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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:beer:11993932cb30",
    "title": "BEER",
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    "verified_text": "the output of the brewing trade of the united kingdom in the year 1913~4 exceeded 36,000,000 stand- ard barrels. at this time the beer duty was 7s. od. per standard barrel, but by 1920 it had been raised to roo shillings. the yield of the duty at 7s. 9d. had been £13,623,000, and, although a reduction in consumption by 10,000,000 bar. took place, the yield in 1920-1 on 26,730,000 bar. had risen to £123,394,000—practically 4d. per pint. in 1923, by means of a rebate of 20s. per bulk bar., the tax was reduced to about £4 net, but consumption, which had once more fallen, stood in 1925 at little more than 22,000,000 standard bar., or over 26,750,000 bulk barrels. the yield of the duty was £82,000,000. the number of licensed breweries in that year was 1,996 as compared with 5,311 in 1905. the materials used in 1925, excluding ireland, were about 360,000 cwt. of hops, 12,500,000 cwt. of malt and corn and 1,700,000 cwt. of sugar. the average retail price and taxation of beer in 1924 in london, compared with other european capitals, was as given in the table in the next column. the exports of beer from great britain in 1925 amounted to 290,000 standard bar. and the imports of foreign beer to 15,000 standard bar., excluding 1,610,000 from ireland. in 1925, in order to protect english hop-growers, a customs duty of £4 per cwt. (with one-third preference to british dominions) was imposed on imported hops for a definite period of four years. the expenditure on alco- beebe—beer brus- | ber- | the | copen- sels lin |hague| hagen 6d. per|o:70--go fr. per|o-95— 1323 pf.| 48 |29 6re pint jlitre draught;|1-14 fr.) per | cents [per 0-35 1-1 fr. per hitre| per |] pint | per | litre bottled litre litre | (bot- tled) 4id. price. 1-1i4d.draught:|1-13d.| 4d. 52d. [}d. bottled 40% (*) equivalent | 6d. price per pint. * proportion paid as tax 25% 1 beer is subject to a production tax of 1c. with surtax of 50c. per degree-hectolitre, i.e., per hectolitre of wort and per degree of specific gravity over 100 water at 15° centigrade. 2 no tax on beer as such; on malt used in manufacture of beer there is a tax of 20c. per kilogram. holic beverages in great britain in 1925, estimated at over £300,000,- 000, provided the state exchequer with revenue amounting to about £175,000,000. sce liquor control. no figures for the capital invested in brewing alone are available. in may 1918 government committces reported that state acquisi- tion of the liquor trade, including wholesale and retail licensed prem- ises, but excluding hotels, restaurants, wholesale spirit stores, etc., would require more than {400,000,000 but less than {500,000,000. the number of persons employed in brewing and malting in 1907 was officially returned as 84,969, and probably that number held good in 1925. zhe brewers’ almanack for 1926 estimates that a minimum of 700,000 persons are wholly engaged in brewing, distilling, bottling, the wholesale and retail sale of alcoholic beverages and in allied trades: that direct dependents on these employees number 440,000, and indirect dependents a further 500,000. trish free state.—prior to 1914 the production of beer averaged 4,000,000 barrels. the industry was greatly affected by the world war, and at one period production fel) to one-third the pre-war figure, mainly owing to the limitations on output imposed by the government. up to the end of 1925, as in great britain, only a partial recovery had been recorded. in normal years the industry consumes one-half the irish barley crop. taxation in 1925 averaged 3id. per pint and provided one-quarter of the total revenue of the country. in pre-war years about one-third of the output was ex- ported; in 1925 the export figure represented approximately one- half the production, exports mainly being to great britain and northern ireland. czechoslovakia.—the brewing industry attained its maximum out- put immediately preceding the outbreak of the world war, when there were 666 breweries in operation with an annual production of 13,000,000 hectolitres. during the war period the industry suffered severcly from the falling off of supplics of malt, and was in a most critical position when the new republic of czechoslovakia was established in 1918. a brewers’ commission was formed and all necessary steps taken for improving the condition of the industry. production increased from 1,623,445 hectolitres in 1917-8 to 3,875,520 hectolitres in 1918-9, and by 1924 there were 663 brew- cries in operation with an annual capacity exceeding 13,000,000 hectolitres. special attention is paid to the export trade, par- ticularly by the breweries of bohemia, including the well-known brewery of pilsen. the industry employs some 20,000 workmen. germany.—brewing production was greatly curtailed owing to war conditions, as is clearly shown by the following figures of the consumption of beer (production plus import minus export) during 1913, 1923 and 1924 in the present german area: 1913, 61,920,000 hectolitres; 1923, 28,590,000; 1924, 34,087,000. the industry satisfactorily survived the post-war period of in- flation, but suffered from the violent price fluctuations. sales in- creased during 1924-5, and from jan. 1 1925 the production of pre- war full strength beer has been permitted. exports of beer fell from 941,342 hectolitres in 1913 to 413,568 hectolitres in 1923. a small increase was registered in 1924-5. the minimum working week is 48 hours. in june 1925 the average weekly wage for skilled workers in the whole of germany was 44-45 gold marks. a strong move- ment towards concentration exists throughout the industry, par- ticularly in the chief centres of munich, berlin and dortmund. the following table, based on figures given in the annuaire sta- listique (1924) of the french govt., gives the average annual con- sumption of beer in litres per head in certain countries:— iqii-3 1920-3 united kingdom . 124-0 83:0! denmark : 86-2 72-0 norway 21-3 32-0 sweden . 48°9 33-4 austria . 72-0 44:0 hungary : ; 14°7 7-0 switzerland . fe. w- je 80-0 33-0 1 1920-2 only. in 1923 the consumption in great britain was 77-5 litres per head; in 1925 it was 79-5 litres. beerbohm— behaviourism germany . : ; ; . : 104:0 8-0 holland : ‘ ; ; ‘ 28-5 23:5 belgium : : ; f 226-0 177°0 france . ; . : : 33°6 25-2 italy. . 22 372 united states 8-0 9:0” 2in the united states of america the 18th rete ndeieds to the constitution, ratified in 1919, prohibited the manufacture, sale and import of all “intoxicating liquors,” later defined by act of congress as any beverages that contain more than 0-5 °% of alcohol by volume. (p. c. mo.) beerbohm, max (1872- ), british caricaturist and writer, was born in london aug. 24 1872, a half-brother of sir herbert beerbohm tree, the actor. he was educated at charterhouse and merton college, oxford. before he had left oxford, beerbohm had made a reputation as an essayist of wit and polish, the yellow book offering him a congenial hospitality. this reputation was maintained, when he succeeded g. b. shaw as dramatic critic to the saturday review, by the judiciously small amount of work which he published and its almost uni- formly high accomplishment, in essays, fiction and parody alike. this includes the works of max beerbohm (1896); the happy hypocrite (1897); afere (1899); zuleika dobson (1911); seven men (1919); and even now (1920). as a caricaturist, beerbohm’s fame followed a parallel line, and his skill as a draughtsman certainly increased with the years. among his volumes of published drawings are cari- catures of twenty-five gentlemen (1896) ; the poet’s corner (1904); fifty caricatures (1913); a survey (1921); rossetti and his circle (1922), and observations (1925). as a sophisticated com- mentary on the social and literary life of his time, beerbohm’s economical and often caustic drawings stand alone; his residence in italy, at rapallo, after 1910, gave him many advantages for the detached observation of personalities and tendencies, al- though once or twice it may have endangered his perspective; ‘and he was certainly free from a certain fear of acid com- ment which has dimmed the art of caricature in england since the early victorian age. (see caricature.) (hi. mz.) beesly, edward spencer (1831-1015), british positivist (see 3.644), died at st. leonards-on-sea july 7 1915. begas, reinhold (1831-1911), german sculptor (see 3.652), died aug. 3 i9qii. behaviourism is a direct outgrowth of studies in animal behaviour during the first decade of the 20th century. c. lloyd morgan, the british psychologist, must be looked upon as the founder, virtually, of the american school of animal psychology. his books, introduction to comparative psychology (1894) and animal behaviour (1900), broke away from the traditional an- thropomorphic interpretations of animal acts. he first empha- sised the necessity of tracing all the steps in any act we sce the animal performing before the interpretation of that act becomes possible. his actual experiments upon the learning of animals were few in number but rich ininterpretative value. his studics emphasised the trial and error nature of all animal learning. morgan’s work undoubtedly inspired the american animal psy- chologist, e. l. thorndike, who first instigated systematic experimentation upon chicks, dogs, cats and monkeys in the united states. there soon followed in that country a host of expcrimentation upon mammalian learning. we mention in passing the work of small, yerkes, kinnaman, davis, allen, porter, carr, franz, johnson, ulrich, richardson, yoakum, haggerty and watson. the rich results coming from the study of infra-human mam- mals led to similar studies on man. during this same gencral period we find man studicd for the first time as a member of the animal kingdom. we mention the work of e. j. swift, w. f. book, h. a. ruger and k. s. lashley. acquisitions of skilful acts such as keeping three balls in the air, typewriting, solving mechanical puzzles, icarning to shoot the english long bow, serve to illustrate the types of problems studied. the results of these human studies emphasised the essential similarity between human and infra-human learning. emergence of behaviourism—up to the appearance of wat- son’s two papers, “‘ psychology as the behaviourist views it ” 345 (1913) and ‘‘ image and affection in behaviour ” (1913), and his book behaviourism—an introduction to comparative psychology (1914), there was no crystallisation of the behaviouristic trend. none of the workers in the field of animal behaviour made any attempt to escape the implications of consciousness in their inter- pretation of human or animal acts. in these three publications the terms “‘ behaviourism,” ‘‘ behaviouristic ” and ‘“‘ behaviour- ist’ were first used. washburn’s book, the animal mind (1907), represents very well the tendency of the time. she felt the need of interpreting all animal behaviour in terms of con- sciousness as defined in the introspective systems of w. wundt and e. b. titchener. behaviourism when first conceived was based largely upon the rather loose concept of habit formation. the work of pawlow and his students on the conditioned reflex, while known to the behaviourists, played at first a rclatively minor rele in their formulations. this was due to the fact that his experiments were chiefly concerned with conditioned glandular refiexes, which at that time wasa subject hardly touched upon by psychologists. bechterew's work on the conditioned motor reftex, where human subjects were used, had from the first a very much greater influence upon behaviourism. the work of lashley in conditioning the humansalivary reficx and of watson and rayner on conditioning human emotional reaction (fear) showed the great range of application of the conditioned reflex methodsto human behaviour. this work has led to an attempt to formulate all habit (organisation) in terms of conditioned glandular and motor reaction. in spite of the fact that behaviourism did not at first utilise to any extent the conditioned reflex methods, pawlow and bechterew must be looked unon as furnishing the keystone to its arch. during the period of the general formulation of behaviourism as a system rather than as an approach to psychology, or as a specialised method in psychology, the writings of e. b. holt, a. p. weiss and k. s. lashley are noteworthy. the fundamental viewpoint the behaviourist takes the position at the outset that the total behaviour of man from infancy to death is the subject matter of (human) psychology. behaviour can be observed like the phe- nomena of all other natural sciences, e.g., chemistry, physics, physiology or biology. the same general types of methods used in the natural sciences can be used in behaviour psychology so far in his objective study of man no behaviourist has observed anything that he can call consciousness, sensation, perception, imagery or will. not finding these so-called mental processes in his observations, he has reached the conclusion that all such terms can be dropped out of the description of man’s activity. all behaviouristic observations apparently can be presented in the form of stimulus and response, the simple schema used is s—r. a behaviouristic problem is solved when both the stimulus and the response are known. for a very simple example, sub- stitute in the above formula for s, contact on the cornea, and for r, blinking. the behaviourist’s problem is solved when this has been done as a result of verified controlled experimentation. the neurologist has a problem to solve in this same phenomenon, namely, in determining the neural connections involved, their course, their numbers, the timing and spread of the neural im- pulse, etc. the behaviourist docs not encroach upon it. the physical chemist has a problem to solve here also. his problem is not encroached upon either by the behaviourist or by the neurologist. . his problem is the determination of the physical and chemical nature of the neural impulses, the amount of work done in the reaction and the like. in every human reaction there is thus a behaviourist’s problem, a neuro-physiological problem and a physico-chemical problem. when the phenomena of behaviour are once accurately formulated in terms of stimulus and response, the behaviourist achieves predictability with reference to his phenomena and control over them—the two essentials every science demands. one might put it in another way. suppose the behaviourist were given the problem of how to cause a human being to blink, he solves it by touching the cornea with a hair (control). in more complicated reactions, especially those labeled ‘‘ social’, the sr relationships are not so easy to solve. for example, present the stimulus prohibition (s) to any given nation, what will the response (r) be? it may take years to determine r completely. many behaviouristic problems have to wait for their solution upon the slow experimentation of science as a whole. regardless of how complicated the stimulus-re- sponse relationships may be, the behaviourist does not admit for a moment that any human reactions cannot be so described. the genera! goal of behaviourism, then, is toso amass observa- tions upon human behaviour that in any given case, given the stimulus (or better situation), the behaviourist can predict in 346 advance what the response will be; or given the response, he will be able to state what situation is calling out the reaction. looked at in this broad way, it is easy to see that behaviourism is far away from its goal. but while its problems may be difficult, they are not insuperable. the one thing that makes the approach of the behaviourist difficult is the fact that stimuli not at first ca'ling out any given response can come later to call out a spec- ifed type of response. we call this a process of condifioning (carlicr called habit formation). the genetic method this difficulty forces the behaviourist to resort to the genctic method. he takcs the infant at birth and surveys his so-called physiological system of reflexes or, better, embryological re- sponses. having taken this inventory of unconditioned, un- learned responses, he next begins to try to condition them. when this has been done, two striking facts seem to appear. first, the number of complicated unlearned responses appearing at birth or at intervals thereafter is relatively small. this leads fo the rejection of the whole concept of instinct. most of the com- plex responses that the older psychologists called instinctive, such as crawling, climbing, cleanliness, fighting (a long list), are now believed to be built in or conditioned. in other words, the behaviourist no longer finds support for hereditary patterns of behaviour nor for special abilities (musical, art, etc.) which are supposed to run in families. he believes that given the rela- tively simple list of embryological responses which are fairly uniform in infants, he can build (granting that both internal and external environment can be controlled) any infant along any specified line—into rich man, poor man, beggar man, thief. hew the building takes place-—suppose one assumes that there are present at birth only roo unconditioned embryological responses—there are many more of course. these appear in the form of breathing, crying, movements of arms, legs, fingers, toes, trunk, defaecation, urination and the like. if we assume that all of these can be conditioned and integrated according to the law of permutation and combination, the total possible number of built-in responses would be factorial one hundred— many millions more than any adult, even the most versatile one, is ever called upon to make even in the most complex social environment. _ these embryological responses do not appear haphazard — they are not “ random.” some definite stimulus calls them out. let us call all such stimuli unconditioned stimuli, (u)s. let us call all such responses unconditioned responses (u)r. the (u)s - (u)r a i formula could be expressed thus after conditioning b cc d par - e etc. in the schema a is such an unconditioned stimulus, 1 is such an unconditioned response. now if the experimenter takes b— and b so far as is known may be any object in the universe— and lets it stimulate the organism simultancously with a for a certain number of times (sometimes even once is enough) it thereafter will also arouse 1. in the same way one can make c, d, e call out 1; in other words, one can make any object at will call out 1 (stimulus substitution). this shows how the stim- ulus side of our life gets more and more complicated as life goes on. in asimilar way reactions become complicated as soon as a simple stimulus through the process of conditioning comes to call out a chain of reflexcs (integration). in this way the be- haviourist trics to take the vague concept of habit formation anc to give it a new and exact scientific formulation in terms of conditioned responses. on this basis the most complicated of our adult habits are explicable in terms of chains of simple condi- tioned responses. the simplification in psychological theory which comes through the application of behaviouristic principles is best seen in the behaviourism realm of the emotions. take fear. the works of watson and rayner, moss, lecky, jones and others have shown that the fundamental unconditioned stimulus (u)s calling out a fear reac- tion is a /oud sound or loss of support... every child with only one exception, of approximately 1,000 infants examined, was found to catch his breath, pucker his lips, cry or, if older, crawl away, when a loud sound was given behind his head or when the blan- ket on which he was lying was suddenly jerked. nothing else so far observed will produce the fear response in early infancy. now it is very easy to make the child fear any other object in the universe. all the experimenter has to do is to show the object and strike the steel bar behind his head and repeat the procedure a few times. ‘the schema of the situation follows:— (u)s (uk)r loud sound ‘“‘ start,” crying, etc. (fear) loss of support after conditioning :— (c)s : (c)r rabbit, dog, furry objects fear conditioning of the emotions, (fear, rage, love, etc.) takes place very much earlier in the life of the infant than has hitherto been supposed; it is a process that brings complexity in response at a rapid rate. this means that an infant two or three years of age is already shot through with thousands of responses built up by the environment in which it lives. the process of unconditioning—the experiments of the behaviourists have shown that there is not only a process of con- ditioning or building taking place constantly from birth to death, but that there is also a process of wnconditioning taking place as well. a simple experiment of the type described below best illustrates it. a conditioned negative response was set up in a 1} year old child—that of drawing back from orrunning away from a bow! containing gold fish. we quote from a recent experiment: — | the child, the moment he sees the fish bowl, says ‘ bite.’ no matter how rapid his walk, he checks his step the moment he comes within 7 or 8 feet of the fish bowl. if i lift him by force and place him in front of the bowl, he cries and tries to break away and run. no psychoanalyst, no matter how skilful, can remove this fear by analysis. no advocate of reasoning can remove it by telling the child all about beautiful fishes, how they move and live and have their being. as long as the fish is not present, you can by this verbal organisation get the child to say ‘ nice fish, fish won’t bite’; but show him the fish and the old reaction returns. try another method. let his brother, aged 4, who has no fear of fish, come up to the bowl and put his hands in the bowl and catch the fish. no amount of watching a fearless child play with these harmless animals will re- move the fear from the toddler. try shaming him, making a scape- goat of him. your methods are equally futile. let us try, however, this simple method. get a table 10 or 12 fect long. at one end of the table place the child at meal time, move the fish bowl to the extreme other end of the table and cover it. just as soon as the meal ts placed in front of him, remove the cover from the bowl. if disturbance occurs, extend your table and put the bow! still farther away, so far away that no disturbance occurs. eating takes place normally, nor is digestion interfered with. the next day repeat the procedure but move the bowl a little nearer, in four or five such sessions the bowl can be brought close to the food tray without causing the slightest bit of disturbance. the behaviourist concludes that by his experiments upon the conditioning and unconditioning of the responses of infants and children he has gotten a clear view of the way human beings afe built up by the environment in which they find themselves. man is a biological unit that can be studied like any other animal. does thinking offer any prablem?—many introspective psychologists agree up to this point with the behaviourist (ber- trand russell, for example), but the subjectivist claims that there is something new in thinking (and let us include “ imagination ” under this term). what has the behaviourist to offer on thinking. the behaviourist’s formulation runs somewhat as follows:— the increasing dominance of language habits in the behaviour of the developing child leads naturally over into the behaviour- ist’s conception of thinking. the behaviourist makes no mystery of thinking. he holds that thinking is behaviour, is motor beilby— belasco organisation, just like tennis playtng or golf or any other form of muscular activity. but what kind of muscular activity? the muscular activity that he uses in talking. thinking is merely talking, but talking with concealed musculature. _ take any child when he first begins to talk. peep through the keyhole and watch him in the early morning. he will sit up in bed with his toys, talk aloud to his toys, talk about them. when a little older, he will plan ont his day aloud, say aloud that his nurse is going to take him for a walk, that his daddy is going to bring him a car. in other words, he talks overtly when alone just as naturally as he works overtly with his hands. a social] factor comes in. the father gets to the point where his own morning nap is disturbed. ife yells out ‘*keep quiet.”” the child begins then to mumble to himself—a great many individuals never pass this stage. and they mumble to themselves all through life whenever they try to think. the father does not like the child's mumbling any better than his talking aloud, and so he may slap him on the lips. finally, the parents get the child to the point where he talks silently to himself. when his lips are closed, it is nobody’s business what is going on below. thus we come to behave as we please if we do not give any external motor sign of it—in other words, our thoughts are our own. a further question comes up for serious consideration: do we think only in terms of words? the behaviourist takes the position to-day that whenever the in- dividual is thinking, the whole of his bodily organisation is at work (implicitly}—even though the final solution shall be a spoken, written or subvocally expressed verbal formulation, in other words, from the moment the thinking problem is sct for the individual (by the situa- tion he is in) activity is aroused that may lead finally to adjustment. sometimes the activity goes on (a) in terms of implicit manual organisation; (6) more frequently in terms of implicit verbal organisa- tion; (¢) sometimes in terms of implicit (or even overt) visceral chee eaten: if (a) or (c) dominates, thinking takes place without words, words are thus the conditioned (c)s substitutes for the world of objects and acts. thinking is a device for manipulating the world of objects when those objects are not present to the senses. thinking more than doubles human efficiency. it enables the individual to carry his day world to bed with him and manipulate it at night or when it is a thousand miles away. strict behaviourism is making rapid progress in america. it however has not yet been universally accepted even there. the older subjective psychology is being profoundly modified by it. one sees very little of introspection and still less of imagery in the writings of the subjectivists, see j. b. watson, “ psychology as the behaviourist views it.” psych. rev., xx (1913); behaviourtsm (1925); the articles by l. s. lashley in the psych. rev. in 1925; a. p. weiss, a theoretical basis of human behaviour (1925); george a, dorsey, why we behave like human beings (1925); bertrand russell, analysis i. mind. beilby, sir george thomas (1850-1024), british chemist, was born in edinburgh nov. 17, 1850 and educated at the uni- versity there. he joined the oakbank oil co. in 1869, and later became a director of the cassel cyanide co., the castner-kellner alkali co. and many other important undertakings. he invented a new process for retorting oil shale, a new synthetic method of manufacturing alkaline cyanides, and also carried out much im- portant work on the economical use of fucl, establishing the fuel research station at east greenwich shortly before his death. having served on several commissions and assisted the govt. in an advisory capacity on many occasions, he was elected f.r.s. in 1906, and was knighted in 1916. he held office in many scien- tific societies, and was the author of a book on the aggregation and flow of solids (1921), and of numerous )mportant papers on chemical and metallurgical subjects. he died at hampstead, london, on aug. i, 1924. beira (see 3.657), a seaport of portuguese east africa with a population (1921) of 11,871. already the chief port for rhodesia and katanga, the completion in 1922 of a railway to the zambezi made beira also the port for nyasaland. it has, in addition, a considerable trade in sugar and other produce of the territory administered by the mozambique co., of which it is the capital. the maximum depth of water in its harbour is 32 ft., the minimum 12 feet. the depth at the customs wharf varies from 20 ft. to nil. ships are loaded and unloaded from anchorage by lighters; the wharf and railway piers had in 1925 a cranage power of 3,000 tons a day, but the facilities provided did not keep pace with the needs of shipping. the cargo handled in 1924 exceeded 1,000,000 tons. british ships constitute by far 347 the greater part of the tonnage using the port; portugal and germany provide most of the remainder. the pungwe and buzi rivers, at the mouth of which beira is built, are subject to scrious floods, causing damage to the railway lines to rhodesia and nyasaland. beirut (see 3.658), now the most flourishing town in syria, is the seat of the french high commissioner for syria and of the government of the autonomous state of grand liban (lebanon). the residence of the high commissioncr is in the forest of pines outside the town. a museum in the municipal buildings contains antiquarian remains found by the service des antiquites since the french occupation. : the production of silk began to revive in 1920, having fallen after the world war to less than one-tenth of its previous value, and the exports from beirut were almost doubled in that year. in 1922 the exports of silk, oil, cotton, fruit, etc., were worth 36,302,000 fr., and the imports, largely manufactured goods, were worth 363,025,000 francs. beirut is the most important port on the seaboard, though tripoli may offer serious rivalry when its inland communications are improved. the harbour accommodation has been improved under the french regime, and traffic is increasing. there are 3 different anchorages: (a) inside the harbour with a depth from 25 to 45 ft., and 13 to 26 ft. along the quays; (5) outside the harbour, but sheltered by a breakwater, with a depth from 40 to 100 fathoms; (c) outside the harbour with depths of 100 fathoms and upwards, but exposed to the northwest winds. the population of beirut, largely christian, is estimated at 140,000; after the bombardment of damascus by the french in nov. 1925 this figure was swelled by the arrival of numerous refugees. the town was bombarded in feb. 1912, when a turkish gunboat was sunk by an [italian squadron. after the turkish collapse during the world war, in 1918, it was taken by the french navy on oct. 5, and occupied by british troops onoct..7; bekhterev, vladimir mikhailovich (1857- j; russian neuropathologist, was born in the province of viatka. he studied medicine in the medico-surgical academy at st. peters- burg (now leningrad), graduated in 1878 and devoted himself to the treatment of mental and nerve diseases under prof. merge- jevsky, a famous specialist of the time. he took the doctor’s degree in 1881 and became privat-docent. in 1884 he went abroad to do research work under dubois-raymond, wundt and char- cot, and was appointed professor at the university of kazan, where he started clinical research of mental diseases and promoted the first psycho-physiological laboratory. in 1893 he became professor of the military medical academy in st. petersburg and was elected director in 1905-6. to foster psycho-physiological research, he founded in 1907 in st. petersburg a psycho-neuro- logical institute, which existed on private donations up to 1917, when an additional brain institute was formed and both were taken over by the government. he published more than 200 scientific papers on pathology and anatomy of the nervous system and founded a society of neuropathologists and the periodical nevrologiicheski vestnik. his work on the nerve currents in brain and spinal cord appeared first in russia in 1882; the second edition in 1896 has been translated into french and german. the functions of the nervous centres appeared in russia in 1909; his psychology, objectively demonstrated was published in t9103 and his general diagnosis of the nervous system diseases in 191t. bela kun: sce kun, bela. belasco, david (1850- ), american playwright and the- atrical manager, was born at san francisco, cal., july 25 1859. after graduating from lincoln college, cal., in 1875, and filling the position of stage manager at several theatres in san fran- cisco, he went to new york in 1880 to take charge of productions at the madison square theatre. in 1885 he joined daniel froh- man at the lyceum theatre in a similar capacity. he subse- quently owned and directed the prosperous belasco theatre. he wrote or adapted some 200 plays, largely melodramatic, and owing to his mastery of stagecraft he was eminently successful 348 as a producer and stage director. he presented e. h. sothern in lord chumley (1887); mrs. leslie carter in the heart of maryland (1895) and du barry (1901); blanche bates in naughty antheny (1899) and the girl of the golden west (1905); henrietta crosman in sweet kiity bellairs (1903) and david warfield in the music master (1904), the return of peter grimm (xgt1) and the merchant of venice (1922). among his numerous other productions may be mentioned: may blossom (1884); the charity ball (1887, with h.c. de mille}; men and women (1890); the girl i left behind afe (1893, with franklin fyles); afadame butterfly (1900); the darling of the gods (1902, with john luther long); the gevernor's lady (1912); the tem- peramental journey (1913); the secret (1914); a celebrated case (1915); the boomerang (1915); polly with a past (1917); kiki (1921); the comedian (1923); canary dutch and salvage (1925). belfast (see 3.664) became the capital of northern ireland and the seat of its government in 1921. the first parliament was opened by the king and queen on june 22 1921. since 1918 belfast has sent nine members to the british house of commons. the population in ror was 387,947, and was estimated in 1923 at 429,000. during the world war the shipbuilding and repairing yards were very active, and aeroplane engines and sails were made in the city for all the allies. in 1918 the two shipbuilding firms, harland & wolff and workman & clark, both extended their yards, which employ normally about 36,c00 hands. there were 40,000 power looms and a million spindles in the spinning and weaving industry in 1920. a graving dock, one of the largest in the world, was opened in rgri in the harbour, and a new deep-water berth has been built. the total area of docks and basins, including part of the river which is practically a dock, is 140 acres. the total tonnage of shipping entering the port in 1924 was 3,164,274, an increase of 147,587 tons on the 1923 figure. the harbour defences and facilities for defending the coast at belfast lough were left in british hands when the two irish states were set up. in 1920 the model farm, balmoral, an area of 90 ac., and also land at legoniel, were presented for public use. | the london, midland & scottish railway station has been rebuilt and enlarged. the foundation stone of the irish pres- byterian church war memorial hospital was laid in 1923. in 1924 large reservoirs in the silent and annalong valleys in the mourne mts. were in process of construction, and in the same year the duke and duchess of york laid the foundation- stone of the new art gallery. an ideal home, housing, health, and general trades exhibition was opened in feb. 1925. plans are being prepared for new parliament buildings. during the agitations against the home rule bill of 1912 several demonstrations and political and religious disturbances took place in belfast, culminating in the signing of a solemn covenant by 500,000 people. serious rioting also occurred intermittently for a week in july during the sinn fein cam- paign of 1920. belfast, queen’s university of.—this irish university dates from 1909, before which time it was queen’s college, bel- fast, a constituent college of the royal university of ireland. the municipal college of technology is connected with it. the university gives degrees in arts, science, including civil engineer- ing, law, medicine, commerce, agriculture and applied science and technology. in the year 1923~4 the trustees of the rt. hon. j. c. white gave £60,000 to the university for the endow- ment of departments of bio-chemistry and bacteriology. belgian congo (see conco free state, 6.917), a belgian colony in equatorial africa. readjustments under conventions with portugal, germany, and great britain between 1910 and 1915, and the addition of the mandated areas of ruanda and urundi in 1919, increased the total area of the colony by some 19,000 sq. m. and added between 2,500,000 and 3,000,000 to its population, bringing the former to about 910,000 sq. m. and the latter to perhaps 10,000,000 in 1925. no accurate figures of native population are available; in 1923 there were 10,037 europeans, of whom 5,853 were belgians; 724 portuguese, and 704 british, the latter mainly in the katanga. belfast—belgian congo i. political history the annexation of nov. 15 1908 transferred the congo from the personal rule of the belgian king to the control of parliament, through the colonial minister. the death of leopold and the accession of albert in 1909 led to the removal of the restrictions on freedom of trade, and to reforms in native administration. the former land policy was reversed, recogni- tion being accorded to the customary rights of user enjoyed formerly by the natives, and the principle of freedom in the disposal of their labour was recognised. native government was reorganised in 1910; the chiefs were restored to their old authority, subject to tribal custom, provided that it did not conflict with public order or laws intended to supersede tribal usage; they were further required to enforce the laws, police their areas, promote public health, and carry out public works, for which purpose they might call upon their subjects for a limited amount of forced labour. freedom of trade as required by the berlin act was estab- lished by 1912; the govt. withdrew from its close association with commercial companies, and from 1911 the katanga placed under a vice-governor-general, with wide powers but without an independent budget, was opened to exploitation. a further subdivision soon proved necessary, and in 1914 the whole belgian congo was divided into four provinces: congo-kasai, orientale, equateur, and katanga, each under a vice-governor-general aided by an advisory council, leaving the governor-general and his council to deal with general questions and finance. the provinces were further subdivided into districts under com- missioners, and these into territories under administrators, authorised to supervise the native administration, subject to strict regulations to prevent abuse of power. a more impartial administration of justice was also secured by judicial reform. the genuineness of the reforms was recognised by great britain, and the appreciation of the natives was shown by their loyalty in the world war. congolese forces aided france in the cameroons and britain in northern rhodesia. they conquered and held from sept. 1916 to march tgzt a con- siderable area of german east africa. on the german surrender of east africa under the treaty of versailles, and by an agree- ment with great britain in 1919 approved by the league of nations in 1923, belgium obtained under mandate the thickly populated cattle-raising areas of ruanda and urundi. by the conventions of saint-germain-en-laye (1919), the principles of the berlin act and of the brussels act of 1890, regarding freedom of trade and equality of opportunity for trade and industry, were reasserted in favour of members of the league of nations; concessions might be granted, but differentiation on national grounds was forbidden, and the rule restricting customs duties was waived. missionary enterprise was encouraged, and the liquor traffic further regulated. in 1920 m. louis franck, the colonial minister, on visiting the colony, had to contend with a partial strike in the civil service and native unrest due to war conditions. order was gradually restored, and five years later the chief problem which con- fronted m. henri carton on his visit as colonial minister was that of transport. in 1925 ruanda and urundi were given provincial status, with a distinct budget, in terms of the mandate of the league of nations. ii. economic history the abandonment of governmental exploitation of the rubber industry through the compulsory collection of wild rubber by the natives, which up to 1910 had provided 75% in value of the total exports, coincided with lower rubber prices in europe, and thus furthered the development of other branches of agri- culture. the exploitation of the oil palm was commenced, and in 1922 nearly 50,000 tons of palm nuts and over 10,500 tons of palm oil were exported. successful efforts were made to develop cotton growing, the production of ginned cotton amounting to 1,100 tons in 1922. cocoa cultivation was not very successful, but coffee increased in importance. the pro- duction of rice increased, some 9,000 tons entering into trade belgian literature annually; in 1922 about 600 tons were exported. a steady export of gum copal was maintained, nearly 14,000 tons being exported in 1922. stock-raising was established in the north- east, and the tsetse fly was cleared from considerable areas in the katanga; an increasing export business was developed in skins from ruanda and urundi. some 300 tons of ivory continued to be exported annually. the exploitation, partly by british capital, of the katanga copper area is of fundamental importance, the output rising from 97 tons in rorr to 56,577 tons in 1923; the diamond industry of the kasai, first worked seriously in 1913, reached an output of 310,367 carats in 1923, while the gold production of kilo and moto rose to 33 tons a year. in 1922, 238 tons of uranium mined at chinkolobwe were exported to belgium for the extraction of radium; in 1923 the export increased to 478 tons. the dependence of the katanga on rhodesian coal was greatly diminished by the exploitation of the luena coal- field. iron, tin and cobalt are also worked. communications.—progress was essentially bound up with im- proved transport. the line from kabalo to albertville on lake tanganyika, affording connection with europe via dar-es-salaam, was opened in 1915; that from rhodesia, giving direct communica- tion to capetown and beira, reached elisabethville in 1910 and bukama in 1918. the colonial minister in 1920 brought forward an extensive scheme of public works estimated to cost 638,000,000 fcs., and a law of 1921 approved a loan of 300,000,000 francs. road construction was begun on a large scale, obstacles to river naviga- tion removed, water, drainage and electric light systems planned for the towns, and the removal of the capital to kalina point, between leopoldville and kinshasa, decided on. harbour improvements were undertaken at boma, coquilhatville, kinshasa and matadi, and rapid progress made with a railway from bukama to ilebo, on the kasai, to secure the katanga trade and open up the kasai area. a railway was begun from chitongo on the katanga line to mect the benguella railway and link the congo with europe via lobito bay, saving 3,000 m. on the beira route. a crisis arose in 1924 owing to the inadequacy of the matadi-leopold- ville line; by great efforts its capacity was doubled by 1925, and plans were adopted to electrify the line and to lengthen the quays at matadi and construct a port at ango-ango. an air service was installed between kinshasa and luebo, via ilebo. labour supply.—the scantiness of the labour supply under the new regime hampered progress. efforts to combat it were made by ensuring fair terms of recruitment and employment both on private and public work, the code elaborated by the labour commission of 1924-5 being widely approved as a model. great attention was also paid to the campaign to eradicate sleeping sickness and diminish venereal disease. trade and finance.—the war diverted most of the external trade to great britain, and though after 1918 belgium recovered much of her former predominance, imports from great britain of foodstuffs, spirits, clothing, machinery, iron shects, cotton goods, etc., were 17:°6% of a total value of 268,719,988 fcs. in 1922, and exports thither, chiefly copper, palm oil and palm kernels, formed 10-3 ° of a total of 294,579,315 francs. the loss of revenue through the cessation of governmental exploita- tion led to constant deficits and, despite a considerable increase in customs duties, in 1924 ordinary revenue stood only at 141,603,640 fes. as against an ordinary e. pendiiure of 167,949,290 fcs.; there was also extraordinary expenditure of 103,000,000 fcs. and only 5,500,000 fcs. extraordinary reccipts. but as against a debt of some 500,000,000 fcs. in 1924 the colonial minister claimed assets in the shape of the colony's share in the copper, coal, diamond, gold, radium and cotton industries of not less than 655,000,000 francs. at the same time i-cl- gian investments in the congo were estimated at §,553,000,000 francs. bibliography.—ldritish foreien ot..ce peace e.andbooks, no. 99, belgian congo (1920); la mutuelle congolaise, congo belge (1923); m. halewyck, la charte coloniale (1910-9); c. lannoy, l’organi- sation coloniale belge (1913); f. fallon, l’ agriculture au congo belge (1918); a. b. keith, the belgian congo and the berlin act (1919); a. de bauw, le katanga (1920); m. d’annevoie, deux ans au katanga (1921); p. daye, l’empire colonial belge (1923); g. . beer, african questions at the paris peace conference (1924); c. k. ledger, report on the economic situation 1n the belgian congo (1924). 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