BOTANY

in treating generally of the progress and development of a science during a stated period attention may be either centred on specific events of importance which have marked that period, or directed to those gradual changes which 44 occur without any startling innovation, but still influence opin- ion or alter practice. we shall consider the progress of botany from both aspccts. discovery of a new class of plants.—it is not often that soshort a time as 15 years is stamped by any discovery of the first rank. but the foundation of a new class of plants justifies such a claim. the discovery of the psilophytales in the rhynie chert, of early devonian age, is an event not merely notable as introduc- ing in full detail a type of vegetation barely hinted at before, but also because the early land-plants so disclosed present ma- terial of the highest importance for comparison. the positive illumination which they bring in the region of morphology may be compared with that shed by the observations of hofmeister in 1857. the publication of the memoirs, in which they are fully illustrated, may be held as the most striking botanical event in these 15 years. this series of memoirs on old red sandstone plants from the rhynie chert bed (kidston and lang, trains. roy. soc. edin., 1917-21) embodies detailed descriptions of four species belonging to three distinct genera of land-plants; three of them are complete from end to end as they might be of any modern types. though vascular plants, they are rootless, and there is no difierentiation of stem and leaf. the relations of these plants to the living pstlophytales are clear'y recognised, though it was found necessary to establish a distinct class to receive them, associated as they now are with the old devonian fossil, psilo- piyton. the reticence which the authors show is one of the most remarkable features of these monographs. they stand as state- ments of objective fact, and will always have to be taken into account when the foundations of the morphology of the sporo- phyte are discussed. in particular these plants present a new aspect of the problem as to the origin of the main categories of members in vascular plants. the algae.—almost coincidentally with their publication there appeared a series of memoirs by dr. church of oxford, the most notable of which was an elaborate essay entitled ‘‘ thalassiophyta.’”’ they deal with the origin of the larger algae, and suggest views as to their relation to a land flora through some early but direct transition from marine to ter- restrial life. but no details of the actual transitory forms are supplied. in contrast with the memoirs on the rhynic chert these writings convey little in the nature of new fact. they are original but highly speculative, while the rhynie memoirs pro- vide material for new inductions with the minimum of theoretical conclusion. time will surely show which of the two methods is the more fruitful and scientific. generations in planis.—the old controversy on the antithetic as against the homologous origin of alternation of generations in plants had lost its intensity in tg1o, in face of the obvious deficiency of facts which could lead to a final conclusion. more- over the cytological detail in the development of the zygote in coleochaele did not support the suggestion that the mass of cells produced represents a rudimentary sporophyte (allen, ber. d. d. bot. ges., toos, p. 285). further, the product of germination of the zygote of oedogonium was regarded by some merely as a sporetetrad. little aid could be derived from the life histories of the desmids and diatoms, for they show in- constant suggestions of alternation in the making, but with the same cytological cycle at the back of all. the brown algae also tell an inconstant tale; for on one side we see a cycle of balanced alternation of haploid and diploid phases, such as was demon- strated for dictyota by lloyd-wiliams: on the other is the lop-sided cycle of fucus, where there is no independent haploid generation at all beyond the gametangia themselves, and the substantive plant is diploid. ‘the period under discussion has happily shed light on this difficulty by the demonstration, through various hands, of a minute but independent game- tophyte in laminaria. those who will, may see in it some elu- cidation of the state of fucus, and hold the view that there has been a progressive elimination of the independent gametophyte along lines roughly parallel to those of angiospermic plants, the final result appearing in the simple cycle of fucus itself. botany meanwhile a serious attack has been made at a more promising point by the study of the cytological history of one of the simpler brown algae. missknight (trans. roy. soc. edin., vol. 53, 1923) has shown that the cycle of pylatella may be traced from diploid plants bearing unilocular sporangia and haploid spores, to haploid plants producing haploid gametes whose fusion results in the re-establishment of the diploid condition. but the completion of this cycle may be indefinitely postponed by a long succession of haploid and diploid individuals, while there appears to be no obligate relationship between the cytological states of the somatic nuclei and the kind of sporangium developed on a given thallus. in fact, in pylaielfa the cvtological state cannot be viewed as determining the nature of the reproductive cells. this instability suggests that we sce here a form of alternation nascent rather than complete; and it stimulates interest in a con- tinued cytological study of other simple algae. cytology of the red seaweeds—the complicated life histories of the red seaweeds have, during the period under review, been reduced to a common cytological scheme, through the investiga- tions of yamanouchi, kylin, svedelius and others. in the simpler types the reduction takes place on the first division of the egg (scinaia), so that the egg only is diploid and the rest of the cycle haploid, reproducing vegetatively by monospores: this state is not unlike that of oedogonium. but in others three distinct generations may occur in the life history, the reduction taking place in the tefrasporangium. ‘the germination of a tetraspore gives a haploid gametophyte; on syngamy the result may be a diploid carposporophyte, which is dependent upon the sexual plant and produces carpospores. these again on germination produce diploid tetrasporophytes, bearing after reduction haploid tetraspores; and these again germinate to form game- tophytes that may be dioecious. notwithstanding the variabil- ity and the apparent complication of these life histories, as first described by bornet and thuret, they prove to be based upon a simple cytological cycle, essentially similar to that which stras- burger demonstrated in 1894 underlying the alternation of the archegoniatae, as first described by hofmeister. cytology of the algae.—there is in point of fact a high degree of variety in the way in which the cytological cycle fits upon the succession of formal changes in the algae. ‘these plants may be regarded as showing an instability of “‘ generations ”’ that is not dominated or corrected by environment, since the conditions under which the cycle is executed are as a rule relatively uniform. it is different with the landliving archegoniatac. here the nu- clear cycle (though still open to occasional exceptions) is more definitely stabilised in relation to successive “‘ generations,” so that the sporophyte is normally, though not invariably, diploid, while the gametophyte is normally, though not invariably, hap- loid. it may be suggested rather than fully substantiated that this stabilisation has in descent been related to the land-habit and to that amphibious life which it imposed upon the earlier denizens of the land. this greater stability certainly accompanies the existence of the archegonium, an organ which is plainly a means of encapsulating the defenceless ovum in plants exposed to the air. some such general view of the archegonium, first suggested by schenck and by lang, formed the background of many of the arguments advanced in the discussion on alternation at the linnaean society in t90q (new phyt., vol. 8, p. 104). if the archegoniate type of alternation be thus regarded as stabilised in accordance with an amphibious habit, though pos- sibly initiated in some less stable ancestral cycle, the old con- troversy between antithetic and homologous alternation may be held as drawn. the field has been appreciably widened from the restricted source of comparison with green algae. the problem of the future in this relation, will be not so much the origin of the gametophyte and sporophyte respectively, as that of the correspondence of the diploid and haploid states with somatic phases characterised by differences of external form. for the nuclear cycle appears to be a more constant thing than the formal phases of the soma upon which it 1s imposed. one feature, however, appears to be general, viz., that a diploid nuclear state habitually underlies the most complex structure botany that the soma has attained. what is specially required as a foundation for a settled opinion on alternation is a wider knowl- edge of the nuclear cycle in the simpler forms of algae. but even when such facts come to hand, it may still be a question whether the archegoniatae are related phyletically to any known algae, or yet whether they all sprang from one common source. morphology and physiology —the relations between morphol- ogy and physiology have been changing during the years under review (1910-26). the old formal morphology, which dealt with conformation in the abstract and submitted the data to stiff objective comparison, has now given place more fully than ever before to that treatment which is best described under the title of organography. not only is the method of schleiden adopted, which ordained that development is the foundation of all insight into morphology, but that development is now studicd from the point of view of the conditions under which it proceeds. the re- sults are consciously and intentionally related to the impress of those conditions upon the individual life. this aspect of form is presented in a work which will probably be held as, more than any other, representative of the period, viz., the second edition of the organographie der pflanzen (1913-23), by professor karl von goebel. in its 2,000 pages there is embodied a great mass of fact, methodically stated and treated comparatively. but the work suffers from a want of close co-ordination of the rich material, and from the absence of any apparent attempt to draw the isolated threads together into any gencral conclusion that can be held as phyletic. moreover the material, magnificent as it actually is, is singularly deficient in two essential features, viz., in comparison of the internal structure of the adult plant, particularly of the characteristics of the vascular system, and in the comparison of related fossils with the data from living vegetation. in the absence of these aspects, so essential as they now are for any balanced comparative conclusion, the deficiency of positive phyletic results is readily intelligible. probably such results lay entirely outside the scheme of the distinguished au- thor. his object may have been the study of organography in the abstract, in which case he has fully achieved his end. scheme of descent.—during the period under review opinion has been gradually assuming some more definite form as to a general scheme of descent of the vegetable kingdom. it has been influenced by the new and positive data of palaeontology which have emerged (sce palaeobotany). the data may not appear greatly to aid the construction of any “evolutionary tree.” they tend rather to induce a negative opinion, that, though signs of convergence downwards may sometimes be recognised, if any connection of the several lines existed at all it must needs be sought in periods of time prior to those of which we have any exact knowledge at present. such a view is supported by the early existence of wood of conifcrous type, such as that of hugh miller’s ‘“ cone-bearing tree,’”’ from the old red sandstone of cromarty. | importance of palacontological records —the investigation of cospermatopteris,! presumably a pteridosperm from the de- vonian of new york state, appears to support the view, al- ready beginning to be entertained, that the filicales and the pteridosperms were more distinct from one another in descent than had been previously believed; perhaps that they represent separate lines of evolution from some such a type of vegetation as is seen in the rhynie fossils. a still more separate origin must be sought for the lycopodiales, equisetales and sphenophy!lales, and for the bryophyta. on the other hand the palaeontological evidence has become more and more explicit in showing the priority of eusporangiate as against leptosporangiate ferns. it is even doubtful whether any typical leptosporangiatae were existent in palaeozoic time. with such a basis already secured for a phyletic scheme within the class of the filicales, it is be- coming possible to lay out the several families of ferns with some degree of certainty as to their evolutionary relations, their progressive features being constantly subject to check according to their remarkably consistent palaeontological record from the carboniferous period onwards. 1w. goldring, new york state museum bulletin (march 1924). 415 such results for the pteridophytes depend upon a wide range of comparison, combined with a consecutive palacontological record. this is shared in some degree by the gymnosperms, and remarkable progress has been made in their study both in the living and the fossil states, especially in america (see palaeo- botany) and compare the writings of coulter and chamberlain, of jeffrey, of wieland and of lawson of sydney, australia. but the angiosperms present a problem hitherto well-nigh in- soluble, notwithstanding much intensive examination of their fossil remains. no doubt the system of engler was an advance upon its predecessors. no one will feel confident satisfaction in its results. what is required is some great extension of the criteria of comparison by which the higher plants may be scriated, together with more ample palaeontological data accord- ing to which the results of those comparisons may be checked. without such added means the end, viz., a naturally phyletic grouping of angiospermic plants, seems not yet to be within sight. tentative efforts have been made from time to time, but the success has been slight or partial. perhaps complete success may never be attained, for on the one hand essential features of the propagative organs of angiosperms are highly standardised: as witness the constancy of the embryo-sac and its contents; of the pollen-sac and pollen grains; and of the embryogeny. on the other hand, the vegetative system is very directly subject to modification according to circumstances. thus the most valu- able ground for their seriation is cut away from under the feet of the phyletic systematist of the angiosperms. probably the best means of advancing this difficult branch will be to begin from the distal end, by the specific and generic study of some carefully selected families. as such results become cumulative it may become increasingly possible, with the help of palaeon- tological data, to probe downwards towards the earlier sources. but in practice this method is still in its infancy. cytology.—in cytology (q.v.) and its allied branch of heredity (g.v.), the general tendency has been toward a less implicit con- fidence in the exclusive importance of the chromosome. but on the other hand ‘a beginning has been made in the critical review of older classifications of the algae and fungi on the basis of cytological characters in a broader sense. as regards the chro- mosomes themselves the position as stated by bateson appears still to hold, that all the evidence points to the conclusion “ that we are about to find among the chramosomes one more illustra- tion of the paradoxical incidence of specific difference, not the fundamental phenomenon on which that difference depends ”’ (mendel’s princtples of heredity, 1909, pp. 270). as regards heredity the fundamental importance of the establishment by johannsen of the pure-line principle has become ever more evi- dent, and it is now embodied in the practice of plant breeding stations. but this need not by anv means exclude the possibility of change of features in the pure lines themselves, tn which in any case rare mutations are known to occur: in particular such changes as may result from the impress of environment extended over periods of secular time. evolution in plants the years under review have witnessed changes in opinion on evolutionary questions, but these have not yet consolidated into any general agreement respecting the methods of evolution in plants. the eager pursuit of the chromo- some, stimulated as it was by the coming of mendeclism (q.v.) has not provided any completely satisfactory solution. it is now realised more clearly than before that mendelian segrega- tion is at best a distributing agency; it is not a means of producing new characters, though characters may be grouped by its means, as in prof. biffen’s wheats. the real question is that of the origin of heritable features. in this connection there is a pronounced tendency to break loose from the old obsession of weismannism. it is beginning to be realised that the whole mechanism of sexuality in the two kingdoms of living things has been homo- plastic in origin; for the segregation of the kingdoms (if they ever had a common origin) certainly antedated the distinction of sex, and apparently also the existence of any form of 416 conjugation. accordingly it is quite immaterial to the botanist (except for purposes of interesting comparison) what views may be held by zoologists as to the way in which inherited characters may have appeared in animals. in particular, the early segrega- tion of the gonad in animal embryology has no counterpart in the plant, and with this falls away any cogency as regards plants that weismann’s argument from that source may have possessed, against the inheritance of characters acquired during the life- time of the parent. the readiness with which the individual plant is moulded by the conditions under which it develops would make it appear probable that the race should also be so moulded. given the latitude of secular time for the effect to be impressed as heritable, in contrast to the brief period of experi- ments which appear to give a negative result, it would seem, a priori, probable that many characters held as adaptive may have been so inherited: in fact that the distinction between fluctuating variations and mutations is not absolute. in the case of the filicales, with their long palaeontological history, a consecutive argument may be advanced supporting this view (see evolution). — the “ mnemic theory.’—in his presidential address to the british association in dublin in 1908, sir francis darwin ad- vanced a mnemic theory as applicable to plants. he had found it possible to impose rhythmic movements upon certain plants experimentally, by stimuli repeated at intervals; the rhythmic reaction was continued after the stimulus was removed. this suggested to him a reception of engrams, such as played a part in the mnemic theory of semon. his address has received less attention than it deserves. botanists should allow themselves full freedom from the views of weismann, which have been im- posed upon them on grounds which in plants have no cogency. when this is done the way will appear open for a rational ex- planation of those characters which are held to be “ adaptive ”’: without it they appear unintelligible, and even fortuitous. development of plant physiology—the opening of the present century has been marked by great extension in the opportunities for research into the physiology of plants. not only is this seen in the better equipment of departments in universities and col- leges, but also in separate establishments carrying on physio- logical enquiry apart from teaching. it will suffice to mention as examples of these in britain, the john innes institute at merton, the royal horticultural society’s station at wisley, the lawes institute at rothamsted, now greatly extended with increased staff, plant-breeding establishments, such as those of corstor- phine and aberystwith, and marine stations, such as plymouth and millport. similar stations exist also abroad, notably in america, where they culminate in such centres as the desert station at tucson, the marine laboratory at woods hole, and in the newly established and richly equipped thompson institute at yonkers. funds have become available in many lands for purchase of costly apparatus necessary for experiments under constant and controlled conditions, such as are necessary for arriving at quantitative physiological results. since special articles appear under the headings ecotocy, paruoltocy, pro- tosynthesis and physiology, it is not necessary here to pass into detail on these branches. but in case any workers less richly endowed than others should be discouraged by lack of financial support, it may be well to remember that money cannot buy mentality, while the excellence of the work in an institute is often in the inverse ratio of the facilities, as reinke long ago remarked. during the period, the physiological work of sir jagadis chandra bose has been brought prominently before the public eye in the newspapers. his observations were based upon the use of remarkably elaborated recording instruments, the readings of which require most accurate checking and correction. un- fortunately the statement of the results has been in terms pictorial rather than scientific, which has aroused criticism rather than acceptance both in europe and in america. importance of systematic botany.—increase in the facilities for physiological research may bring certain risks with it, and there is at the present time some reason for entering a caution based upon the history of a past period. between 1860 and 1880 botha the condition of botanical teaching in british universities was deplorable. this was due partly to a want of initiative in the professoriate that is not likely to recur, but more to perverted ideals consequent upon the insistent demands of empire. a sim- ilar state characterised also the american universities. there, as in great britain, botanists were chiefly engaged in systematic and descriptive work, and physiology in the broadest sense was in abeyance. it required a minor revolution, conducted by those who found their stimulus in foreign text-books and continental laboratories, to adjust the perverted balance. by its means a safe middle position had been attained by the end of the century. the head of any university department was then expected to cover adequately the whole field of his science: to turn out graduates well grounded in all its branches, and able to specialise in any of them. the tendency now appears to be towards a com- pletion of the pendulum-swing to an opposite extreme to that of 1870, and to turn out specialists highly expert in certain branches only, and, in particular, physiologists who know little or nothing of morphology. the demand of the govt. for the supply of fungologists, plant pathologists and the like enhances this risk, and encourages rapid production of the highly specialised expert rather than the fully equipped botanist. official sanction has lately been given to a lop-sided training in the pages of the new phytologist. it has there been urged that morphology should be given a sub- ordinate place in botanical education, and physiology a superior position. thus within half a century we see evidence of an ex- treme swing of the pendulum, from 1870 when systematic botany ruled and physiology was ignored, to a present position when physiology is advanced by some at the expense of mor- phology. it must be borne in mind that systematic botany is but the methodised product of morphology, and morphology the record of continued physiological action. the several branches can never be detached with impunity. preferential treatment of physiology would tend to restrict the supply of those trained systematists of whom the british empire has constant need, but of whom the supply is already deficient. the divergence of in- terests here referred to is not restricted to great britain. it is hable to occur wherever there is a large and specialised depart- mental stafi. high specialisation brings a risk of a loss of gen- eral view over the whole field of a science, such a view as is essential for well-balanced judgment; and it is most of all necessary in those whose duty it is to direct large organisations, such as a government garden, or more particularly the depart- ment of botany in a university. here the training should be such as to fit students equally for the pursuit of all branches of the science, rather than to turn out finished experts ready to meet at once governmental needs in any one branch. bibliography.—in addition to works mentioned in the text, the following may be consulted:—gen. n. bernard, l’evolution des plantes (1916); e. strasburger, text-book of botany (1921); f. cavers, plant biology (1923); e. strasburger, [jandbook of practical botany (1924); f. o. bower, plants and man (1925). morpholocy.—d. h. scott, introduction to structural botany, vol. 1; flowering plants (1917), vol. 2; flowerless plants azo, evolution of planis (1919); e. e. fritsch and e. j. salisbury, intro- duction to the structure and reproduction of plants (1920); f. o. bower, bofany of the living plant (1923). physiology.—g. haberlandt, phystologische pflanzenanatomie (1918); p. haas and t. g. hill, chemistry of plant products (1921-2): j. c. bose, physiology of the ascent of sap (1923); v. i. palladin, plant physiology (1923); h. h. dixon, the transpiration stream (1924). distribution:—m. e. hardy, geography of plants (1920); j. c. willis, age and area (1922); a. g. tansley, practical plant ecology (1923); j. e. warming, oecelogy of plants (1925). algae:— . fryer, a. h. evans and a. bennett, the potamogetons of the british isles (1915); r. pilzer, die algen (1917); j. groves and g. r. bullock-webster, british charophyta (1920). fungi:—h. qo. juel, cytologische pilzstudien (1916, etc.); r. schwaeble, les champignons (1920); dame h. gwynne vaughan, fung: (cambridge, 1922). ferns, etc.:—r. n. bonaparte, notes pterodologiques (1915); s. l. basten, jiow fo know the ferns (1917); f. o. bower, the ferns (cambridge, 1923); flora g. bentham and j. d. hooker, handbook of british flora (1924). (fr. o. b.) botha, louis (1862-1919), boer soldier and statesman (see 4.303). botha’s conciliatory policy in the transvaal was one of botha the prime factors in promoting a better feeling between dutch and english throughout south africa and so encouraging the movement towards closer union. he himself had long realised the need of such union for the peace of south africa, and he wel- comed lord selborne’s afemorandum of 1907 as a basis of dis- cussion. the delegation from the transvaal to the convention of rg0o8—-9, composed as it was of dutch and english, most of whom had been fighting one another six years before, was, of all, the most effective and harmonious. this was chiefly due to the tact and careful preparation of botha and his lieutenant, general smuts, who with their colleagues had worked out the policy of close union which ultimately found expression in the constitu- tion adopted. in the lengthy deliberations of the convention his influence, supported by his transvaal colleagues, was outstand- ing; while the final difficulty about the capital, which threatened to wreck the whole proceedings, was overcome by his personal appeal to his own die-hards. first premier of south africa —botha was one of the delega- tion that took over the new constitution for sanction by the im- perial parliament in 1909, and on the proclamation of the union in may roro was asked by the governor-general to form the first south african ministry. though he rejected the idea of a coalition ministry as impracticable at the time, he had no idea of governing solely in the interests of the dutch; on the contrary he believed that his great object, the fusion of the two races, could be best attained by showing that his south african party, mainly, but by no means entirely, dutch in composition, could under his guidance deal fairly with english as well as dutch. as general smuts said of him, he “ had a vision of a great afri- kander nation . . . one great people of the white sections of the population of south africa.” he gave signal proof of this spirit when one of his ministers, mr. j. b. m. hertzog, made anti-english speeches in the country, by excluding him from the ministry (dec. 1912); and he persuaded a great meeting of his party, in spite of strong opposition led by de wet, to endorse his policy (1913). the confidence of his own party and the growing appreciation by the unionists of his conciliatory policy gave him the needful backing in dealing with two serious domestic difficulties in 1913 and 1914. the first was the question of settlement by indian immigrants, to which there was strong opposition in south africa. m. k. gandhi, supported as he was by the indian gov- ernment, proved an able advocate of the indians’ views; but finally general smuts, acting on behalf of the cabinet, made a compromise with which gandhi professed himself satisfied. the other difficulty was more serious. in july 1913 there was great unrest on the witwatersrand followed by a strike of the white miners and threats of a native rising also; many acts of violence occurred, and, to make matters worse, the union forces were being reorganised and so were not available. much against his will botha had to call on the imperial troops to deal with a domestic difficulty, and, after a collision between them and the johannesburg mob, he and smuts signed an unsatisfactory agrce- ment with the strikers. in the following jan. a still more serious strike broke out, which became general and stopped the entire railway service. but this time the government was prepared. the burgher force was called out, martial law was declared; and nine of the labour leaders were summarily deported without trial. the strike thereupon collapsed; and, though there was some criticism both in england and in south africa at the high-handed methods of repression adopted, the south african parliament endorsed the action taken by botha and smuts. the outbreak of war.—at the imperial conference of rgrr botha had familiarised himself with the foreign policy and the military resources of the empire. accordingly when war was declared against germany in aug. 1914, botha, contrary to the view of many of his dutch supporters, at once declared that south africa, as a part of the empire, was at war also. he sug- gested that the imperial troops might be recalled for service in europe, and offered to assure the defence of south africa by the union forces alone. further, on the invitation of the imperial government, he agreed to invade german south west africa. 417 but this was going much further than a large part of the dutch in south africa were prepared to follow him. while preparations were being made for the campaign, c. f. beyers, the comman- dant-general of the union forces, and s. g. maritz, the command- er on the german border, suddenly revolted and in oct. were joined by de wet. before the end of the year it is estimated that 12,000 rebels were in arms in the transvaal and the free state. though all the leaders and most of the rank and file of the rebels had been his comrades in the south african war, botha never hesitated as to his duty to suppress the rising. but he was determined to do it with as little racial feeling as possible, and employed purely dutch commandos of his loyal followers for the purpose. more- over, in the two short campaigns in the transvaal and the free state he took command himself, saying, ‘‘ it is my duty and it is the only thing for me to do. beyers and de wet are strong men and have a strong following in the country. there is no one else i can put in their place just now, so i must go myself.” little fighting was needed to quell the revolt: on oct. 28 he defeated beyer’s force in the transvaal, and their leader was drowned, while trying to escape across the vaal, on dec. 8; early in nov. botha took the field against de wet in the free state and on dec. 2, de wet himself was captured; while on feb. 3 1915 maritz’s force surrendered. after this brief civil war, described by botha as “ the saddest experience of his life,’”’ he showed a wise clemency in his punishment of the leaders and at the end of two years had released all the prisoners. conquest of southwest africa.—he then turned his attention to the conquest of german southwest africa, delayed by the rebellion, and again took the chief command. he divided the union forces, this time composed of men from both white races, into four columns, the southern (deventer’s), the eastern . ber- range’s), and mackenzie’s from liideritz bay, all under smut’s general direction, while the fourth from walvis bay, the chief fighting force, was under his own immediate orders. in march 1915 the four columns started on a converging movement into the country, sweeping all the germans before them. the chief difficulty came from the sandy and largely waterless country, which, in spite of an excellent organisation of transport and commissariat, told heavily on the troops. most of the fighting fell to botha’s own column, which occupied windhoek on may 12 and obtained the final surrender of the german forces on july 9191s. after this botha took no further share in active fighting, though with smuts he helped to organise the south african bri- gade for service overseas as well as the expeditionary force sent to german fast africa. tle was indced much needed at home, for after the election of oct. 1915, when his majority was seriously reduced, he had no easy task in governing the country, partly with the support of the unionists. some of his dutch supporters were still dis- contented, and in 1916 and again in 1918 created trouble which, under anyone but botha, might have led to another rising. hs last voyage to europe was to attend the peace negotiations of versailles in rgro9, as one of the delegates for south africa, there he impressed all those present by his sound judgment, always used on the side of moderation, especially towards the conquered foe; for he never forgot that his own people also had been con- quered and, as he said on signing at versailles on june 28 rgro, “to-day i look back in thought to may 31 1902.” he landed at cape town on july 24, already a very sick man, and on aug. 28 1919 died at his beloved farm, rusthof in the transvaal. the secret of botha’s power over every man who came into contact with him was his absolute sincerity, due to his simple belief in the guiding hand of god, combined with a chiv- alry and courtesy springing from a truly loving nature. ‘ never kill a man if you can capture him, or he will never have a chance to be sorry,’’ was one of his sayings, illustrated by his every ac- tion. the service of this noble man to britain and to south africa can hardly be exaggerated. he fought a clean fight to the end against the whole might of britain, but having once given his word to become with his people a part of britain, he was better than his bond, and added to the best traditions of a418 british statesmanship by his example, especially in doing all that in him lay to weld into one harmonious nation the dutch and british elements in south africa. ‘‘ you in england,” he said in 1911, ‘* have given us the hand of friendship, and we have taken it and shall not let it go.” brstiography.—-w. whittall, w2th botha and smuts in africa (1917); h. spender, general botha (1919); earl buxton, poe botha (1924). (3. wr) botulism: see food poisoning. boule, pierre marcelin (1861— ), french scientist, was born jan. 1 1861 at montsalvy. educated at toulouse, he graduated early at the university there and in time acquired his degree of docteur-es-sciences. after becoming assistant professor of geology at clermont-ferrand, he devoted himself to the study of palaeontology. he became a member of the commissions on historical monuments and the geological map of france and was also president of the french geological society and of the french archaeological institute. later he became director of the institute of human palaeontology. among his many worksare le plateau de lannemezan (1895), les olcans de la france centrale (1900), les grottes de grimald: (1906-19), and les hommes fossiles (1923). boulogne, conference of (june 21-22 1920), a meeting of the supreme council of the allies, in which japan, greece and belgium participated, as well as the principal european allied powers. like the conference of hythe on may 15-17 (see hythe, conference of), it was preparatory to the conference of spa (see spa, conference of). the question of allocating among the allies the prospective reparation payments from germany was taken up, and a counter proposal (the so-called “ boulogne agreement’) was prepared, in view of the expected german offer of a lump sum payment, in case that offer should prove inadequate. boulogne-sur-mer (see 4.323) had a population in 1921 of 55,336. the town and port were under british adminis- tration during the world war, and devoted to military uses. the first british troops disembarked here on aug. 9 1914, and from that date it formed the main channel for reinforcements, some millions of troops passing through and being accommo- dated in rest camps. the labour department of the british expeditionary force was housed in the town and many hotels and the casino were used for red cross work. the army base was shifted to saint-nazaire for a short time during the retreat from mons, when the possibility of abandoning the channel ports had to be faced, but when the german attack was checked it was brought back to boulogne. the town was heavily bombed in 1917-8, and was awarded the croix de guerre for the fine behaviour of its inhabitants. a war memorial was unveiled in july 1924. in 19tr a monument to the actors coquelin was erected behind the chamber of commerce. the port facilities —the equipment of the port was largely added to during the british occupation, and the opening of the loubet basin in 1925 has increased the quay length of the port by 1,000 feet. improvements were made in 1924 to the railway to enable expresses from calais to pass through boulogne at high speed, and a scheme to rebuild the maritime station and construct a tunnel to connect with the main line at outreau was approved. extensive harbour works were undertaken during 1924 to provide accommodation for large liners which, it is hoped, will make boulogne a port of call. the carnot breakwater has been lengthened by 400 metres and the entrance to the harbour widened. two new moles, one of about 1,000 and one of 1,300 yds., are to be built. the work of replacing the old wooden jetty by a stone pier, begun before the war, was again taken in hand in 1924. the estuary of the river liane, behind the old harbour, is to be converted into an inner harbour and dock for the impor- tant fishing industry. ; bourassa, henri (1868- ), french canadian politician and journalist, was born sept. 1 1868. after a private education he studied law and was called to the bar in 1899. he established a name as a writer on political subjects, and was for a time editor and proprietor of l’inierprete. later he became a leading con- botulism—bourne tributor to le nationaliste and finally editor and joint proprietor of le devoir. in 1896 he was elected to the dominion house of commons as a liberal, being at that time a follower of sir wilfred laurier. in 1899, however, he disagreed with laurier regarding canadian participation in the south african war_and resigned as a protest against laurier’s policy. on his resignation he became the accredited leader of the nationalist party and in 1900 and 1904 was elected to the dominion parliament in that interest. in 1907 he resigned in order to accept nomination for the quebec legislature. he was a member of the quebec legislative assembly from 1908 to 1912, when he resigned. during the world war bourassa op- posed, both from the pages of le devoir and from the public platform, the enforcement of conscription in canada and the naval policy of the liberal party. in 1925 he returned to politics and was elected as an independent to the dominion house of commons. bourgeois, leon victor auguste (1851-1925), french statesman (see 4.330). during the world war he was minister without portfolio in the briand cabinet. he was elected to the senate in 1905 and was president of that assembly from 1920 to 1923. m. bourgeois was the first french delegate to the hague conferences of 1809 and 1907. after 1907 he evinced special interest in international arbitration and was one of the first to suggest a league of nations. for this reason he was appointed by his govt. to represent france during the negotiations of 1919 concerning the league. when this was constituted he was, until a year before his death, the principal representative of france, both in the council and in the assembly and thus acquired an international reputation. in 1920 he was awarded the nobel peace prize. he died sept 29 1925. bourne, francis (1861- ), english cardinal, was born at clapham, london, march 23 1861, the second son of henry bourne, a high official in the post office, and ellen byrne. educated at ushaw college and st. edmund ’s college, ware, he went later to cardinal manning’s seminary at hammersmith, london, and st. sulpice in paris, where he received the diaconate from cardinal richard in 1883. after a course at louvain, he was ordained in 1884, and worked at blackheath, mortlake and west grinstead, afterwards becoming rector of st. john’s diocesan seminary, wonersh. in 1893 he published diocesan seminaries, the result of his controversy with cardinal vaughan on the question whether there should be diocesan seminaries or only one for all the dioceses. in 1895 he was made monsignor by leo xiii., and in 1896 he was consecrated bishop of epiphania and coadjutor-bishop of southwark, to which see he succeeded in the following year. on the death of cardinal vaughan in 1903, mgr. bourne was nominated to westminster as archbishop by pius x. the cathe- dral, designed by bentley, was finished at this time and was con- secrated by the new archbishop. in ror1 he was made a cardinal. in connection with the meeting of the eucharistic congress in london in 1908 he arranged for a procession of the host to take place in the streets, but eventually this was cancelled as it was represented that it would lead to a breach of the peace. cardinal bourne attended the eucharistic congresses held in metz, cologne, vienna and montreal. at montreal he came into sharp conflict with canadian nationalism, and was accused of british imperialism by m. bourassa, the leader of the french canadians. at the outbreak of the world war, he immediately appealed for army chaplains. as lord kitchener was unwilling to trans- port the number deemed necessary by the cardinal, he ap- proached mr. asquith, who overrode the war ojlice and gave his consent. thenceforward the cardinal devoted himself to the spiritual side of the war, visiting the army in france and bel- gium and the navy at scapa. in aug. 1914 he attended the conclave by which benedict xv. was elected to the papacy, and in feb. 1922 the conclave electing pius xi. immediately after the armistice he made an unofficial tour sanctioned by the holy see and the british govt. through the east, visiting jerusalem, constantinople, bucharest, sofia and bournemouth—boxing belgrade. he was the first cardinal to enter sancta sophia after its capture by the turks. the policy of cardinal bourne has been to aim at steady progress by multiplying small churches so that the faithful throughout london should find mass within half a mile, and at dividing unwieldy dioceses. on the education question he has sailed on an even keel between liberal and conservative govern- ments. modernism he reproved, but was merciful to individual modernists. his pastorals have been models of moderation, although one alarmed capital and another offended sinn fein. he declined to support the idea of a catholic university or party in england, preferring that catholics should join the national universities and parties. in italy he claimed for the papacy an independence, similar to that of belgium, based on international guarantees, not at the mercy of the italian parliament, and al- lowing italy to enjoy the honourable position of representing all nations in the guardianship of the papal sovereignty. (s.l.*)