armed rebellion against the crown. as has been seen, the british govt. held that, despite the name, the treaty was not one in the sense of inter- national law, since it did not confer independence but merely dominion status. the new state was admitted in 1923, with the a444 british assent of the empire, to membership of the league of nations. the adoption of a special flag and the enactment of a distinct irish citizenship marked the assertion of autonomy; projects in the same direction were announced in south africa in 1925, to be carried into effect by agreement of the partics in 1926. canada in 1921 defined canadian nationals; in that case, however, the definition was motived by the necessity of dis- tinguishing between british subjects in general and canadian british subjects in particular in respect of eligibility for nomina- tion by canada for candidature for election to the permanent court of international justice. the crown and dominion internal affairs as regards the relations of the dominions to the united king- dom in internal affairs no special action was recommended by the conferences of 1911-23. the retention by the colonial secretary of responsibility for the dominions was objected to in 1911 by new zealand, and australia suggested that dominion relations should be entrusted to the foreign secretary, while an alterna- tive proposal suggested that the prime minister should accept the duty, delegating the detail work to a deputy minister. the suggestion was rejected on the score of the great burden already resting on the prime minister, but it was conceded at the con- ference of 1918 that dominion prime ministers should have the right of direct correspondence, on matters deemed sufficiently important, with the british prime minister, and this arrange- ment was accepted as satisfactory in 1921. in 1925, on the ini- tiative of the british govt. a new office of secretary of state for dominion affairs was created, but the retention of the post in the hands of the colonial secretary indicated that the change was formal rather than of importance. of greater consequence was the steady tendency of the colonial office to negative any intervention in dominion inter- nal affairs; thus, in 1920, the secretary of state declined to disallow certain legislation of queensland which was alleged by landholders, both in the state and in the united kingdom, to be confiscatory. the governors of the australian states were en- couraged to assimilate their relations with ministers to those of the crown with the british government. on the other hand, the paramount character of imperial legislation was reasserted in the act of 1922 sanctioning the constitution of the irish free state. efforts made by canada and the irish free state to secure the removal of the limitation of the effect of dominion legislation, save where expressly authorised by imperial acts, to the terri- torial limits of the dominions, had not succeeded in securing imperial legislation by 1925. appeals to the privy council—the objections raised by the irish free state to a continuation of the power of the judicial committee of the privy council to grant leave to appeal from decisions of irish courts under the new regime of dominion status were overruled to the extent that it was provided that con- stitutional issues must be lable to appeal at the discretion of the committee while it was left to the free state to prevent appeals in other cases if it thought fit. the question of restricting ap- peals from canada to the privy council, though frequently debated in the dominion, did not lead to any action, owing in part to the insistence by quebec on the maintenance of the exist- ing practice as a safeguard of her rights. proposals for the merger of the house of lords with the judicial committee in a single court of appeal for the whole empire failed to arouse interest, either in england or the dominions, but increasing effect was given to the existing legislation permitting the utilisation of the services of dominion judges when in england as mem- bers of the committee, with the result of diminishing in some degree dominion objections to the decision of their cases by an external authority. dominion status for india.—the admission of india to dominion status by representation in the imperial war cabinet in 1917 and 1918 and her inclusion as an original member of the league of na- tions was based on recognition of the great services rendered by her people during the war. the anomaly of the grant of such a position in the league to a territory which cid not enjoy autonomy was less- ened by the formal announcement made in igt7 that the british govt. intended to confer on india a constitution leading up to re- empire sponsible government. this undertaking was carried into effect by the act of 1919, which became fully operative in 1921 (see india). the secretary of state for india remained responsible for the actions of the central government, and through it of the provincial governments as regards reserved subjects, but his power of control and that of the central government were drastically reduced as regards transferred subjects, with regard to which it was contem- plated that responsibility should rest with the legislatures. the complexity of the new te coupled with strong local movements in favour first of non-co-operation and later of demanding immediate responsible government in all provincial matters and defence, and in central matters other than foreign affairs, resulted in the very imper- fect operation of the scheme of dyarchy during the period. a strong movement in favour of responsible government manifested itself in ceylon. the solution of dyarchy as a transition stage adopted in india found no support, and no practicable scheme was brought forward for securing control by the legislature of the executive. it was, however, decided to increase the legislative council so as to present a large elective majority and to instruct the executive to pay due regard to its wishes, though power was reserved to obviate the possibility of a complete deadlock by authorising the governor, in case of emergency, to secure legislation by the official vote only. west indies.— representations from the west indies in favour of concessions were met by the experiment of introducing an elective element into the legislative councils of trinidad and the leeward is., while wider powers, subject to the rescrvation of authority to the governor similar to that accorded in ceylon, were bestowed on the council of jamaica. africa.—in the case of the west african colonies, which showed staunch loyalty in the struggle with germany, provision was made for increased representation, partly elective, of the people. much more serious problems arose as regards kenya colony, transformed from a protectorate by annexation in 1920. on the one hand the uropean settlers aimed at securing control of the executive as well as dominating the legislature, and received in this effort the sym- pathy of south africa. on the other hand, indian settlers, who had been encouraged to settle there when south africa was barred to them, claimed that there should be no racial discrimination, and this claim was supported by the govt. of india. finally, in 1923, a com- promise was reached, the british govt. asserting that its paramount duty was to the native population, and that this excluded any sur- render of control of the executive or the legislature, but meeting the views of the european settlers in some degree by refusing equal elec- toral rights to indians, who were granted in licu special community representation. cyprus and malte.— cyprus was annexed on nov. § 1914, imme- diately after war broke out with turkey, on the ground that it was necessary to terminate the ambiguous position of the territory which had hitherto been held by an anomalous tenure from that power. the demand for self-government in malta, which had long rendered relations between the maltese and the british govt. difficult, and had encouraged aspirations in malta for annexation to italy, was granted in 1921, when full responsible government in domestic affairs was accorded, imperial issues being reserved to the governor acting with a nominee council. rhodesta,—jn the case of southern rhodesia the obstacle to re- sponsible government was of a different kind. the british south africa (chartered) co., in whose hands the administration lay, had large landed interests as well as mining rights, while a decision of the privy council in 1918 laid it down that the amount of the adminis- trative deficits of its carlier years of administration should be re- funded from land revenues; moreover, the large native population had to be assured against exploitation. by a popular vote southern rhodesia declined to enter the union of south africa, though gener- ous financial and other terms were offered by general smuts. after financial terms had been arranged by the british govt. with the british south africa co., responsible government was conceded in 1923, but subject to special provisions requisite in the interests of the native population and of the company in respect of its railway holdings. northern rhodesia received a constitution of the usual colonial type with a legislature partly elective. while, however, southern khodesia was annexed as preliminary to the grant of re- sponsible government, northern rhodesia was left as a protectorate. the right of secession.—the grant of a distinct position in the league of nations to the dominions inevitably raised the ques- tion of the extent of their autonomy within the commonwealth. an observation of mr. bonar law, that a dominion might secede if it thought fit, was adopted by gen. hertzog and the nationalist party in south africa as justifying the avowed pur- pose of that party to seek, as an ultimate goal, the restoration of independence to the transvaal and orange free state and the creation of an independent republic. this policy was laid aside as an immediate aim as part of the conditions for the coalition of the nationalists and labour which resulted in the defeat of gen. smuts’s government in 1924,and on april 24 1925 hertzog as prime minister, declared that, while the right of secession british existed, to exercise it “ would be a flagrant mistake and a national disaster,” if it were brought about in such a way as to make either section of the people feel that secession had been imposed upon it by the other. sir robert borden, on aug. 17, while asserting that canada was free to leave the empire if she chose, emphasised the ad- vantages of the british connection as assuring greater protection, giving increased prestige and influence in the world, and yet leaving the dominion absolutely autonomous, views in accord with those repeatedly expressed by gen. smuts, save that the latter held that secession was not a right enjoyed by the do- minion§. in the controversies in ireland between the govt. of the free state and its republican adversaries the issue was dis- cussed at length without achieving any definite result, though it was pointed out that the existing constitutions of the dominions agreed in assuming the permanent union of the dominions with the united kingdom, and that no normal constitutional means existed by which that union could be dissolved. the mandated territories.—a further innovation in constitutional usage was introduced by the creation of the mandatory system (see mandates), and the allocation by the principal allied powers to the british govt. of mandates for mesopotamia, renamed ‘iraq, pales- tine, portions of togoland and the cameroons, and german east africa; to australia for german new guinea; to new zealand for western samoa: to the union of south africa for german south- west africa and to the british empire for the island of nauru. the terms of the mandates approved by the league of nations authorised the administration of togoland, the cameroons, new guinea, west- ern samoa, nauru and southwest africa as portions of the territory of the mandatory power, subject to the observation of certain prin- ciples in the interest of the natives and under obligation to report annually to the league, whose permanent commission on mandates was established to deal with such reports; authority was expressly given for the application to such territorics of the customs and immigration laws of the mandatory state. in the case of east africa, as also in those of togoland and cameroons, further restrictions were imposed. these provided for equal treatment of nationals of members of the league; the territory was given a constitution of the usual protectorate type under the style of the tanganyika territory. ‘iraq, which was at first to have been administered directly by the united kingdom, was recognised by treaties of 1922-4 as an independent kingdom, and the obligation undertaken as a mandatory power by the united kingdom was held by the council of the league to be satisfied by the acceptance of responsibility for the due carrying out of the treaties, which, how- ever, were to lapse if ‘[raq should be admitted a member of the league before their expiry by lapse of time in four years. this period, however, was extended to 25 years by the treaty of jan. 13 1926, in accordance with the recommendation of the league council of dec. 161925, for the settlement of the boundary with turkey. in the case of palestine the mandate was granted subject to the obliga- tion, voluntarily assumed by the united kingdom, of furthering the establishment of a home for the jews; efforts to carry this out re- sulted in strong resistance by the arab majority, which declined to work the constitution conferred in 1922, with the result that all executive and legislative power remained in 1925 in the hands of the representatives of the mandatory power. racial problems.—the growth of dominion autonomy and the grant of a new position to india resulted in constitutional innovation. in lieu of seeking redress for the grievances of indian subjects through the mediation of the british govt. the indian govt. entered into direct relations with the dominions in addition to pressing the issue at the conferences of 1921 and 1923. the attitude of india was to concede, though reluctantly, the right of any dominion to exclude indian immigration, provided that the method adopted was not needlessly injurious to indian sentiment, but to claim that all indians lawfully resident should be accorded full rights of citizenship and be immune from discriminations on racial grounds. some prog- ress in securing the acceptance of these principles was made as re- gards the dominions other than south africa, but the union then declined to make any concession, announcing instead the policy of applying to indians the plan of racial segregation and promoting the return or removal to india of those who had settled or been born in south africa. deep feeling was aroused in india by the attitude of the union, and the question was raised whether india could perma- nently remain associated with the union in the commonwealth if her people were denied the possibility of existence in south africa. bre_iograrny.—parl. papers and debates: sir r. l. borden, canadian constitutional studies (1922); lord bryce, modern de- mocracies (1921); h. e. egerton, british colonial policy in the twentieth century (1922); federations and unions within the british empire (2nd ed., 1924); j. a. fairlie, british war administration (1919); h. d. hall, the british commonwealth of nations (1920); a. f. hattersley, zhe colonies and impertal federation (1919); j. hight and h. d. bamford, the constitutional history and law of empire 445 new zealand (1914); sir c. p. ubert, the government of india (1922); sir c. [ibert and lord meston, the new constitution cf india (1923); a. b. keith, responsible government in the domintons (1912); imperial unity and the dominions (1916); war government of the british dominions (1921); the constitution, administration, and laws of the empire (1924); w. p. m. kennedy, the consttiution of canada (1922); d. kerr, the law of the australian constitution (1925); a. i. f. lefroy, a short treatise on canadian constitutional law (1918); sir c. lucas, the empire at war (1921); th@ partition and colonisation of africa (1922); sir f. lugard, the dual mandate in british tropical africa (1922); m. nathan, the south african commonwealth (1919); p. s. o'hegarty, the victory of sinn fein (1924); w. a. phillips, the revolution in ireland (1923); i. porritt, the evolution of the dominion of canada (1918); the fiscal and diplomatic freedom of the british oversea dominions (1922); h. robinson, the development of the british empire (1923); b. g. sapre, zhe growth of indian constitution and administration (1924); h. wrong, government of the west indies (1923); j. stoyanovsky, la theorie generale des mandats internattonuux (paris, 1925); h. w. v. temperley, <a izistory of the peace conference of parts (1920-4). (a. b. k.) ii. defence the word “ defence ” has so often been taken to imply simply the defence of jand frontiers against potentially hostile armies, that it is necessary to emphasise the point that in the british commonwealth the word has a far wider meaning, embracing questions of sea, land and air forces, of central control, of political and diplomatic issues, of finance and economics. the problem of the defence of the british commonwealth contains one outstanding factor, the need for adequate sea-power to ensure safety of communication between great britain as the centre and the various component parts of the empire, and also between those parts. to that must be added an essential demand for security, against sea, land or air forces, of great britain as the centre of organisation and effort. from the point of view of defence, treated comprehensively, the period from roro to 1925 was of outstanding importance in the history of the british empire. up to rgio, the people of the united kingdom had been able to maintain a two-power stand- ard in sea forces, thus enabling the admiralty to guarantee the security of the territory and sea-interests of the self-governing dominions, amongst which the union of south africa was in- cluded during the course of that year. the political issue-—in considering the problem of defence, it is essential to bear in mind the political issue, which necessitates drawing a distinction between the ‘‘ commonwealth of self- governing nations,” in an advanced stage of national develop- ment and the british empire proper, comprising the united king- dom, the colonics and protectorates governed therefrom, and the mandated territorics for the defence of which the people of great britain are temporarily responsible. india, an empire in itself, did not come precisely into either of these categories in 1925. the forces of the second group are controlled from great britain. those of the first group are not. another point to be noted is that the british is. no longer form, from the defence point of view, a homogeneous whole, owing to the grant of self-government to the irish free state, which controls its own defence forces. the need to take account of these points before proceeding to details is obvious. with a few exceptions, the “ over-sea ” nations of the commonwealth take no part in time of peace in the defence or policing of terri- tories beyond their own borders. this responsibility, when local resources do not suffice for the purpose, falls upon the people of england, scotland, wales and northern ireland, and, to a limited extent, upon india. three events of importance—before summarising, from the defence point of view, the period 1910-25, it is necessary to mention three outstanding events immediately preceding that period. these were the establishment (a) of the committee of impcrial defence by mr. a.j. (earl of) balfour; (5) of the general staff of the army by the late mr. h. o. arnold-forster; and (c) of the expeditionary force and territorial army by mr. r. b. (lord) haldane. through the agency of the committee of imperial defence, the principles of empire defence put forward by the general staff of 446 the army had been generally accepted by the self-governing nations. these principles can be summarised as (1) security of sea communication, (2) local provision for local defence and (3) ‘mutual support lieve local resources do not suffice for the purpose. it will be observed that, in these established and ac- ‘cepted principles, no account was taken of combined action in foreign territory in support of treaty obligations. one of these, affecting the neutrality of belgium, had been undertaken by great britain before self-government had been conferred upon the dominions, but the obligation was well known, and the dominions rose nobly to the occasion in providing sea, land and air forces, of their own free will, to support those of great britain when the frontier of belgium was crossed by the german army in 1qr4. as affecting empire defence, the outstanding events of the years 1910-4 were the reduction of the two-power standard at sea, to a standard of 60% in capital ships above germany; a warning issued to canada by the british govt. in 1912 that the possibility of sending effective sea forces to the pacific, without courting disaster in home waters, would be diminished with the growth of foreign navies; the organisation of the regular troops in the united kingdom as an expeditionary force of six infantry and one cavalry divisions, with line-of-communication troops; the development of the special reserve (late militia) to provide drafts to replace casualties in that force; and the organisation of the territorial force in 14 infantry divisions for home defence, with the option of volunteering for service abroad. during the same period, the committee of imperial defence, in its purely advisory capacity, was instrumental in carrying through a policy _ of uniformity in organisation, training, equipment and material in all the sea and land forces of the british commonwealth. through the activities of the same body a ‘‘ war-book ’’ was com- piled, to ensure combined action by all departments of state and all parts of the commonwealth in the event of a great war; an organisation was prepared to stabilise the rates of war insurance on shipping and cargoes; and a plan was worked out in detail for transporting the expeditionary force across the sea, and placing it on the left flank of the french army as rapidly as possible, should such action ever be demanded. the value of these pre- liminaries was evident in 1914. the committee of imperial defence, was (and is) a purely advisory body. no provision was made for an executive body responsible for the conduct of war, excepting a large cabinet containing 22 ministers, which proved to be too unwieldy for prompt action. after various expedients had been tried, a small “war cabinet.” was established in dec. 1916 and remained in power until normal conditions obtained after the conclusion of the conflict. the need for some such form of central control in time of war was one of the most important of the many lessons learned about imperial defence. another lesson showed the tremendous potential forces, sea, land and air, economic and financial, which the british commonwealth has at its disposal if certain conditions are satisfied; these are the inspiration of a great cause, time for development and safe sea communications. the rapid progress in aviation which resulted from the impetus of war caused a new demand for an air force of sufficient strength to make great britain secure. the post-war years——the post-war period was one of un- rest abroad and exhaustion at home, resulting in an urgent need for recuperation. events in north russia, afghanistan, ireland, mesopotamia, egypt, palestine, turkey and elsewhere threw a considerable strain upon british forces. an undertaking to provide a contingent in german occupied territory caused additional military responsibilities, which were further increased by the acceptance of mandates, for ex-german and ex-turkish territories. at the same time, economic and financial exhaustion led to the reduction, almost to cadres, of the immense sea, land and air forces employed by the british empire in the world war. meanwhile, the united states and japan, which had suf- fered comparatively little loss, embarked upon new programmes of naval construction, and the british fleet was further reduced from a 1-6 to a one-power standard. british em pire the british army was reduced below its pre-war strength, and the air force to a standard below that subsequently con- sidered as essential to the safety of the united kingdom. in 1919 the principle was laid down by the cabinet, that the strength of the british fighting forces should be based upon the assumption that war on a large scale would not occur within a period of 10 years. an outstanding event of the post-war period was the washington conference of 1921 (q.v.) at which an agreement was arrived at between the principal naval powers, great britain, the united states, france, italy and japan, to limit the total and individual tonnage of capital ships and aircraft carriers, and to take certain other measures designed to bring about the limita- tion of sea armaments. a later event of importance was the con- ference of empire prime ministers held in london in 1923, at which conclusions were agreed upon that the territories and trade of the several countries of the empire must be adequately de- fended, each parliament deciding for itself what its government should do. also that the guiding principles, affecting the general defence problem, should be (ua) the provision of naval bases to ensure the mobility of sea forces, (b) equality with the naval strength of any foreigh power (the one-power standard) and (c) a common system of air force organisation. finally, and most important of all, came the locarno pact in 1925. (see locarno.) looked at from the point of view of british empire defence, they can be described as greatly increas- ing the military commitments of great britain (the other self- governing nations of the empire are not parties to them) in the event of another franco-german war, whichever side might be the aggressor, but at the same time introducing a new spirit in international relationship, which should make such an event much less probable. a comparison comparing the situation in 1926 with that in 1910, the most important points to be noted were the reduction in strength of the british navy, compared with those of other nations; a reduction in the strength of the regular army and the abolition of its special reserve; the establishment of the terri- torial army on new principles, rendering it available for over- seas service in grave emergencies; and the establishment of an air force, which was being worked up to a one-power standard. at the same time, it was necessary to take note of additional mili- tary commitments in europe, involved by the locarno treaties, and in ex-turkish and ex-german territories in asia and africa under mandates resulting from the peace treaties, and the establishment of the league of nations. upon the people of great britain fell the main burden of empire defence which in- volved the safeguarding of much foreign territory, besides that of the british empire proper. biiblliiography.—‘‘nations of to-day,” great britain, vol. 2 (1923); sir g. g. aston, the problem of defence (1925); correspondence between british and dominion governments on defence afatiers (stationery office, london.) (g. g. a.) ii. area and population the world war resulted in a considerable addition to the area of the british empire. the greater part of the overseas posses- sions of germany were conqucred by british troops, and by the treaty of versailles were retained by the british under mandate from the league of nations. these mandated territorics to- gether cover over 950,000 sq. m. and contain more than 9,000,- coo inhabitants. in 1914, cyprus was annexed and egypt declared a british protectorate, thus adding these areas to the empire, but in 1922 the protectorate over egypt was terminated. in 1924, an area of about 34,000 sq. m. bordering italian somali- land was ceded to italy. the total area of the empire (1926) approached 13,350,000 sq. m., containing about 450,000,000 inhabitants. this total includes the mandated territories. the following table shows the area and population of each part of the empire. the figures are mainly based on the statistical abstract for the several british oversea dominions and protector- atcs in each year from 1907 to 1921 (1924), which should be con- sulted for explanatory details. population statistics in general are for i921:— british empire area and population of the various paris of the british empire area. sq. m. europe en) england . 50,874 wales 7,466 scotland : 30,405 ireland, northern 5,263 man, isle of . 227 channel islands . 795 irish free state 26,592 gibraltar 2 malta 122 cyprus... 3,584 he america anada . . ,729,665 newfoundland : : oe ee labrador ¢ ; : : : 120,000 central and south america west indies... wk, 12,482 bermuda : ‘ ; : 19 falkland islands . ; ae 7,500 guiana, british 2 -@ 89,480 honduras, british nr er 8,598 africa south africa, union of 473,096 swaziland : 6,678 basutoland 11,716 bechuanaland : ; ‘ 275,000 rhodesia, southern. : : 148,575 rhodesia, northern . . 291,000 nyasaland ... : a +3 39,467 uganda . 110,300 kenya 211,060 zanzibar . 1,020 somaliland . ‘ 68,000 sudan. yi ‘ p ; 1,014,600 st. helena. 5 ‘ - , a7 oe a ee igeria . - bs we 36,778 gold coast . . .. oo bs6 sierra leone : : : 30,000 gamblas- <: 4° 2 «© + 4,010 mauritius : 809 seychelles .. 156 a sia india , 1,805,252 ceylon . ; i 25,481 aden (and perim) ; 80 socotra . : . ; ‘ . 1,382 straits settlements 1,600 malay states, l’ederated 27,648 malay states, unfederated 23,355 brunei . ; 2 : : 4,000 borneo, british north , ‘ 31,106 sarawak 5 = = £® & 42,000 hong kong . ' ‘ , ‘ 391 weihaiwel . 2. « « ¢ 285 oceania australia . . . . . 2,974,581 new zealand ery papua 90,540 fiji : ae - 7435 gilbert and ellice is. . 180 solomon islands . 14,800 tonga islands 390 total 12,389,874 league of nations:— mandatory power area camcroons, british 31,000 ‘iraq. : 116,511 palestine . . united kingdom 9,000 tanganyika 373,494 togo, british . 13,040 south-west africa . south africa 322,000 new guinea . austraha 91,000 western samoa . new zealand 1,260 nauru . british empire 8 potg- ks. ge or. ce mk 937,313 grand total . : : : ‘ population 35,678,530 2,206,712 4,882,288 1,284,000 60,238 89,614 3,165,000 18,061 212,258 310,469 8,788,483 259,259 3:774 1,728,735 20,127 3,431 297,691 45,317 6,928,580 106,961 498,781 152,983 899,187 983,539 1,201,983 2,921,608 2,529,133 197,000 347,000 4,853,000 3,666 250 18,070,608 2,110,474 1,541,311 210,530 384,879 24,523 318,885,980 4,498,605 56,500 12,000 883.769 1,324,890 1,123,944 25,451 257,804 600,000 625,166 154,662 5:435:734 1,218,913 275,000 157,266 29,897 150,516 24,935 438,761,015 the following areas are administered under mandate from the population 632,309 2,849,282 761,796 4,123,493 187,939 227,739 254,000 37,157 2,166 9,075,881 13,347,187 447,836,896 (w. h. w1.) 447 iv. finance the most important inter-imperial financial problems are those of debt and currency. in 1900, when mr. joseph chamber- lain was secretary of state for the colonies, the colonial stock act was passed, under which the british dominions, on agreeing to certain conditions, were enabled to borrow under the trustee act, 1893, and their loans became trustee securities in great britain. the dominions were thus placed on equal terms with the british govt. and other high-class british borrowers and india in so far as eligibility of appeal to the general body of in- vestors in great britain was concerned. just before the world war the funded debts of the dominions were as follows:— borrowed in raised london internally canada : ; ' ‘ : 60,000,000 143,000,000 australia (commonwealth and states) ; ; : 230,000,000 104,000,000 new zealand 78,000,000 16,000,000 south africa il1,000,000 14,000,000 total oe 4? = 4 479,000,000 277,000,000 the following figures (1924 for south africa, 1925 for the other dominions) show how the total funded debt increased, largely on account of the world war. . borrowed borrowed ce ri raised , internall london new york . y canada . : 62,000,000 | 60,000,000 | 380,000,000 australia (common- wealth and states) . | 481,000,000 537,000,000 4,000,000 new zealand a south africa total 118,000,000 133,000,000 101,000,000 74,000,000 64,000,000 | 1,095,000,000 794,000,000 after 1914, the proportion of the funded debt raised internally greatly increased in each dominion. for canada, practically no further loans were raised in london, and in dec. 1925 her debt payable in new york was almost equal to that payable in london. currency conditions.—within the british empire there is an absence of uniformity in the conditions under which the gold standard is supposed to operate. for the gold standard to be fully effective two conditions are necessary:—(a) that there should be no obstacle to the free flow of gold between the countries adopting the gold standard; and (4) that the external movement of gold should produce like results on currency and credit in the internal economy of the respective countries. any deviation tends to throw the gold standard out of balance (see currency; exciiange). in england, under the gold standard act, 1925, both bank of england notes and currency notes were made convertible into gold bullion in bars of 400 oz. troy of fine gokl, and the embargo on the export of gold was removed. in canada, although sovereigns taken at par are legal tender, and there is a branch of the royal mint at ottawa, the unit of account is the dollar, and the currency almost wholly consists of dominion notes, issued by the govt., and notes issued by the chartered banks, both of which are legal tender. in,1925 gold could only be exported under licence (see canada). in australia, there are branches of the royal mint at melbourne and perth, where sovercigns are coined. these are held by the banks in their cash reserves but are not put into circulation, the currency consists of notes issued by the commonwealth bank, which func- tions both as a central and as a commercial bank. the notes are legally convertible, but, in practice, convertibility is not enforced. there is no embargo on the export of gold. the commonwealth bank act, 1924, provides that: ‘‘ the board may issue australian notes to the bank or to other banks in australia in exchange for money or securities lodged with the london branch of the bank.” it lies with the commonwealth bank, however, to determine to what extent this facility should be made available (see australia). in new zealand, bank-notes constitute the currency. they are issued by the two new zealand and the four australian banks which conduct the banking business of the dominion. notes can be issued against a reserve of one-third in gold and two-thirds in securities of the new zealand, british and australian (commonwealth and state) governments. while the gold has to be held in new zealand, 448 the securitics may be held either in new zealand or, on complying with certain conditions, in london or australia. although the embargo on the export of gold was removed in 1925, the notes are inconvertible (see new zealand), south africa, as the largest producer of gold, not only in the british empire but in the world, occupies a unique position. a branch of the royal mint has been established in pretoria, and not only are sovereigns coined there but they are put into circulation. the notes of the south african reserve bank, which functions as a central bank, are also freely convertible into gold coin. the action of south africa in encouraging the use of gold as a circulating medium can perhaps be appreciated from the standpoint of the largest gold producer, but it is not economical and therefore tends to make eng- land’s task of maintaining the gold standard harder. the egyptian system.—although the protectorate over egypt was terminated in 1922, the currency system, as modified during the world war, was retained and still served the sudan. the currency, which before the war was partly gold, consists of notes of the national bank of egypt. during the war the notes ceased to be convertible into gold and, for practical purposes, became convertible into sterling. by arrangement with the fgyptian govt. british treasury bills are held in place of gold. the par of exchange is at the rate of {e973 for {100 sterling, and at this rate the national bank of egypt, which has an office in london, is prepared to give the banks egyptian currency in egypt against sterling paid in by them in london; and, conversely, to receive, also at the same rate, egyptian currency and pay out sterling in london—advice being sent by cable both ways. thus parity of exchange with london has been absolutely maintained throughout the whole period, notwith- standing heavy movements in both the volume of currency and the trade balance (see egypt). empire currency bills—the success which attended the egyptian system led to proposals for the adoption of the principle throughout the empire. on the initiative of the new zealand govt., a scheme for an issue of empire currency bills was placed before the imperial economic conference held in 1923 and sub- mitted to a committee on inter-imperial exchanges. the scheme provided for a composite issue of treasury bills, limited in amount, in which each of the participating countries in the empire would have a share. the bills, which were to be given the utmost degree of negotiability and mobility throughout the empire were to be used as a basis for currency, and as interest-bearing reserves by the banks. the scheme was rejected, partly because of the ‘“ joint and several ”’ nature of the liability. further, an early restoration of the gold standard, which it was thought would provide an automatic remedy, was contemplated. a sup- plementing and correlative scheme for an empire gold pool has also been suggested in order to secure economies in the use of gold throughout the empire. (fe da.) v. trade and commerce after the world war there was a marked increase of interest in empire trade in great britain and also in all the countries that comprise the british empire. the evidence of trade statis- tics as to the increasing importance of empire purchases to british manufactures led to a widespread adoption of the vicw that if great britain was to maintain her pre-war leadership in world economic affairs, she must adopt some method of organis- ing the production and marketing of empire foodstuffs and raw materials, with a view to ensuring (1) her own supplies and (2) a continuous redistribution of population throughout the em- pire, made possible by an assured demand for empire products in the british market. if the combined effect of geographical and social conditions upon trade are considered, the countries making up the british empire can be classified into six economic groups:— 1. the british is., which exercises economic influence over all empire countries in varying degrees. 2. canada, newfoundland, the west indies and british guiana. this may be called the american group because it falls directly with- in the economic orbit of the united states of america. 3and 4. west and east african colonies. the conditions govern- ing production, commerce and transport in west, east and south africa are so different that separate grouping is necessary. 5. india, ceylon, malaya and the strait settlements. 6. the three great southern dominions—australia, new zealand and south africa. south africa, on account of its similarity in econoniic and political conditions with those of australia and new zealand, falls more naturally into this group than into either of the african groups. british empire trade of great britain with the empire —great britain is the nerve centre of political, banking and business activity, and the most important part of empire trace is the trade of great britain with other empire countries. the following table shows the empire share of british exports, pre-war and post-war:— tables | year total to empire 1904-13! 408,439,504 141,934,405 34°75 1922 719,507,410 270,201,638 ‘37°5 1923 797,257,771 300,602,626 39°27 1924 795,364,581 332,536,252 41-8? t annual average. 2 tt should be noted that this percentage does not take into account the territorial alteration in the british empire as between pre-war and post-war years; especially should it be noted that without exports to the irish free state, these percentage figures would be 37°2°% and 38-5 °%, respectively. it must not be forgotten, however, that while these figures indicate the proportion of british exports taken by the empire, they do not, as a result of the rise in the price [evel between pre- war and post- war years, show the actual volume of trade. table ii. gives the british cpa figures far 1904-13, and for 1922-3-4 reduced to the 1913 price evel, ‘table-h, total - to empire £ £ % 1904-13 408,439,504 141,934,405 34° 1922 361,836,000 143,287,000 39°8 404,404,000 158,526,000 39:2 420,582,000 174,962,000 41-8 the importance of the empire as a market for the different categories of british exports varies greatly. in 1913 the empire share of british exports under the head of food, drink and tobacco was 39°% and in 1924 54°5%%. coal is the most impor- tant raw material exported from great britain, but the empire took in 1924 only 8-5%% of the total value of £72,000,000. bnit- ain’s exports of “articles mainly or wholly manufactured ” amounted in 1924 to £618,000,000, out of a total export of {800,- 000,000, and the empire share in this year was 46%, a rise of 4% on the 1913 share. it is estimated that the empire provides a market for not less than 50°6 of great britain’s completely fin- ished manufactured exports. the importance of empire markets to british manufactures is clearly realised when the proportion of manufactures in the total british exports to empire and foreign countries is con- trasted. this is done in the following table for 1924. table iii. tb a. i] rae india 95-0 germany . 57°6 canada $2°5 laat. . 78-0 australia 93°5 france : ; . 48-0 new zealand . 87°5 italy . 42-0 south africa qi°5 of great britain’s total imports for the annual average 1911-3 the empire supplied 21% and for the annual average 1922-4 (the irish free state being excluded) the empire supplied 30:7%. table iv. gives the empire share of the actual volume of british imports on the same basis as table ii. (i.e., reducing post-war figures to the 1913 price level). table iv. total empire £ £ 6 1913 659,168,000 135,356,000 20°5 1922 570,073,000 180,713,000 31-6 1923 641,691,000 189,940,000 29°'5 i924... 719,503,000 218,729,000 30°4 the development of primary production in empire countries is clearly reflected in the british import returns. in 1913, the em- pire supplied 25-8 °% of british imports of food, drink and tobacco british and in 1924 382°. foodstuffs are the largest item of imports, valued in 1924 to £571,000,000. britain’s requirements of raw materials were met by the empire in 1913 to the extent of 25% of the total, and in 1924 to the extent of 32-59%. the share of the empire in british imports of wholly or partly manufactured goods is small. in 1913, it was 6-6% and in 1924 11-5 %, and even this small proportion consisted in the main of semi-manu- factured metals—the raw material of many british industries. these figures indicate the non-competitive or complementary nature of british trade with the empire. therelative importance of empire supplies of certain essential foodstuffs and raw ma- terials is shown by the following figures:— empire share of imports in imported article 1924 wheat and flour... . @ @ « - .- §3:0 beef . : . : ; : f ; ; : g:2 mutton . ‘ : : : : : . ; f 60:5 butter ; e , ; : ‘ g , 42-4 fruit (fresh, dried and canned) . : : : 22-3 wool : : . : : : : ; : : 80°5 hides and skins. . , , . ; 2 , 46-6 before considering the trade of the overseas groups, it is neces- sary to mention the new commercial position of the irish free state. from april 1 1923 southern ireland became an inde-~ pendent economic unit. in 1924 69°3% of her total imports, valued at £66,000,000, were of british origin and 84% of her total exports, valued at £48,000,000, went to great britain. in that year the irish free state was the fifth most important mar-~- ket for british goods. direct irish trade with parts of the em- pire other than great britain is negligible. canada, newfoundland, etc—the american group, in which canada takes the leadership, is in some instances less affected by the inter-|mperial aspect of trade than the other groups in the empire, this is the inevitable result of the immense economic influence of the united states of america. canadian trade: annual averages 1922-4 (year ending march 31) (o00’s omitted) 1911-3 (o00's omitted) % of 9 of exports $ total $ total total exports ~ + | 306,765 905,611 be exports to great brit- ain, ' : ; 149,853 48-8 | 346,174 38-2 exports to empire? . 168,130 | 55-0 | 407,312 | 45:0 imports total imports : 548,778 = 814,583 re imports from great britain : ‘ 121,861 22:0 | 137,359 16:9 imports from empire! 143,330 174,711 “f 1 [including great britain, though great britain's share of canadian imports as between 1911-3 and_1922-4 fell from 22 % to 16-9 “o, her share rose to 19 colt 1924-5.! the united states is naturally canada's chief source of supply. canada’s export trade showed a remarkable increase as between 1911-3 and 1922-4. taking the figures for the latter period on the basis of 1913 price levels, the increase amounted to over 60%. in june 1920 a reciprocal trade arrangement was entered into with the west indies, and in 1925 this agreement was enlarged. it seems probable that the mutual tariff advantages so arranged will lead to canada becoming the chief source of supply of manufactures and foodstuffs to the west indies and a valuable market for their tropical products, chiefly sugar and bananas. although the trade between great britain and the west indies is the oldest established branch of empire trade, it is severely handicapped by the lack of adequate shipping services. the import trade of newfoundland is greatly affected by the united states, whose share of her imports in 1924 amounted to 31% of the total as against canada’s share of 41-6% and great britain's share of 22-6°. the british share of newfoundland exports in this same year was 38-6°%, of the total. newfoundland exports a_ limited range of products, the most important of which are dried fish, cod liver oil and paper pulp. 1 preliminary report on the trade of canada, published by the authority of canadian minister of trade and commerce. empire 449 west african group.—the west african group is composed of the following colonies and protectorates: gambia, sierra leone, gold coast (which includes british togoland) and nigeria (which in- cludes british cameroons). the typical west african exports are palm kernels and palm oil, which, in the case of nigeria, represent over 60% of the total value of the exports. the actual proportion of british imports and exports which arrived from and were sent to west africa greatly increased after 1910. this fact is mainly due to the general increase of prosperity in west africa and to the accession of certain parts of german west africa. the total value of the trade with great britain amounted for the annual average of 1922-4 to £22,000,000. the inter-fmperial trade of west africa, apart from that with great britain, mainly consists of trade between the several west african colonies. foreign trade plays a relatively small part in west african economic life. fast africa.—though the area of british east africa (which in- cludes kenya, uganda, tanganyika territory, nyasaland and zanzibar) is twice as large as that of west africa, the volume of fast african trade is only about two-thirds of that of west africa. the bulk of british east african trade is with kenya and uganda. a significant feature of the post-war trade of east africa was the immense increase of exports going to india. the indian share of the exports of kenya and uganda in 1911-3 was 4:2 %, and in 1922 had risen to 36-8°%. the imports from india, on the other hand, had fallen slightly from a pre-war share of 19-5 °; to a post-war share of 15° of the total imports into these two colonies. uganda is becom- ing of increasing importance to the empire as a supplier of cotton. her cotton exports have increased from 25,000,000 |b. in 1922 to 51,500,000 lh. in 1924: the value of this item of export accounted in the latter year for 56-8 %, of the total exports of kenya and uganda. in 1924 kenya coffce represented 29 °, of total supplies sent to great britain and 80° of empire-grown supplies. the sudan, which is of rapidly growing importance as a source of cotton, may also be included in this group. indian group.— \ndia is the largest market in the world for british goods. therefore the indian group is economically the most impor- tant [ee of the empire to great britain. the following table shows the share of great britain in indian imports for the annual average 1911-3 and 1922-4:— indian trade: annual averages 1911-3 (year ending march 31) (000's omitted) 1922-4 (year ending march 31) (o00's omitted) re) | total imports | f total imports 163,164 107,293 from great 67,883 74,623 157,193 39,032 62,839 imports britain imports from empire! exports total exports exports to great brit- ain. ; ; ixports to empire! 93,496 104,730 238,342 56,248 90,093 1 including great britain. the extremely close trade connection established between india and the home country is thrown into relief if great britain’s share of the imports of another large far east market—-china—is noted. in 1924, britain’s share of chinese imports amounted to only 12% of the total as compared with 57:5 °%> in the case of india. the dis- proportion between the empire percentage of indian imports and exports should be noted. indian exports to empire countries other than great britain are marked by a large trade in jute goods to australia and new zealand, and by a more general trade with mauritius and the straits settlements. malaya has developed a great export trade in rubber and tin, and is one of the largest export- ing countries per head of her population in the world. australian trade: annual averages iqlti-~3 (000s omitted) 1922-4 10 1923-4 (9000's omitted) of of total £ a 136,188 %> of imports £ total total imports. : 74,958 imports from great britain 37,729 imports from empire! 46,249 exports total exports 79,033 33,841 47,898 66,000 $2,572 118,678 exports to great brit- ain 48,741 63,269 exports to empire! 1—including great britain. 450 southern group.—while the majority of the empire countries showed an increased share of british exports, the most marked in- stance was that of australia, whose share rose from 6-56 % in 1913 to 8-25 % in the year ending sept. 30 1925. australia’s trade with empire countries, apart from her total trade with great britain, amounted to approximately one-eighth of the total. on the assump- tion that prices had increased by about 50% over the pre-war price level, the volume of australian imports for the annual averages taken showed a considerable increase and the exports a slight decrease. the chief australian exports are wool and wheat. the australian wool exports are of the greatest importance to empire trade, as they represented in 1924 37 % of great britain's total imports of wool. of the three great southern dominions, new zealand, though the volume of her trade is not so great as that of either australia or south africa, maintains the closest touch with the trade of great britain and the other empire countries. new zealand trade: annual averages 1922-4 (000’s omitted) iqii-3 {0900's omitted) % of °7 of imports 3 ps total £ total total imports ; 20,933 ae 42,306 es imports from great britain . 12,533 60:0 22,774 54:0 imports from empire! 17,306 82-8 33,303 78-8 exports . | total exports . : 21,261 47,102 exports to great brit- ain, : 16,708 79:0 38,505 81-9 _. exports to empire! 19,956 42,287 ‘9 1 including great britain. the figures of total trade given above indicate that, even allowing for the rise in price level, new zealand's volume of trade within the empire has increased since the immediate pre-war years. official estimates give the increase in the 1923 exports to the empire as being 33°5 % above the 1913 level. a large proportion of new zea- land’s inter-empire trade consists of exchange and transit trade with australia. new zealand is predominant in the empire as a supplier of butter, mutton and lamb to the british market. in 1913, her exports of butter amounted to 5% of british imports; and in 1924 amounted to 20%. , in the same two years new zealand mutton and lamb represented 46-6 % and 53% respectively of british sup-- plies from overseas, south africa is alone among the dominions in showing a slight decrease in her share of british exports and imports since the war in comparison with 1911-3. on the other hand, deducting the british share of south african imports and exports, the total trade of empire countries with south africa increased from approximately one-fifth in i911~3 to one-quarter in 1922-4. south african trade: annual averages iqili-3 1922-4 (000’s omitted) (000s omitted) % of total z “. 95:497 28,892 35:25! 73,513 94,013 61,076 imports £ total imports 38,129 imports from great 21,754 britain ; ; imports from empire . 25;737 63,190 ' exports total exports ; exports to great brit- ain ; a a 57,956 exports to empire 58,396 in the general distribution of imports and exports there was little change. in the immediate post-war years, the united states of america and japan made serious inroads into many empire markets, but by 1923 british trade had largely regained the lost ground. the special importance of empire trade to the dominions and india is shown by the fact that in every case, except canada, about 50% or over of the total is carried on with- in the empire. new zealand had, in 1924, an empire trade of 84°5%, south africa 75%, australia 57% and india 49%. canada’s trade with the empire amounted to 33-:8% of her total. as to the actual volume of inter-imperial trade—apart from its distribution—statistics indicate that the self-governing domin- ions and india suffered from the general depression following the world war. in most cases there was an actual loss of pur- chasing power and, except in the case of new zealand and canada, exports also declined. british em pire brplrograruy.—j. h. schooling, the british trade year book (1908 annual); sir w. j. ashley, the present commercial and indus- trial conditions (1911); g. drage, the imperial organisation of trade (1911); a. p. newton, the staple trade of the empire (1917); sir w. j. ashley, the tariff problem (ard ed., 1920); sir c. macleod and a. w. kirkaldy, trade, commerce, and shipping of the empire (1924); f. l. macdougall, sheltered markets (1925); sir j. r. seeley, the expansion of england (1925); sce also report of imperial eco- nomic conference (cmd. 2009 of 1924); statistical abstract for the several british oversea dominions and protectorates in each year from 1907-1921 (cmd. 2247 of 1924); reports of the imperial economic commutiee (cmd. 2493 and 2499 of 1925); survey of overseas market (stationery office, 1925); annual statement of trade of the united kingdom with foreign countries and british eee lm) feli vi. communications the first line of communication of the empire is by sea. until the outbreak of the world war the great majority of the ships serving empire ports were owned by companies operating from the british is.; but during the war and immediate post-war periods, the dominions, notably canada and australia, de- veloped mercantile marines which largely operate on empire routes. about 400,000 gross tons of shipping engaged in over- seas trade were actually owned .by these dominion govts. in 1925, but whilst they assisted trade development they were also a cause of substantial losses. these government-owned fleets had at first an advantage in immunity from taxation, but at the imperial conference of 1923 it was agreed that liability to taxation should be the same as for privately owned vessels. liner routes steadily increased after 1910, and in 1925 there were 560 such routes from the british isles. not all were em- pire routes, but there was at least one and frequently more than one hner route connecting great britain with each of the do- minions and colonies, whilst there was a marked development in the organisation of lines working directly between the over- seas dominions. an effect of this was to give greater stability to freight rates, but also to make them less flexible. sea carriage remained the cheapest form of transport. in 1925 it cost only id. to bring 1 lb. of meat from australia to great britain; }d. per quarter for wheat from canada or 3d. from australia and 5d.. per lb. for rice from rangoon. freights are, however, subject to considerable variation, due to changes in the balance of cargoes on the routes at different times and seasons. the serious drop in coal exports from great britain during the post-war period caused british shipping to be less remunerative, and kept up freights for the carriage of raw products to great britain. the australian trade is, from a ship- ping standpoint, unusually well balanced. the worst balanced route is that across the atlantic to canada and newfoundland, for the united kingdom exports to canada and newfoundland mainly manufactured goods, occupying moderate cargo space in relation to their value, and imports grain, timber, pulp, flour and other comparatively bulky goods. a notable development, particularly after the war, was the growth of direct trade of the dominions or colonies with one another. the imperial shipping committee, founded in 1920, materially assisted in the co- ordination and standardisation of practice within the empire. with the growth in the size of ships—british ships of 8,000 tons and upwards increased from 214 at the end of 1913 to 395 at the end of 1925'—the need for deep water ports and for dock equipment which would provide for a rapid turn round of the ship was emphasised. the outcome was a marked tendency for the traffic to pass through a limited number of ports. though the board of trade publish returns for over roo ports in great britain, the bulk of the traffic passes through 14 or 15 of them, while london and liverpool together handle over 50% of the total. taken as a whole, the empire is well provided with ports with a depth of water of 35 ft. upwards, or with ports which can readily be deepened as soon as the necessity arises. the tend- ency, however, has been to develop a large number of ports, and this often compels ships to call at several to insure a full cargo. new zealand perhaps suffers from this more than any other part of the empire, which accounts for freights being relatively high. 1 lloyds’ register (1926). british isles—broadcasting railways.—the railway systems of the various parts of the empire differ very much in their adequacy. the plan of transferring the railways to a state company, or to have a railway budget independent of the national budget, was suggested. the union of south africa led the way, whilst canada followed suit in 1917, when the canadian national railways co. was created; and india in 1925, when the recommendations of the acworth commission of that year were adopted. these changes should make for a more even development of railways in the dominions, with material advantages to trade. lack of standardisation scriously hindered the development of rail- way communications in australia, each state having chosen its own railway gauge irrespective of that of neighbouring states. in the crown colonies, the prospect of improving the supply of raw mate- rials produced within the empire depends largely upon railway development. air and wireless services —in speeding up transport, the biggest prospect comes from the development of air transport. in 1925 its possibilities were limited, particularly by the difficulties of night flying. for communication with great britain, its uses were restrict- ed to the carrying of passengers or mails for a terminal stage of the journey. day, for instance, might be gained on the indian mail use of the aeroplane service to paris and marseilles, and a saving af 15 days made by the air service from cairo to baghdad for the london mails. if airship services should develop, the times necessary for mails to reach the east or australia would be cut about two- thirds. in 1925 the only direct wireless service of an empire char- acter was that between the united kingdom and canada, which had been in existence since 1907, though a limited service with india was maintained by way of egypt. the first suggestion for an empire wireless scheme was made in 1911, and had it not been for the war this would probably have been put into operation. afterwards a question arose whether the marconi co. or the government should carry out the scheme in great britain. eventually a decision in favour of the post office ownership and operation was reached, though the marconi co. was employed for the construction of the high power station at hillmorton near rugby, which was opened on jan. 30 1926. thisstation is used for broadcasting the government bulletin and other purposes, but is no longer part of the general imperial scheme, now carried out on the short-wave beam system. bibliography.—a, j. sargent, seaways of the empire (1918); l. c. a. knowles, economic development of the british overseas empire (1924); see also reports of dominions royal commission, interim report 1912-17, final report (cd. 8462, 1917); reports of imperial economic conferences and imperial shipping commitiee (1921, etc.); report on railways, harbours, docks, shipping, by wa ce st. home, dominion, and colonial governments. 5) british isles: see great britain; ireland; scotland; wales; etc. british legion.—in 1021 there existed in great britain four national organisations of ex-service men, namely the comrades of the great war, the national association of dis- charged sailors and soldiers, the national federation of dis- charged and demobilised sailors and soldiers and the officers’ association. these had all come into being owing to the world war and in 1921 they united, forming the british legion, which thus became the one national organisation of ex-service men throughout the country. in 1925 the legion was incorporated by royal charter. the policy of the legion is entirely non-political and non- sectarian. in the words of its charter— the legion shall exist to perpetuate in the civil life of the empire and of the world the principles for which the nation stood in the great war; to inculcate a sense of loyalty to the crown, community, state and nation; to promote unity amongst all classes: to make right the master of might; to secure peace and good will on earth; to safeguard and transmit to posterity the principles of justice, freedom and democracy, and to consecrate and sanctify our com- radeship by our devotion to mutual service and helpfulness. practically speaking, any person, man or woman, who is a british or naturalised british subject, who subscribes to the above principles and who has served at least seven days with h.m.f. or forces allied to the latter in the world war (except in the case of conscientious objectors) is eligible to apply for membership. the legion assists all its members with advice, financially in many cases, as regards to unemployment and sickness and in many other ways. it makes special appeals, the best known of which is that made on “ poppy day.” its headquarters are at 26, eccleston square, london, $.w. for administrative pur- poses england, ireland and wales are divided into 13 areas in which there are 2,626 branches, and in addition to these there are 36 overseas branches. branches are also being established over- 451 seas outside the empire. the total membership of the legion is over 1,750,000. (j. loco) brno: sce brunn. broadcasting, as distinguished from wireless telegraphy and telephony, may be said to have come into being about 1920. it may be defined as the systematic diffusion by radio telephony of programmes of music and speech and other sounds for the entertainment, information and interest of all who are equipped with appropriate receiving apparatus. further, the word “ ap- propriate’? must be understood in this connection as applying not only to technical suitability but also to qualities, such as cheapness and ease of management, which render the apparatus available for the greatest possible number of persons; and cor- respondingly, the rele of broadcasting (in the executive aspect of the word) is to reach the greatest possible number of people with suitable programmes. development in the unitcd states—as it was in the united states, prosperous and relatively unstrained by the war, that broadcasting arose, the principal causes must be sought in the growing dislike of farmers and country-people for the old, self- centred isolation, and the almost universal interests of modern youth in practical science. the monotony of working hours, since machinery has replaced handicraft, has probably accen- tuated the need for variety and interest to fill leisure hours. the demand first became effective in the united states, and the measures taken to cope with it were typical of the country and the time. it is a cardinal maxim of american life that indi- vidual enterprise should be subject to almost no governmental control; and, further, advertisement on the grand scale is cus- tomary and acceptable in america to an extent that is unknown in europe. it accorded perfectly then with the american out- look, that the possibilities of wireless broadcasting should be grasped promptly and exploited daringly for ‘‘ boosting ” ideas or products. consequently stations sprang up by hundreds, (mostly of very low power) to subserve all kinds of interests in serving all kinds of demands, such as police-notices, the propa- ganda of sects and movements, advertisement, music, education, frankly trivial entertainments, market prices, news, etc. by aug. 1924, 1,105 stations had been licensed in the united states, of which, only 533 were surviving in 1926, and it is certainly arguable that the movement began by overshooting the mark. the present tendency to which the indications point, is toward consolidation for better service (in point both of utility and of entertainment) and toward an economically sounder radio in- dustry. experience has taught—and not in the united states only—that broadcasting, unlike “ listening,” is both an expen- sive and an exclusive service, requiring for its activity (@) finan- cial stability, (6) co-ordination of effort and resources for the equalisation of service as between town and country, (c) an appreciation of artistic and cultural needs and of ways of bal- ancing these with public demands, and lastly (d) the elimination or minimising of mutual interference between stations, which is more and more difficult in proportion to the number attempting to operate in the narrow “ wave-band ” (range of wave-lengths) that the other wireless services can be induced to leave vacant for broadcasting. development in europe.-—the broadcasting movement, when it crossed the atlantic, found europe impoverished and war- weary. yet, so prompt and general was its popularity that we must conclude that other forces, besides those which had stimu- lated broadcasting in america, were at work. after nearly five years in which strain and the sense of insecurity had found occa- sional relief in somewhat hectic pleasure-seeking, it was an op- portune moment for the appearance of a form of pleasure which could be enjoyed at home, naturally and without effort, as well as cheaply. nor was the need one of pleasure only. the war had had a widening effect on the average man’s outlook—and in this con- nection it is worth noticing that the two european nations whose citizens fought entirely abroad, namely the british and the german, are precisely those which have welcomed and developed broadcasting most whole-heartedly. lastly, in the state of high 452 hope that followed the armistice and the foundation of the league of nations, the peoples, partially at any rate, shook off narrower prepossessions. in short, post-war europe asked for something which both combined ease with pleasure, and recon- ciled broadened interests and outlook with domesticity, and this exactly was what wireless broadcasting offered. from 1920 onward, amateur wireless experimenters, who were numerous even before the war, worked more and more in teleph- ony in preference to morse telegraphy, and in england and sev- eral other european countries (see below) broadcasting began spontaneously with transmissions of gramophone records and amateur performances. at the same time the radio industry began to foresee and prepare for a future of evidently great but unknown possibilities. experimental work was undertaken for the improvement of microphones, and for the development of listening apparatus which could be operated with a minimum of technical knowledge. and presently arrangements began to be made (in some cases under difficulties due to the claims of vested interests) for the regular transmission of programmes. thus, an innovation, comparable in cultural importance to the introduction of printing, was launched tentatively upon a respon- sive europe, before either the financial organisation of broad- casting services or their relations with the theatre, the musical profession, the press or the wireless industry had been properly settled, and while the conditions for good broadcasts were un- explored. nor at that time—in advance of experience—could it be seen to what extent existing wireless services would be affected by, or would interfere with, broadcast telephony. prob- lems were in short largely left to the future, and the nations of europe pushed on with the organisation of regular broadcasting services so fast that already by the end of 1924 not merely national, but international, regulation was becoming urgently necessary. by dec. 1925 there were over 90 broadcasting stations in europe operating on wave lengths between 300 and 600 metres. in the hope of remedying this “ overcrowding of the ether” an international union of broadcasting companies, with its seat at geneva, was formed in april 1925, on the initiative of the british broadcasting co., but the functions of this body are at present limited to negotiating reciprocal concessions (technical and other) amongst members and making collective representations to the different national governments. nevertheless, nationally at any rate, organisation and practice are now sufficiently sta- bilised for a general account of purposes and methods to be pos- sible. technical aspects are dealt with elsewhere; here we are concerned chiefly with “ programme ” considerations. programmes: music.—as a broad classification, programme elements may be divided into music and speech. for broad- casting purposes, music, whether concerted or solo, instrumental or vocal, is best classified according to character and appeal, viz., as serious, “ popular”? and dance music. the proportions of each that are included in any day’s or week’s programmes vary according to the conceptions of the programme authorities, their resources in artists from day to day, and the demands of the public. this last is, and must remain, a source of contro- versy, since broadcasting is the only form of concert-giving in which the attempt is made to interest every sort of people every day. agreed criteria are impossible, and the only sure guide is artistic feeling modified by such practical contact with the public as is possible through correspondence, the press and discussions, but fortified by definite standards, and by a sense of the respon- sibility incurred—for it is in the power of the broadcasting or- ganisation to bring the highest class of music to the very hearths of millions who have never before heard it, or, on the other hand, to debase the community’s taste irretrievably. broadcast speech-—broadcast speech includes (a) informative and practical utility matter such as news, market prices, weather reports, time signals, agricultural bulletins and notices of various sorts (e.g., appeals for charity, police notices, club or association bulletins and notifications of dangerous illness to relatives whose address is unknown); (b) “ talks,” #.e., short lectures or series of lectures on all sorts of subjects, critiques of literature, drama, broadcasting music and films, courses of education addressed to schools in school hours or to adults, and debates; (c) important public speeches, ceremonies and events taken by a microphone on the spot; (¢d) religious services, either specially arranged for broad- casting, or taken by a microphone from church or chapel; (e) radio drama, a form of dramatic presentation in which all effects other than vocal have to be conveyed to the ear or suggested to the imagination, and which calls, therefore, for a special technique in playwriting and acting; (f) humorous entertainment; (g) ad- vertisement; and (/) political or other propaganda. in addition there are miscellaneous special broadcasts, such as words of command for physical exercises performed by listen- ers at home, or messages from an explorer in the heart of a dis- tunt country. how many of these categories are admitted depends upon the constitution and policy of the broadcasting authority or concern; for example, advertisement and propa- ganda on controversial subjects are barred in great britain and certain other countries, while many stations (especially in amer- ica) are maintained solely for one or two of the named purposes. the principles of selection—the mere catalogue of these activities is enough to indicate the immense social importance of broadcasting, but at the same time to display it as what it is— a means, and not anend. its function is to render all these sorts of entertainment, all these departments of thought, all these services of information, accessible simultaneously. to the maxi- mum number of people in their own homes. but in the presence of so vast an array of material, selection must necessarily be exercised. so far, it is only under the heading (e) (1.e., radio drama) that radio has created an expression-form peculiar to itself, and in all other respects programme-building is creative only in the sense that the programme-builders can create (or evoke and nurse) a mass-disposition towards certain aims and preferences. practically, then, their power is no more—and also no less—than the power of selection. even so, it 1s at present far from being an absolute power. established interests such as the press, the theatre and the musical industry, have in many cases safeguarded their special fields in various ways; and the technical requifements of transmission also operate to a certain extent as a check, in spite of the great improvements which have been made in the first three years of systematic practice. never- theless, it is gradually coming to be recognised by other interests that broadcasting has obtained a permanent hold, and, more- over, that it is really an addition to, rather than a substitute for, the older modes of intercourse. standards and ideals —it is coming 10 be recognised also, that from the social standpoint it is not only inevitable that pro- gramme-builders should select, but vitally important that their selection should be governed by ideals and standards defined by themselves as a rule of conduct. this question, already alluded to in connection with music, affects every other aspect of a programme service also. a well-developed national broadcast system has the ear of far more people than any two or three news- papers, and this, coupled with the fact that the microphone is the most intimate and insinuating of all known vehicles of gen- eral communication, makes it perhaps more potent for good or evil than any other social influence. a broadcasting concern, therefore, must, above all, be honest, i.e., if not definitely prop- agandist, it must be incorruptibly disinterested. modifications of the strict rule occur and are bound to occur—for a broaccast- ing service is not quite a “ state within the state ” and cannot in practice be inflexible—but in principle the broadcasting author- ity must follow its view of the public interest. alternative programmes.—nevertheless, as no one is entitled to dictate that the public shall hear only what he himself would care to hear, as the available programme material exceeds the capacity for dealing with it, and as the listener's temporary mood must be catered for, no less than his settled tastes—programme policy must seek to provide (so far as the technical and financial possibilities of each case permit) for more than one programme 1o be available at any given time for any given listener. the american system of unrestricted competition was expected to provide this very freedom of choice. but in practice the alter- broadcasting puatte i. automatic controft of brogdcast: big ben* studio ° ——— indicator . ; tt) beeee te = - ‘ ' 4 banu srp ek studio | — ; a i. amplifier fanels back of” indicator 2345 : e.. av . | for §.b. | s.b. control) ae bas ve v board f% — 7s meee, , (2345 amptitier for | another studio 7 ~- 2. lo. london station of the british broadcasting co. fic, 1, switchboard for simultaneous broadcast to 21 stations. f1cg. 2. studio, showing screen on which controlling engineer flashes instructions to artists. fic. 3. control room, showing engineer at work on amplifier. plate ii. broadcasting ee ee = 4 los cead oy ean" teamed ihe ae ee ee ee eet ee ee ee a st smeg php s tontre n table ele | ——— central control v4 ‘ € glass tank behind at ame}. sis a >< > mes a tlhe snell agite wy i. as ae ee oe re wa waa own water cooled valve sxx. (daventry) high power station of the british broadcasting co. fic. 4. aerial masts, and power house. fig. 5. view showing condensers and transformers. fic. 6. the arrangements for one-man control of transmission; meters (a) all visible at control table. fic. 7. drive panel, showing water-cooled valve. broadcasting natives simultaneously transmitted are apt to be simultaneously received also. experience tends to show that the number of available programmes is simply the number of really and locally separable wave-lengths; it is a function, therefore, of the selec- tivity of the average receiving sct, the power of the stations and their position. in europe, in the present state of knowledge and of cost of popular apparatus, an effective service of “ alterna- tive’? programmes depends on (a) the skilful use of some “ si- multaneous broadcast ” system (see below), and () high-power transmission, which gives great range to the individual station and therefore, over a given region, fewer stations and more sepa- ration between wave-lengths. the process explained.—the actual process of broadcasting, though complicated in detail by the variety of the items broad- cast and their volume (which amounts for instance to about 46,000 transmission-hours annually for the system of the british broadcasting co.) is stmple enough in outline. most of the performances take place in a “studio,” which is carefully ar- ranged so as to give, for the necessarily small room, an acousti- cal condition that is pleasing to a musical judgment as applied to the receiver. this requires a certain amount of echo elimination, by drapery and otherwise. speakers, singers and players address themselves to the microphone, which reproduces in the form of electrical pressure the variations of air pressure that impinge in the form of sound. these variations of electrical pressure are amplified finally to “ modulate ” the output, in the form of ether waves, of the wireless telephony transmitter. an expert operator in a control-room, following closely the speech or music, continu- ously makes fine adjustments of the amount of electrical impulse modulating the transmitter to allow for changes of original sound volume, an operation necessitated by the fact that the transmitter is of fixed and limited power. the transmitting gear proper is usually separate from the “ studio,” and may be as much as 70 or 80 m. away, connected with the studio by a spe- clally connected and balanced overhead telephone line. outside material—anothcr class of broadcast which is of growing importance is the picking-up at the place of origin of public concerts and public speeches, as well as of ccremonies, crowd noises, countryside sounds, etc. this is done by a port- able microphone connected, not necessarily by wire, to the con- trol-room; the special interest of these broadcasts to the listener is that they enable him to feel himself as a participant or mem- ber of the audience. in the case of music, large-scale perform- ances are often, for psychological as well as acoustic reasons, more successful as ‘“ outside” than as “studio” broadcasts, but, of course, public halls, churches, theatres and opera stages, open spaces and so on, all present special acoustic problems which have to be solved according to the special circumstances. simultaneous broadcast—of outstanding importance in the organisation of broadcasting is the simultancous broadcast or “s.b.” this involves a system of interconnected telephone lines by which a studio or other place of performance can be con- nected to as many transmitters as may be desirable or possible. thus, in the case of great britain the london microphone may be connected to all stations of the british system for a news bul- letin, and immediately afterwards all, or some, stations (london included) may be similarly connected to a microphone installed in a manchester concert hall; or, again, the sound of the sea taken up by microphone on the shore at plymouth may provide a background for a drama performed in london and broadcast by plymouth, london and all other transmitters. needless to say, ‘‘s.b.”’ requires the closest timing and co- ordination over the whole system, and it is carried out most completely and successfully when all the stations of a country are under one management, as in great britain. in the united states and canada the method is practised wherever a distributed network of stations happens to be controlled by a large corpora- tion. in germany, where provincial feeling js strong, artistic resources well distributed and operation decentralised, “ s.b.”’ is usually practised only between a main station and its relay sta- tions considered as a group. the “ wireless link ” (7.e., the sub- stitution of the telephone wire by a wircless telephone system) 453 is sometimes employed where land line facilities are either un- available or unsuitable. listening problems —lastly, the listeners’ end of the trans- mission system presents problems of its own. private receiving sets are divided, conventionally rather than scientifically, into “crystal ” and “‘ valve” (vacuum tube sets). the sounds that they generate in response to the excitation of their aerials are heard either in headphones or from loud-speakers, the latter varying in power from small drawing-room instruments to large- scale installations capable of reaching crowds assembled in halls and open spaces. listening conditions vary from room to room, and listeners rarely attempt to create for themselves the acoustic and psychological atmosphere in which to receive broadcast properly. more important still, the receiving scts themselves vary in sensitiveness, selectivity and other qualities, according to design, workmanship, nature of aerial and earth employed. over these variables the broadcasting authority or company as such has usually little, if any, direct contact. but in actual prac- tice the listener’s tastes and means, the broadcasting service’s programmes, technique and finance, all react upon one another intimately. the crucial distinction in the nature of sets, though roughly coinciding with that between “ crystal’ and “ valve,” really turns upon the distance at which a station can be heard without extraneous interferences accompanying, and more or less spoiling, reception. there are in fact two distinct and—at present—opposite con- ceptions of “ listening,’ from the listener’s point of view. on the one hand, there is the desire—which may arise from techni- cal interest, or from dissatisfaction with the local programme, or both—to listen to far-away stations. this has produced the long-distance set, which is so sensitive as to be able to pick up 1-5 kw. stations as much as 1,000 or even 2,000 m. away, but which, from the very fact of this sensitivity, is more or less open both to local and remote electrical disturbances, such as those caused by “‘ oscillation ’”’ (re-radiation from a nearby receiving set which, when mishandled, acts as a small transmitter), by heterodyning between stations, by ‘“‘ atmospherics,’ by har- monics emitted by powerful w.t. stations, by the spark trans- mitters still largely used by ships and occasionally, by inductive effects, by power due to alternating-current installations. on the other hand there are the listeners who are content with the programmes of the nearest station (which, as we have seen, do not necessarily depend on that station’s own artistic resources) either because they have little or no interest in the technical sidle of wireless telephony, or because the local programmes are, in fact, artistically and otherwise satisfying. the interest of such listeners is concentrated upon the programme. the re- ceiving apparatus that they need is simple, easily manageable, and owing to the nearness of the station and the consequent strength of its signals, free from extraneous interference (other than purely local troubles such as oscillation). tor the listeners thus equipped variety of choice of programmes obviously depends upon the power of the stations around them and the extent to which “ simultaneous ” broadcasting is feasible, and, therefore, ultimately on the technical and financial organisation and unity of the broadcasting system. for listeners equipped with long-range sets, on the other hand, interference limits both their theoretically complete freedom of choice and the artistic satisfaction that they can de- rive from listening. and thus, although an element of wonder will always adhere to wireless reception, public interest in the broadcast movement tends to centre itself more and more on the programmes rather than on the means of receiving them. and this in turn brings forward new problems of extending, by co-operation between national, as well as by co-ordination of local and regional, broadcasting stations, the field whence ma- terial for “ alternative ’” programmes can be taken and locally re-broadcast. international aspects —we may now glance at broadcasting in its international aspect, and more especially european broad- casting, as a possible cementing influence between nations now becoming dimly conscious of a unity that the foreground of their 454 history seems to deny. in 1925, when all countries of western, northern and central europe had to a great extent absorbed broadcasting as a normal element in their national life, it became manifest that apart from incidental divergences, all broadcasting concerns, acting quite independently of one another, were putting much the same classes of fare before their respective publics, and thereby disclosing a cultural unity in europe hitherto scarcely suspected. the barriers of political and racial gcog- raphy were over-leaped. in each country, those of the public who possessed long-range listening-sets acquired (in spite of the interferences which hamper this type of reception) a double interest in remote stations, on account of thcir transmissions and on account of their interferences with home stations. strange place-names—and even, through modulated telephony, distant personal voices—became familiar. the movement in favour of an international language acquired new life and im- portance. in fact, a whole new world of possibilities of euro- pean intercourse is being opened up. measures for co-ordination while trans-oceanic wireless te- lephony remained fragmentary and impure even as late as the winter of 1925-6, the co-ordination of european broadcasting was already a clamant necessity. the work of the central office at geneva, which has been mentioned above, on the readjust- ment of wave-lengths, is still tentative and dependent on good- will, and behind this question yet others await solution, for example, problems of international copyright and rights of relay and re-broadcasting as between concerns of different nationality, limitation of ex parte propaganda, exchange of information as to artists and the relaying of pronouncements or proceedings of international significance. in sum, european interstate broad- casting is still in its infancy. but this at least is certain, that broadcasting—a subtle but at the same time a very vulnerable element in the new european life—depends, for its effectiveness, even within the national frontiers, upon international goodwill; and, allowing for the steady progress of technical knowledge, it is reasonably certain that this interdependence will in a not very distant future become world-wide. progress in various countries united siates—this country was the pioneer in the field of large-scale broadcasting and it was there that the new medium received its name. the press and commerce were prompt to recognise the possibilities of this method of getting into imme- diate and close touch with all classes of the population. count- less radio firms sprang up which, without delay, placed on the market both complete apparatus and the components necessary for the home assembling of sets, and soon a large number of sta- tions of varying power (mostly small) were “on the air.” licences continued to be issued lavishly and in dec. 10925 there were still 578 stations transmitting some kind of enter- tainment (apart from those specialised to transmissions of par- ticular classes), and maintained by the proceeds of broadcast advertisement, profits on the sale of wireless gear, or in various indirect ways. as a result of transmitters having been erected without a con- certed plan, there was by 1925 a state of very considerable inter- ference between locally overcrowded stations, while large tracts of the country were ill-served. moreover, in many cases the quality of the programmes no longer satisfied the now expcri- enced public, and some form of higher control and co-operation in the broadcasting movement was being demanded from both inside and outside the broadcasting system, the more urgently as the power employed increased and the possibilities of long- range work came into the foreground. of the stations at present operating, 197 possess a power of at least o-5 kw., and during 1925 a number of larger transmitters were erected, including a 50 kw. station at bound brook, n.j., and also a station for reception of european broadcasts at belfast, maine. certain stations have a european reputation, for instance wjy. of schenectady, n.y¥., and kdka., east pittsburgh, which has experimented extensively in the very short wave-lengths. the situation, therefore, was ripe for review when the fourth broadcasting national radio conference was held in nov. 1925. at that conference mr. hoover, secretary of commerce, announced a changed governmental policy in the words, “ we can no longer deal on the basis that there is room for everybody on the radio highways,’”’ while the concerns participating in the conference declared, for their part, in favour of restrictions on advertising. thus the limitation of stations and the adoption of a standpoint in the question of the cultural rele of broadcasting have been established in principle. opinions vary considerably as to the actual methods of solving the administrative and financial prob- lems involved. a national system financed out of licence revenue and taxation on receiving sets are cach widely advocated, but for the near future at any rate the indications point to a policy of amalgamation and grouping of various privately owned sta- tions in order to cut down wasteful expenditure and to make the highest and most expensive class of programmes available over wider areas than has been the case hitherto. these develop- ments are in fact already in progress. great britain.—in great britain as early as 1919 experimental transmissions were conducted for a time at a station of the marconi co. at chelmsford, but these were not continued, and in 1922, on the initiation of wireless amateurs, broadcasting was begun afresh from a station at writtle, near chelmsford. shortly afterwards, as the result of negotiations between the postmaster gencral, the leading radio firms and other interests, the british broadcasting co. was set up to work a single na- tional system of stations for great britain and northern ireland. the original licence granted expired in 1924, but after a govt. inquiry had in 1923 reviewed the experience gained up to date, it was renewed till the end of 1926. in dec. 1925 a second gov- ernmental inquiry commenced its sittings in order to consider the situation that would arise in 1927. constitution of the b.b.c.—the “ b.b.c.”’ is constituted as a lim- ited company, the shareholders being wireless manufacturers and traders. the board of directors is composed of representatives drawn from the industry with an independent chairman nominated by the post office and a managing director as executive officer. the company, as such, neither manufactures, sells, nor recommends apparatus, and its revenue is derived from a share in the proceeds of receiving licences levied by the post office. although its nominal constitution is that of acommercial company, the b.b.c. is in effect a public service, since the dividends payable to those who provided the capital (which is very smal! in proportion to revenue) are lim- ited to 73° per annum, reserves are allowed only for covering de- preciation and the like, and the postmaster general has certain powers of limiting the company's revenue. as the general description of broadcasting methods and aims already given is based very largely upon british practice, it is only necessary here to allude to a few particular features of the british system. the scheme of unified control over a nation-wide system, worked in close collaboration with the post office, has made possible the development of simultaneous broadcasting (see above) on a scale unknown elsewhere. the organisation is bound to work in the spirit of british constitutional practice that is, democratically and with studious avoidance of biased or tendencious transmissions. advertisements are not accepted. the government exercises a certain control over the charac- ter of the transmissions and the general policy of the “ b.b.c.” and has a right to require a part of programme time to be given to non-contentious matter (such as agricultural bulletins) supplied by public authorities, and the board of education and local educational authorities co-operate officially with the broad- casting service in the development of educational transmissions. of special interest and significance is the institution of religious advisory committees; on these every christian church that is numerically important in great britain is represented, and they have succeeded in reaching an agreement as to the form and substance of “studio” services that shall be acceptable to roman catholics and protestants alike. in 1925 the system of the r.b.c. comprised main stations (1-5-3 kw.) at london, bournemouth, cardiff, birmingham, man- chester, newcastle-on-tyne, glasgow, aberdeen and belfast; relay stations (0-2 kw.) at plymouth, swansea, liverpool, stoke-on- trent, nottingham, sheffield, leeds, bradford, hull, edinburgh and dundee; and a high-power (25 kw.) at daventry. this system broadcasting provided approximately 90% of the population with one programme daily on crystal receivers, and some 35% with an alternative pro- gramme as well. developments are in prospect which involve a general increase in power and the re-sitting of transmitters on a regional scheme, so as to provide an alternative service on a much larger scale. the number of licencees totalled in dec. 1925 over 1,500,000, which represents an “ audience ”’ of perhaps as many as 10,000,000 people. trish free state—in the irish free state, broadcasting began in the winter of 1925-6 with the opening of a main station at dublin. from this it is intended to supply other parts by means of a relay system. the govt. controls the service. france.—in france broadcasting began in nov. 1922 with transmissions from the experimental station, ‘‘ radiola” of paris, and from the military w.t. station of the eiffel tower. these were followed at intervals by “p.t.t.” (the research station of the ecole superieure des postes et telegraphes in paris), by petit purisien (a station owned by the newspaper of that name), and a few small stations in other parts of the coun- try. in 1924-5 the cie. francaise de radiophonie set up “ radio paris ” (the successor of ‘‘ radiola ”’), and provincial stations at toulouse and lyons, while the post-oflice set up “‘ p.t.t.” stations at lyons, toulouse, marseille and grenoble; others are projected at lille, strasbourg and angers. the eiffel tower continued to broadcast, and various small stations operate in different parts of france. no broadcasting monopoly has been granted, and stations receive neither subsidies nor licence- revenues, expenses being met out of royalties on apparatus, sub- sidies by interested parties and public subscriptions. at present, then, there is no co-ordinated national system, but two opposed groups; on the one hand, the state with its p.t.t. stations and the eiffel tower, and a reserve power of promoting legislation, and on the other hand the private wireless enterprises headed by “ radio-paris” which, in dec. 1925, formed a union for joint action and in 1926 commanded considerable support in the chambers and the press. italy.—in italy, the development of broadcast telephony was slow, until a decree of oct. 1925 removed many irksome restrictions, both economic and legal, and inter alia enabled stations to accept advertisements. the unione radiofonica italiana (an organisation constituted on commercial lines) now operates stations at rome and milan. a small military station at centocelle near rome has also broadcast occasionally. other stations are projected. the govt. reserves to itself control of the system for a certain period of time daily, with a view to the broadcasting of special notices. spain and portugal.—spain, arriving late in the field, endeavoured to catch up, in a few months, the progress which had been made by other european countrics in two or three years. many different organisations offered to erect stations, and in all, up to dec. 1925, about 24 public transmitting licences, five in madrid alone, had been conceded. there is a small receiving licence charge, but no portion of its proceeds is paid over to the broadcasters, who, for the most part, derive their revenue from royalties on apparatus manu- factured by affiliated concerns, and from sums paid for broadcast advertisement. some installations, operated by wireless clubs, are supported by voluntary contributions. attempts are being made to consolidate these irregular services into a national system. in portugal, broadcasting has not yet advanced beyond the state of occasional transmissions by small stations. belgium.—lin the winter of 1925-6 belgium possessed but one regular breadcasting station, 7.¢., brussels, opencd in nov. 1923, which is owned by the societe radio-belgique. this company does not hold a monopoly, nor does it derive revenue from licences, being, therefore, dependent upon a share in royalties on apparatus, on in- come from advertisements and on voluntary contributions. other stations are projected at antwerp and liege. holland.—in holland, as in belgium and france, the question of finance has considerably retarded development. the first station was built at hilversum near utrecht, and commenced operations as early as 1919, relying upon voluntary support and some small amount of commercial subsidy. in spite of continuing financial dif- ficulties a new plant was installed in the winter of 1924-5, and since then hilversum has become one of the best known stations in europe. there are also two or three small stations which broadcast only occasionally. hitherto listeners have not been required to take out licences, nor has the government subsidised the broadcasting concerns in other ways. a national concessionaire company sup- ported by licence revenue is, however, being formed. germany.—proposals by the govt. and others for the estab- lishment of broadcasting were made in the early part of 1922, but economic conditions delayed their translation into fact, and 455 it was not until oct. 1923 that the first regular station (ber- lin-* voxhaus ”’) was opened. as on the one hand the govt. could not shoulder the responsibility for possible losses, and on the other the constitution of germany is, to a large extent, federal in character and her artistic resources well distributed, it was decided to de-centralise control without admitting free compcti- tion, and to create separate broadcasting organisations which between them covered the bulk of the population. the concession for transmitting entertainments was granted to “ die deutsche stunde,” that for transmitting news, lectures, etc., to “ buch und presse.”” these in their turn formed pro- gramme companies (in each of which they hold a controlling interest) in the various cities selected as the sites of stations. the transmitters are the property of the post and telegraph administration, and are run by government engineers under gov- ernment control, while the programme work is the task of the companies. the financial arrangements between the companies and the govt. are complicated, and here it must suffice to say that provision is made for pooling a part of the licence revenue (so that, for example, berlin receipts are available to assist the k6nigsberg or the stuttgart company) for limiting sharcholders’ profits as in great britain, and for returning surpluses to the reichspost. in the spring of 1925, the programme companies combined for certain purposes in a central organisation known as the reichsfunkverband. the revenue from receiving licences (paid in monthly instalments to the postman) is divided between programme companies and the post office. after the opening of the voxhaus station in berlin, the remaining stations of ithe national system were built in quick succession. these are: — berlin (voxhaus), frankfort-on-main (with relay at cassel), hamburg (relays, bremen and ilanover), miinster (relays, dort- mund and elberfeld), munich (relay, niiremberg), leipzig (relay, dresden), stuttgart, breslau, kgnigsberg. in addition, a new sta- tion at berlin (witzleben) was brought into operation in 1925 and the programme service from “ voxhaus "” was extended to the power- ful \w. t. transmitter of ‘‘ kenigswusterhausen,” northeast of berlin, which was adapted for telephony. other stations are under con- struction, of projected. important advances in the direction of higher power were mace in the latter part of 1925. parallel with the ordinary broadcasting system, there is a network of small governmental stations in some 70 different towns which are intended for the local re-broadcasting of government communica- tions and addresses from the ‘' deutschlandsender " (k6nigswuster- hausen). it is probable that in future this system will be used for educational purposes also. at the end of 1925, the total of licensed listeners was about 1,000,000. austria.—the vienna broadcasting station (opened oct. 1924) is owned and worked by the ‘‘ radio-verkehrs a.g.’’ a monopoly formed by the fusion of various tradeinterests. itsrevenue is derived partly from a share in licence fees, and partly from royalties on the sale of apparatus. the cost of licences varies according to the in- come of listeners, and the purpose of the installation, but it cannot yet be said that broadcasting is within the reach of the masses. educational and other public institutions (e.g., those for the blind) are exempt from paying fees. other stations have been or are being erected at graz, innsbruck and salzburg, and a high-power station on the rosenhiigel near vienna. switzerland.—in switzerland broadcasting began with the radio clubs, but the federal govt. very early came to the assistance of the movement. in a land where three different languages are regularly spoken, it is difficult, if not impossible, to maintain a centralised service, and for this reason separate companies have been formed for the purpose of broadcasting entertainment in the various regions of the republic, all of which reccive a generous measure of state support. ‘the stations operating in dec. 1925 were zurich, lausanne, geneva and berne, and a station was under construction at basel. the charge for receiving licences varies according to the nature of the apparatus. four-filths of the licence revenue is paid over to the programme-transmilting companies. denmark.—in denmark, after a period of irregular, and even unlicensed, broadcasting (1921-3) the govt. permitted the broad- cast transmission of concerts and entertainments by duly appointed clubs through government stations, this system was initiated in the summer of 1923, developed in 1925 into an official broadcasting service, managed by a radio council (radioraadet), on which are represented the amateur wircless clubs, the press, the artists’ and musicians’ union, government departments, educational institu- tions and listeners’ societies. the govt. contributes the technical officials and plant. a methodical arrangement of new stations 1s projected, but the council at present broadcasts from a number of unequally equipped government and club stations, the greater part of the programmes being relayed from copenhagen. the cost of receiving licences varies according to the apparatus and the uses to which it is put. 456 sweden.—in sweden, after preliminary experimenis and negotia- tions, a sole concession was granted in jan. 1925 to the “svenska aktiebolaget for radio-tjanst, asyndicate formed by the press and the wireless industry. during 1925 a network of to main and relay stations was set up by this organisation and the postal and telegraph authorities jointly, the former providing the programmes and the latter the plant and the engineer staff. of the proceeds of listeners’ licences half goes to the company. direct advertisement is ad- mitted, but confined to a very small portion of programme time; the privilege moreover is practically limited to organisations which share in the general liabilities of the syndicate. owing to inequalities in the distribution of the population—and therefore of artistic resources —the greater part of the programmes are relayed from the stockholm station, the high power w.t. station of karlsborg is to be adapted for telephony and broadcasting and new relay stations are projected at various points on the coast. _ norway.—in norway, since april 1925, control has been centred in the * kringskastingselskapet,’ a company of wircless manufac- turers and traders, which works in close co-operation with the postal authorities. the station at oslo began regular transmissions in the -summer of 1925, and soon acquired a wide reputation. in addition, a station at aalesund (to be transferred to haugesund) serves the needs of sailors and fishermen. broadcasting is maintained by licence revenue and a share in taxes upon apparatus. baltic countries.—in latvia, estonia and finland, there are small broadcasting stations at riga, revel and helsingfors respectively. other stations are planned in finland. in lithuania, no service had yet come into operation at the end of 1925. in poland, there was in 1925 only one low-power station, at warsaw; but developments were under consideration by the govt. and the radio industry jointly. russia.—wireless telephony was released for the use of the general public in sept. 1924 and from oct. 1924 weekly concerts were sent out by the moscow central station. other stations came into being in moscow and elsewhere, and in 1924~5 the problem of the broadcast service was tackled as a whole. the govt. realising the great possibilities of broadcasting as a means of direct communication with all classes of an cnor- mous and scattered population, promoted the establishment of wireless clubs and of technical advice offices and provided for the equipment of halls and open spaces in and around which a great number of listeners could be gathered. in the special con- ditions of russian village life, communal listening is of course of prime importance, but individual receiving licences are also issued. the broadcasting company (radio peredacha) is a com- bination between certain electrical firms, the rosta news agency and the commissariat of posts and telegraphs. it receives the greater part of the licence yield and possesses the monopoly for the sale of apparatus. at the end of 1925 stations were either in operation or in course of construction at moscow, leningrad and kiev, and other transmitters are being erected, or to be erected at different centres both in euro- pean and asiatic russia. the existing wireless telegraphy trans- mitters are to be adapted to telephony and placed at the disposal of the radio peredacha when not required for the ordinary traffic, and it is expected that eventually 50 broadcasting transmitters will be in daily operation. hungary.—in iungary a broadcasting company, formed by the amalgamation of a budapest concern supplying concerts, etc., over the wires to telephone subscribers, with a leading newspaper, works a station at buclapest, in conjunction with the posts and telegraphs and with the wireless club of the technical high school. receiving licences are granted at a cost varying according to whether private reception or loud-speaker delivery in public is intended, and also according to geographical situation. special licences are required by manufacturers and dealers, who are compelled to take out a certifi- cate of technical efficiency and to guarantee that the sets sold by them do not reradiate. but concessions in the licence fees are made for receivers used exclusively for experimental work, and invalids, blind people, hospitals and educational institutions pay no fees. czechoslovakia.—in czechoslovakia, a broadcasting company, formed under the name of radio-journal, began regular broad- casting in may 1923 from khbely, near prague. somewhat later, another station was set up at komarov, near brno (briinn) and at the end of 1924, kbely was replaced by a more modern in- stallation at strasnice, also near prague. a problem of peculiar political difficulty, the provision of broadcast programmes for the german-speaking population, was eventually dealt with by reopen- ing the old kbely transmitter in oct. 1925 for lectures, etc., in german. as yet the country is inadequately served, so far as crystal- set users are concerned. relay stations are projected for various centres, but future developments are conditional upon popular sup- port or upon capital being forthcoming in anticipation of such support. in the present company the govt. holds a §1°%o interest. the balkan states—in yugoslavia, greece, bulgaria, rumania broadcasting and turkey, little progress has so far been made in wireless telephony. apart from thel-nited states, the only countries outside europe in which broadcasting services have so far become regular and svs- tematic are the dominions of the british empire. the republics of central and south america, as stated above, contain amongst them many thousands of wireless amateurs, but broadcasting proper is still embryonic. canada.—canaida followed the example of the united states early, but on a much smaller scale and with a greater regard for interference difficulties that might arise. of the 43 stations listed by the canadian govt., in june 1925, the most important were the ro stations of the canadian national railways which form a chain across the continent. these not only broadcast enter- tainment and information but also enable the management of the railway to keep in touch with its widely-dispersed staff. the remainder are owned by newspapers, religious bodies, radio firms and others, operating practically independently. in many. cases programme time has to be shared between adjacent sta- tions as in the united states, and thus there is little or no “ alter- native’ service. one station, at winnipeg, is operated by the govt. of manitoba, which enjoys a certain autonomy in the management of local wireless and the disposal of licence revenue. an interesting feature in the canadian administration is its corps of part-time inspectors for dealing with interference mat- ters. wave-length agreements have been negotiated with the united states. south africa.—in south africa stations have been opened at cape town, durban and johannesburg. licence fees are heavy and the juxtaposition of languages creates difficulties, but the new method of intercourse is popular in both town and country. australia and new zealand.—in australia stations owned and operated by companies and financed out of licence revenues have been established at sydney (two stations), melbourne (two stations), hobart, adelaide and perth. at brisbane there is a queensland govt. station. in new zealand, after a period of intermittent private broad- casting, a national system came into force, which is supported by licence revenue and maintains stations at wellington, auck- land, christchurch and dunedin. in india and burma broadcast transmissions were, until 1926, given only from a few small local stations, but an all-india scheme was authorised at the beginning of that year. (cw) technical and scientific aspects in broadcasting the transmission is sent out from one station for the purpose of reaching a large number of reccivers scattered over an area, whereas other forms of telephony generally involve two-way transmission between two terminal stations only. moreover, the apparatus used in broadcasting not only must transmit intelligible speech but must also transmit the subtle intricacies of vocal and instrumental music with the highest degree of faithfulness and freedom from distortion. stated briefly, the purpose of a broadcasting system is to pick up air-pressure variations due to sound waves, transport a fac- simile of them by radio means to a multitude of receiving points, and reproduce at these points sound waves as nearly as possible like the original ones. the pickup or input end and the reproducing or output ends of the system, respectively, are com- posed of two pieces of apparatus which in principle are essen- tially like the corresponding parts of the ordinary telephone instrument. at the input end is a telephone transmitter or microphone to produce electric current having variations in intensity corresponding to the variations in air pressure on the diaphragm caused by the sound waves. at the output end some form of telephone receiver is used to reproduce from such electric currents the corresponding sound waves. since the method of transporting the electrical counterpart of the sound waves from the microphone to the telephone receiver is not by electric cur- rents or waves on wires as in ordinary telephony, but by electro- magnetic waves in free space, the mechanisms which intervene in the process are of a distinctive character. the radio transportation or transmission is accomplished by broadcasting sending out from the transmitting station electromagnetic or radio waves which vary in intensity in the same manner as do the telephonic currents from the microphone. at receiving sta- tions these radio waves are intercepted and their intensity varia- tions converted back into intensity variations of a telephonic current, which actuates the telephone receiver. there are several distinct processes involved :— 1. producing the high-frequency alternating electric current which, when introduced into a radio antenna, causes the radiation of elec- tromagnetic waves. this current is produced by an elcctrical * oscillator.” 2. “ modulating " this current, or causing its intensity to vary in the same manner as does the intensity of the telephone current from the microphone, 3. radiating the clectromagnetic waves by causing the modulated high-frequency current to flow in a radio antenna or aerial. 4. intercepting some of the radiated waves energy bya receiving antenna in which modulated high-frequency currents similar to eee flowing in the transmitting antenna are thereby causcd to ow. 5. ‘ detecting "’ or converting the modulated high-frequency current into telephone currents having the same variations in in- tensity. 6. at both the transmitting and receiving stations, amplifying the currents to increase their power and to make up for losses in power suffered in transmission through the various parts of the entire system. the mechanisms involved in items 1, 2 and 3 constitute the transmitting system, while those involved in items 4 and 5 con- stitute the receiving system. in the transit of the waves through space between these two terminal systems lies the field of radio transmission. thermionic valve—the most important device used in the transmitting and receiving systems is the ubiquitous vacuum tube or thermionic valve. it is employed in the most modern apparatus for performing many functions, including generation of high-frequency currents, modulation of these currents by telephonic currents, detecting or converting the high-frequency currents to reproduce telephonic currents, and amplifying both high-frequency and audio-frequency (telephonic) currents (see amplifiers). discussion of the fundamental principles under- lying the six processes itemised above anc of the vacuum tube which plays such an important rele in carrying them out will be found under wireless telegrapity and telephony (g.v.) and telegraph (see 26.529). this section is concerned only with those features of radio telephony which are of special importance in broadcasting. the transmitting system the transmitting system comprises the microphone (¢.v.), which is placed at the studio or theatre, and toward which the sound waves of the voice or instrument are projected; the ampli- fier and control devices, which magnify the electric currents from the microphone by the desired amount; and the radio trans- mitting station, which sends out radio waves modulated in accordance with the amplified microphone currents. microphones.—ulighly specialised forms of microphones {g.v.) are necessary in order to respond accurately to the wide range of sound frequencies and intensities of speech or music. the music, for instance, that comes from a symphony orchestra consists of tones which range from fundamental bass notes of less than roo vibrations or cycles per second up to harmonics at 5,000 cycles or more. thus it covers a range of frequencies of at least 5,000 cycles or, as it is expressed by the engineer, a band of frequencies at least 5,000 cycles wide. one kind of micro- phone in wide use consists of a tightly stretched duralumin cia- phragm having two carbon microphone buttons attached to opposite sides of it at the centre. the two buttons are con- nected with the electrical circuit in such a way that distortion tends to be balanced out. the placing of the microphone with reference to the performers and the acoustic qualities of the surroundings are of great importance in achieving the best re- sults. for this reason, where possible, the programme is per- formed in a studio room especially designed for control of placing, sound absorption and echoes. 4957 amplifiers.—since the range of volume or loudness covered by the programme may be very large, the amount of amplification applied to the microphone currents before the currents go to the radio transmitter must be adjusted frequently in order that they may neither overload the transmitter, giving rise to dis- tortion, nor fgil, through weakness, to actuate the transmitter sufficiently. the amplifier adjustment, therefore, requires to be manipulated by a control operator who is provided with a radio receiver so that he can hear the programme exactly as it is heard by the radio audience. to guide his judgment further in manipu- lating the volume control, the operator is usually provided with an electrical device called a “‘ volume indicator,” which gives him a visual indication of the strength of the telephonic current at the output of the amplifier. the amplifier and control appara- tus, and the radio transmitter, as well as the wire telephone circuits between them in case they are physically separated, must be carefully designed to transmit the telephone currents without distortion. transmitters —the radio transmitters employed in broad- casting are not different in principle from those employed in other forms of radio telephony, but are designed with special attention to stability, freedom from distortion and purity of transmission. in most types the telephone currents delivered from the control apparatus are amplified and impressed upon the oscillator tubes, which generate high-frequency currents. the output of the oscillator is thus modulated to correspond with the original sound variations. in the smaller power trans- mitters the modulated high-frequency currents then go directly from the modulating system to the antenna, but in some larger equipments amplifiers containing powerful metallic, water- cooled vacuum tubes are interposed. the antenna systems do not differ materially from those used in modern wireless tele- graph installations. carrier frequencies ——the assignment of carrier frequencies to broadcasting stations is an important consideration. when there is no modulation—that is, during the silent intervals of a programme—a broadcasting station sends out waves of a single frequency as in continuous wave radio telegraphy. this fre- quency is known as the carrier frequency, and is expressed in kilocycles of thousands of individual waves or vibrations per second. when modulation takes place by speech or music there are also transmitted two “ side-bands ” or sets of waves which occupy two bands of frequencies, one on either side of the car- rier, each about 5,000 cycles wide, making the total trans- mission cover a band some ro kilocycles in width with the carrier frequency in the middle. the frequency range available for broadcasting is hmited, being, for instance, in the united states and canada, from 550 kilocycles to 1,500 kilocycles. thus there are only 95 non-overlapping 1to-kilocycle bands or channels. two stations in the same service area cannot occupy the same band or even closely adjacent bands without causing inter- ference, so it is necessary to assign station frequencies in accord- ance with some form of geographical zoning system, and the total number of stations which can operate simultaneously is definitely limited. in popular usage the wave-length in metres is commonly used as a measure of the carrier frequency of a sta- tion, and in classified hsts of stations both the carrier frequencies and wave-lengths are often given. the numerical relation be- tween the two is the same as for any propagated wave motion, either one being equal to the velocity of propagation divided by the other. trt receiving system the functions of the receiving system are (a) to collect the radio wave cnergy in its antenna, in the form of high-frequency currents, (#) to select to the exclusion of other channels the currents lying in the band of frequencies occupied by the station to which it is desired to listen and, then, (c) to amplify these currents and (d) to convert them into audio-frequency (tele- phonic) currents which are in turn amplihed and delivered to the telephone receivers or a loud speaker. forms of antennae—two kinds of antennae are in common use, the one an elevated wire similar to a transmitting antenna, 458 and the other a loop antenna consisting of a coil of a few turns of wire wound on a frame or other support. the former is elec- trically more efficient, but the loop being relatively small is often more convenient. the selecting of stations is done by means of tuning circuits having electrical inductances or coils and elec- trical capacities or condensers. ‘these are adjustable, so that the circuits may be tuned to respond most strongly to currents in the band of frequencies sent out by the station it is desired to receive. making these adjustments is known as “ tuning in.” receiving sets—in the arrangement and form of the tuning circuits and the vacuum tube amplifiers, receiving sets have a wide variety of differences in detail, but broadly they fall into three main classifications: (1) regenerative sets, (2) high-fre- quency amplifier type sets, (3) intermediate-frequency amplifier (superheterodyne) type sets. in addition to these types there is a class of much simpler and less sensitive receiving sets known as “crystal sets,” which contain no vacuum tubes. a crystal set consists merely of an antenna, the tuning circuits and a “ crystal detector ’’ which serves to convert the modulated high frequency currents into audio-frequency (telephonic) circuits. a crystal detector is a device which utilises the electrical rectify- ing properties of certain crystalline minerals. the lead ore galena is one mineral thus commonly employed. regenerative sets—in regenerative sets a controllable coupling of some kind is provided between the output and input circuits of the amplifying or detecting tube or tubes, so that some of the amplified signal voltage may be fed back into the tubes again and again and be reamplified many times. this gives more effective use of a small number of tubes. such sets when the “‘ feed back ”’ coupling is wrongly manipulated will generate con- tinuous high-frequency oscillations which cause waves to be sent out from the antenna as at a transmitting station. these waves may be a troublesome source of interference to other receivers, and for this reason a decline in the use of regenerative sets is being forced by public opinion. high-frequency amplifiers—in the second type (high-fre- quency amplifier) the high-frequency currents are amplified by a multi-tube amplifier before being impressed on the detector tube, which converts them to audio-frequency currents. if no precautions are taken to avoid coupling between the output and input of the amplifier this type may also be regenerative. various expedients are employed in the design and construction of high-frequency amplifier types to guard against regeneration and to make them stable and non-oscillating. intermediate-frequency type—in this type the modulated high-frequency currents from the antenna are combined in a converter tube with continuous high-frequency currents gen- erated by an oscillator tube circuit. from their interaction in the converter tube there results a modulated intermediate fre- quency, usually of the order of 50 kilocycles. the intermediate- frequency currents are amplified and passed to a detector tube, which reproduces audio-frequency currents from them. this type of set is stable and easily adjusted. it is, however, usually more complicated and expensive than the other types. amplifiers —all types of receiving sets except the simplest contain or must be used with audio-frequency amplifiers, which, coming after the detector tube, amplify the aucio-frequency currents to a sufficient intensity so that they will operate the telephone receivers or loud speakers which reproduce the sound vibrations. in order not to distort the high-frequency or audio- frequency currents it is necessary that the various circuits in the receiving set pass these currents with equal efficiencies for the different frequencies in the band, and that the various tubes, particularly the detector and audio-frequency amplifier tubes, be of sufficient size to transmit the currents without becoming overloaded. the portions of the receiving system in which distortion is hardest to avoid are the audio-frequency amplificr and loud speaker. the best amplifiers are designed to amplify uniformly all frequencies ranging from too cycles, or even less, to §,000 cycles or more, since all these frequencies are important in accurate reproduction of speech and music. in the same way the broadcasting transfer efficiency from electric energy to sound energy by the loud speaker should be substantially constant over this range. the load-carrying capacity of the amplifier and loud speaker must be adequate to provide the desired volume or distortion due to overloading will result. loud speakers.—loud speakers are roughly divided into two classes: the horn types and the hornless types. in the horn type the diaphragm is attached by its edges to the small end of a horn which forms a sort of megaphone to concentrate the sound. in one of the most common hornless types the diaphragm is a shallow cone, 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, made of paper or cardboard. the cone types have become very popular because they reproduce the lower frequencies or bass notes which give rich fullness and naturalness to music better than do the ordin- ary horn types. for the higher frequencies the two types are not so widely different. horns if made sufficiently long are also capable of reproducing the low notes. such long horns may be looped or coiled to avoid unwieldiness. it is not certain whether the horn or hornless type will ultimately be developed to the greatest perfection. forms of sets —in physical form receiving sets range all the way from an assemblage of the various elements or parts as separate units wired up by the user, to the most pretentious sets in which the entire system, including loud speaker and power supply sources, is housed in an elaborate cabinet designed to be a beautiful piece of furniture. the most ordinary arrangement, however, consists of the receiving set proper (enclosing the tuning and high-frequency circuits and very often also the audio- frequency amplifier), the batteries or other power supply sources for the vacuum tubes in the receiving set, and the telephone receivers or loud speaker. this combination is flexible, and the various parts of it may be purchased separately to suit the owner’s preference. power supply —from the user’s standpoint one of the annoying problems is that of power supply. the power supply for filament current is usually a storage or dry battery called the “a” battery. storage battery units have been developed which are simple and convenient for use in the home. they con- tain within one box both the battery and a means of charging it from electric lighting circuits. small dry batteries made up in block form and called “ b” batteries are commonly used to supply the small current at 50 to 150 volts required by the vacuum tube plate circuits. there are also used to a considerable extent so-called “‘ b battery eliminators.”” these are devices in which alternating current from a lighting circuit is rectified and filtered to supply plate circuit current. in some receiving systems using vacuum tubes that require only a small filament current, this also is obtained by rectification from lghting cir- cuits and the entire set is operated from an electric-light socket, thus doing away entirely with batteries. problems of radio transmission when the radio waves are thrown out or radiated from the antenna at the transmitting station they tend to spread out in all directions somewhat as do the waves in a pool of water when a stone is dropped into it. as they travel outward in ever- increasing circles their initial energy is spread over a larger and larger circumference, so that the intensity of the waves must correspondingly decrease. if the energy merely spread out in this way, none of it being lost, the wave intensity would change inversely as the distance increased. but due to the absorption in the atmosphere and in the ground of a part of the wave encrgy, which is thus dissipated as heat, the falling-off of wave intensity with distance is more rapid. the amounts of absorp- tion caused by various kinds of terrain differ widely, being smali- est for transmission over the ocean or bodies of salt water, and increasingly greater for fresh water and dry land. since a broadcasting station is usually not surrounded on all sides by a uniform terrain, the efficiency of wave-travel in different direc- tions is not the same. as a result the received wave intensity may not be the same at all points equidistant from the trans- mitting station. brock—brooke, rupert mountains and steel frame building areas of large cities cause particularly heavy abserption, which may amount to almost complete suppression of the waves, so that on the far side of such obstructions there is sometimes an area of very low wave in- tensity called a “ dead spot.”? at such places, or near places where the terrain changes abruptly, as at a coast line, the waves may be deflected somewhat from their course and be thrown across the path of another part of the waves which has not been deflected. this gives rise to wave interference patterns of the same nature as those produced at the edges of shadows by diffraction of light. since radio waves are millions of times longer than light waves the patterns are relatively gigantic, and one stich pattern may cover an area of 100 sq. m. or more. within the area the wave intensities at points separated from each other by only a fraction of a mile may show wide differences. interference —i{ the wave intensity were the only factor in radio reception it would theoretically be possible to receive from a station at any distance, since, as the waves became weaker, the sensitiveness of the receiving system could be in- creased by using more amplifiers. however, the atmosphere is nearly always filled with vagrant radio waves which enter the receiving set, producing noises called “‘ interference,” which sub- merge the weak radio signals it is desired to receive. these vagrant waves come from a multitude of sources. the most potent come from the atmosphere itself, which, in a manner not yet fully understood but commonly thought to be due at least in part to thunderstorms, produces waves which cause in the receiver crackling sounds known as ‘ atmospherics,”’ or, less properly but more popularly, as “ statics.’’ the various sorts of electrical systems which are a part of every modern community where broadcasting exists are capable of throwing off radio waves when the currents flowing in them change abruptly. these may give rise to clicking, buzzing and chattering noises. the vagrant waves are present at all frequencies and therefore cannot be tuned out by the selectivity of the receiving set. for this reason satisfactory, noise-free reception from a station can be obtained only in areas where its signal wave intensity is much greater than the intensity of the vagrant waves. the intensity and amount of the ‘“‘ atmospherics ”’ change with the time of day and season of the year, being greater at night and much greater in the summer time. superimposed on these regular changes are large fortuitous variations. the amount of absorption of radio waves at broadcasting frequencies is influenced markedly by sunlight, being less at night. on account of these two varia- bles, which are not closely rclated to each other in detail, satis- factory reception from distant broadcasting stations 1s largely a matter of chance. in densely populated areas, where there also is interference from powerful nearby broadcasting stations and perhaps from a multitude of regenerative receivers, recep- tion from distant stations becomes well-nigh impossible. fading.—another impediment to radio reception at distances of more than 100 or 200 m. is an annoying waxing and waning of the signal intensity, called “ fading.” the causes of this phenomenon are not fully known, but the evidence so far adduced has led to a theory that at distant points waves from the trans- mitter arrive by two or more routes at least, one of which is by way of the upper reaches of the earth’s atmosphere. at times these waves coming by different routes oppose and nullify each other, while at other times they add together and assist each other. in going through these two states in progressive alter- nation they produce fading. the fading may be sclective as to frequency, so that the different frequencies within the band transmitted by a station are differently affected and there is distortion of the received speech or music. interconnection of broadcasting stations —the method of achieving widespread distribution of a broadcast programme which has been applied most successfully is that of intercon- necting a number of stations by telephone wires so that they all simultaneously broadcast the same programme. these broad- casting stations, located at strategic points scattered over the area to be served, permit most listeners to receive the pro- gramme just as satisfactorily as they receive local programmes. 459 the audio-frequency currents from the microphone which picks up the programme, afier passing through the control operator's amplifier, are delivered to a system of telephone lines which in many respects resembles an electric power distributing network. trunk wires go out from the programme centre to various parts of the country, and from these, at appropriate points, connecting wires branch off to the broadcasting stations. telephone repeaters are placed in the circuits at suitable points to amplify the currents so that they may reach the broadcasting stations without material loss in volume. as has already been pointed out, distortion of the telephone currents must be very small or the faithfulness of reproduction at receiving points will be spoiled. on this account the very best kinds of telephone circuits and associated apparatus are employed. this form of large scale broadcasting has reached its greatest development in the united states and england. in the united states as many as 29 stations have thus been tied together to broadcast a common programme of national importance. on such an occasion many thousands of miles of land wires are in- volved, and stations on the pacific and atlantic coasts 3,000 m. apart broadcast the same programme in unison. in england as well as in the united states chains of stations less widely scattered are in everyday use. bipltiograruy.—technical development in radio broadcasting has been so rapid and so recent that up-to-date information must be sought in current issues of technical periodicals. articles on receiv- ing systems are usually confined to one type or to the products of one manufacturer. for fundamental information see references under wireless telegrapity and telephony. for transmitting systems and transmission the following articles are suggested: edward l. nelson, ‘ transmitting equipment for radio telephone broad- casting,”’ proceedings of the institute of radio engineers, vol. 12, p. §53 (1924); julius weinberger, ‘ broadcasting transmitting stations of the radio corporation of america,” preceedings of the institute of radio engineers, vol. 12, p. 745. ralph brown, deloss k, martin, and ralph kk. potter, ‘‘ some studies in radio trans- mission;’’ proceedings of the institute of radio engineers ce ign?) » bo, brock, sir thomas (1847-10922), british sculptor (see 4.623c), produced amongst other works after 1910: busts of king edward vii. (1911), lord lister (1913, for the royal college of surgeons, london) and edwin abbey, r.a. (1917, for the british school in rome); statues of capt. cook (1914, in the mall, london) and of lord sydenham (1915, in bombay). in 1911 he was created k.c.b. he died in london aug. 22 1922. brockdorff-rantzau, ulrich, count von (1869- ); german diplomatist, was born in schleswig may 29 1860. after some years in the army he transferred to the diplomatic service. from 1909 to 1rgr2 he was consul-general at budapest, and from r912 to r9or8 german minister at copenhagen. on dec. 20 1918 he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs, in which capacity he led the german delegation at the peace conference at versailles in april rorg. unwilling to advise the german govt. to accept the terms of the treaty of versailles, he resigned on june 20. in 1922 he was appointed german ambassador in moscow. bronchitis: see respiratory system, diseases of tif. brooke, rupert (1887-1915), british poet, second son of w.p. brooke, a master at rugby school, was born at rugby aug. 3 1887 and educated there. he entered king’s college, cambridge, in 1906, where he took the classical tripos (1909) and achieved considerable personal distinction among his con- temporaries, notably by his foundation of the marlowe dramatic society. ile returned to rugby for a short time as acting house- master in 1909. in rorr he travelled in germany and italy, publishing his first poems in that year. after election to a fellow- ship at king’s college in ror3, he sct out on wide travels in the united states, canada, hawati, fiji and new zealand, and had hardly returned to england when war broke out. in sept. 1914 srooke reccived a commission in the royal naval division and took part in the antwerp operations in october. in the hood battalion of the div., he sailed for gallipoli early in 1915, but died suddenly of blood poisoning at scyros april 23 1915, where he was buried. his posthumous book of poems, 460 brooke, 8. 1914 and other poems, appeared in 1915; the war sonnets therein made his name familiar to thousands beyond the smaller circles of readers who had already appreciated his talent. his other published works were a study of john webster (1916) and letters from america (1916). see collected poems of rupert brooke, with a memoir (1918). brooke, stopford augustus (1832-1916), british divine and man of letters (see 4.645}, died at ewhurst, surrey, march 18 ro16. see l. p. jacks, life and letiers of stopford brooke (1917). broqueville, charles marie pierre albert, courter de (1860~ ), belgian politician, was born at moll, belgium, dec. 4 1860. from 1892 to 1919 he was catholic deputy for turnhout, limbourg. from 1910-2 he was minister of rail- ways, posts and telegraphs and he became prime minister of the govt. formed on june 18 rg11. after the elections of r912 he formed a new cabinet, in which he acted as minister of war until aug. 1917. he introduced an army bill, making general service personal and obligatory, which became law in 1913. in 1914 de broqueville was responsible for the mobilisation of the army, which enabled belgium to resist the german onslaught. while at havre, after the battle of the yser, he undertook the reorganisation of the belgian army and established munition factories. in consequence of the peace proposals emanating from prince sixte de bourbon and the emissaries of von der lancken, the german civil representative in brussels, de broqueville handed in his resignation as head of the cabinet. in 1917 he became i‘or- eign minister, afterwards acting as minister of reconstruction until may 1918. he became a minister of state on may 31 1918 and was minister of the interior in m. delacroix’s cabinet from nov. of that year until nov. ror9, when he resigned from the chamber of representatives and was elected senator for the province of namur. brown, francis (1849-1916), american semitic scholar (see 4.658), died in new york oct. 15 1916. he had been presi- dent of union theological seminary, new york, since 1908. in rorr he was tried for heresy before the presbyterian general board on the ground that he had published statements ‘“‘ con- trary to cherished presbyterian and evangelical doctrines,” but was exonerated. brown, john george (1831-1913), american painter (sce 4.661), died in new york city feb. 8 1913. browne, edward granville (1862-1926), british ori- entalist, was born at uley, near dursley, gloucestershire, feb. 4» 1862. educated at trinity college, glenalmond, and then at eton and pembroke college, cambridge, he studied medicine and oriental languages. in 1887 he was elected a fellow of his college in the same year qualifying m.b. at st. bartholomew’s hos- pital, london, but he never practised as a doctor. in 1887~8 he travelled in persia, becoming afterwards lecturer in persian at cambridge. in 1902 he was appointed adams professor of arabic at cambridge, a post he held until his death. in 1906 he married alice caroline blackburn daniell, who died in 1925. browne’s published works include a trazeller’s narrative (1891); literary history of persia until the time of firdawst (1902), con- tinuations of which were published in 1906, 1920 and 1924; the persian revolution, 1905-9 (1910); a translation of chaher magdla, with notes (1921); and arabian medicine (1921). he died in cambridge jan. 5 1926. browning, john m. (1854- ), american inventor, was born at ogden, utah, of mormon parentage. from childhood he displayed a remarkable talent for invention. in 1879 he secured his first patent for a breech-loading, single-shot ritle, which patent he sold to the remington company. he designed many types of sporting firearms such as the remington auto- loading shotguns and ritles; the winchester repeating shotguns, single-shot and repeating rifles; the stevens rifles; and the colt automatic pistols. in 1890 a machine gun of his design, but known as the colt, was adopted by the u.s. army. he always avoided publicity. in one establishment only was his name used, a.— bruce the fabrique nationale at liege, belgium, browning was made a chevalier of the order of leopold by king albert, on the occa- sion of the completion of the millionth browning automatic pistol at liege. he later developed two types of machine-guns, which were adopted by the united states in 1918 for use in the world war. one of these guns on test fired 39,000 rounds before breakage developed. in lieu of royalties, which would have amounted to some $10,000,000, he accepted from the u.s. govt. a lump sum of $1,500,000. browning, oscar (1837-1923), british writer (see 4.670), published afemories of sixty years at eton, cambridge and else- where in 1910, and afemories of later years in 1923. he died in rome oct. 6 1923. bruce, stanley melbourne (1884- ), australian politician, was born in victoria of a wealthy mercantile family. educated first at melbourne grammar school, in 1902 he went to trinity hall, cambridge. he rowed in the university boat- race in 1904, and after graduating was called to the bar by the middle temple in 1907, but shortly afterwards he inherited a partnership in the melbourne firm of merchants, paterson, laing and bruce. he was again in england when the world war began, received a commission in the royal fusiliers, took part in the landing at suvla bay and was seriously wounded in the first day’s fighting. later he served with such distinction in france that he was awarded the military cross and the croix de guerre, and was promoted to the rank of captain; and in 1917, having been wounded again, he was invalided back to australia. he resumed his commercial work in melbourne, and in the same year, on the elevation of sir william ervine to the chief justice- ship of victoria, successfully contested the vacant constituency of flinders and was returned to the commonwealth parliament. partly owing to his own ability and partly owing to circum- stances, mr. bruce’s political progress was extraordinarily rapid. in 1921 he chanced to be in europe when some one was required, at short notice, to represent australia at the second assembly of the league of nations. he was appointed, and his report to the commonwealth parliament increased his reputation as a clear thinker and logical, if uninspired, speaker. soon after- wards, when sir joseph cook became high commissioner in london, mr. bruce succeeded him, after only four years’ expe- rience of politics, as treasurer in the cabinet led by mr. w. m. hughes. in this office, which 1s second only to that of the prime minister, mr. bruce’s knowledge of commerce and law proved extremely useful and he soon built up a reputation as an essen- tially sane and level-headed man of affairs rather than an orator or picturesque leader of men. these qualities appealed to a country burdened by heavy war debts and many problems arising out of the war. mr. bruce profited, too, by the growing dislike of the national party formed by mr. hughes during the war. in eb, 1923 the tottering hughes ministry fell, and mr. bruce, as the leader of the liberal wing of the national party, suc- ceeded in forming an alliance with the leader of the country party, dr. earle page, who took office as treasurer. mr. bruce’s leadership was not, perhaps, distinguished by the brilliance and personal magnetism that were such conspicuous attributes of mr. hughes, but he showed judgment and restraint in his relations with labour, marked administrative ability and a sound grasp of australia’s problems and sentiment; and if, by the end of 1925, his term of office had not been marked by any outstanding achievement he had at least made no bad blunders. in imperial affairs he might be described in bagehot’s phrase as an apostle of animated moderation, standing for as warm and close a relationship with great britain as is consistent with australia’s interests as a completely self-governing dominion. under his leadership the federal parliament maintained the cus- toms preference to british goods and agreed to a great migration scheme—though the fruits of this latter project were, owing to the difficulties of the states, rather disappointing; and at every opportunity, notably the imperial conference in 1923, he showed himself to be a vigorous leader of australian thought and senti- ment and a staunch believer in the future of a british common- wealth of nations with great britain as its head. like mr. bruch—brussels hughes, however, he strongly distrusted any plan for imperial federation, under which any one dominion would necessarily have only small representation, and was content to insist upon the national status granted to australia at the peace conference (1919) together with the right to be consulted by the british cabinet in any matters affecting australia’s welfare. (ed) bruch, max (1838-1920), german musical composer (see 4.677), died in berlin oct. 2 1920. bruges (see 4.678) had in 1923 a population of 52,861. the improvement of transport between the town and zeebrugge, which was beginning to make itself felt before the world war, promises to restore something of bruges’ former prosperity. new docks have been built communicating with the sea by a canal 23 ft. deep. during the world war, bruges remained some 20 m. behind the german front at dixmude and was at first of little military importance, but with the growth of submarine warfare and the abandonment of ostend as a naval base it became a centre for assembling the parts of submarines. by the spring of 1918 the various docks and concrete shelters could accommodate 35 destroyers and about 30 submarines. captain fryatt, of the “ brussels,’”’ was shot with r1 belgians and one frenchman in the cavalry barracks in the rue longue on july 27 1916. a tablet to their memory has been placed on the wall, now called “‘ mur des fusilles,’’ and in the same enclosure is a separate memorial to fryatt. little material damage was done to the town, except to the canal docks where enormous numbers of bombs were dropped, but property was taken to the value of 20,000,000 francs and an elaborate rest house, baths, etc., for the use of german officers were built at the expense of the townspeople. the town was in german occupation for four years, though the allies were within sight of it after the capture of the passchen- daele ridge in nov. 1917. the belgians re-entered it unopposed in oct. 1918. brunn or brno (see 4.684) is now in czechoslovakia, the seat of the supreme court, and the centre of the woollen industry of the country. the population in 1921 was 221,758, so that it has more than doubled since 1900, when the figure was 108,944. the masarykova (czech) university was opened in 1918. brunner, heinrich (1840-1915), german historian (see 4.685), published in 1909 geschichte der englischen rechtsquellen im grundriss. in 1913 he issued a 6th ed. of grundziige der deut- schen rechtsgeschichte. he died at bad kissingen aug. 11 1915. bruno, paul (1874- ), german architect and painter, was born jan. 19 1874 at seifhennerstorf in saxony. he re- ceived his artistic training at the kunsgewerbe schule (school of applied arts) at dresden, and at the academy at munich. he first made a name as an artist by his drawings for sim d/izts- simus. later his designs for the munchner werkstitts (fine arts industry) attracted attention. in 1go0o he received the grand prix in paris; in 1902 the highest distinction at turin; in 1904, the grand prix at st. louis; and in 1906 the highest distinction at dresden. in 1907, he was appointed director of instruction at the state muscum of applied arts in berlin. he was also elected a member of the academy of arts in berlin and the deutsche werkbund. he wrote a pamphlet on the education of artists at state schools (1919), which has become a classic. brusa, turkey (see 4.691), had a population, at the census of 1924, of 102,217. but for the comparative proximity to the sea this ancient and beautiful city would probably have become the capital of the new turkish republic. during the greco- turkish conflict (1919-22) brusa and neighbourhood was the scene of severe fighting. in april 1920 the sultan’s force under anzavur bey, when advancing on brusa, was defeated by the nationalists, who in their turn were defeated and driven out of the city in aug. by the northern army of the advancing greeks. when the final rout of their main forces took place, in 1922, the greeks offered a stubborn resistance at brusa, and did not finally withdraw until sept. 12. before this retirement a commission of allied officers arrived to prevent any wanton damage being done to the architectural masterpieces in the city, 461 brusilov, alexei alexeievich (1853-10926), russian soldier, was born aug. 19 1853, of an old family. he began his military career as a cavalry officer in the caucasus and in the russo-turkish war of 1877-8 he distinguished himself by his courage and resource. in 1900 he was appointed director of the officers’ cavalry school at st. petersburg (leningrad). after commanding the second guard cavalry division, he was in 1909 placed in command of an army corps, and later became assistant to gen. skalon, commander-in-chief of the warsaw military district. on the outbreak of the world war brusilov {ook command of the vill. army, which participated in the in- vasion of galicia from the east. by sept. 1915, after varying fortunes, his army had secured possession of rovno, and was in temporary occupation of lutsk. in april 1916 brusilov suc- ceeded ivanov as commander of the russian armies (vil, viii., ix., xi.) south of the pripet marshes. a great offensive was launched during the summer of 1916 which brought much- needed relief to the italian armies by compelling the withdrawal of considerable enemy forces to face the crisis of lutsk, but, owing to the lack of artillery munitions, this relief was bought at the price of very heavy russian losses. after the lvov coalition cabinet was formed in may 1917, brusilov was given supreme command of the russian armies, which, however, he did not long retain. during the fighting in moscow in nov., he was wounded by a chance bullet, though not himself actively engaged. he early realised that the com- munists were in fact creating anew the russian army and took no part in conspiracies against them. the polish war brought from him an appeal to russian officers to join in the national defence. he put his own knowledge and experience at the service of the red army. always a keen sportsman, he was latterly at the head of the state horse-breeding establishments and was always to be seen at the races. he died in moscow march 17 1926.