BASEBALL

in the period 1910 to 1925 the world series games played annually between the winning teams of each of the two major leagues, the american and the national, remained the most popular sporting contests in the united states. around the two major, which retained their undisputed suprem- acy, grew up an elaborate system of minor leagues. these leagues were graded a, b, cand d, roughly according to the population of cities represented. later the three most prominent of the minor leagues assumed a rating, which gave them some privileges formerly claimed exclusively by the majors. in 10914 there were no fewer than 52 minor leagues in the complicated structure known as organised baseball. in that year the supremacy of the major leagues was threatened by the forma- tion of the federal league. this league, backed by sport-loving millionaires, fought tenaciously for two disastrous seasons and then collapsed. several of its magnates, however, were allowed to purchase major league clubs, while others were partially reim- bursed for their heavy losses. in 1920 continued dissatisfaction with the national commission culminated in a new national agreement, and the appointment of judge k. m. landis as com- missioner of organised baseball with the powers of an absolute dic- tator. the rules, which are under the supervision of the commis- sioner and his advisory council, became enormously complicated. rules of the game.—organised baseball possesses an elaborate system of codified laws. of these the reserve clause, introduced in 1879, is the most extraordinary and misunderstood: in brief, it allows a club a perpetual equity, subject to certain restrictions, in the services of a player who has contracted to enter its employ. this equity may be retained or sold to another club, with or without the player’s consent. the player with a minor league club may thus be drafted, at stated intervals, to clubs of higher classification, on the payment of a fixed fee, or his services may be sold to the highest bidder, or he may be traded for another player. this rule has been bitterly condemned on the assumption that it violates the established laws of the land which prohibit human slavery. in most cases, however, the players, though chafing 07 under its restriction, recognise its necessity. the corner stone of organised baseball, it guarantees to a club the players whom it has obtained or developed and prevents the larger and wealthier clubs from destroying the balance which must be maintained in a well-organised league. organised baseball decides internal disputes according to its own laws. an aggrieved player or club may appeal to a league executive and eventually to the commis- sioner. the latter’s decision is final. spectators and publicity —the enormous growth of baseball as a public institution is best illustrated by the mammoth stadiums of steel and concrete which have been erected in every major league city and in many prominent minor league cities. the largest of these is planned to seat more than 60,000 specta- tors and represents an investment of several million dollars. the world’s series games are often attended by the president and many other prominent officials, and while in progress they en- gross the attention of the entire nation. hundreds of writers from all parts of the country visit the games. every. newspaper presents graphic accounts, numberless score boards record the progress of the play, and every event that occurs on the field is instantly broadcast by radio. baseball has become an enviable profession. there are major league players who derive from the sport an annual income greater than that of the president, and receive perhaps as much publicity. increasing public interest has called into being a small army of paid writers. every prominent newspaper has at least one man on its staff, often several, who devote most of their time to baseball. a literature on the subject has grown up, and many baseball terms are recognised additions to the everyday vocabulary. the records of baseball are carefully preserved and numerous statisticians elaborate these for the press. the players are only baseball’s field army. a far larger army of persons is employed in auxiliary operations. every league has its trained staff of umpires: men who devote years to the mastery of the game and the quick interpretation of its elaborate rules. every important club maintains scouts who scour the country in search of possible playing talent. the care of the huge grand stands and playing fields requires expcrienced ground keepers, ticket sellers and office workers. large manufacturing industries have developed to supply the enormous amount of equipment: bats, gloves, balls, masks, shinguards, windpads, uniforms, shoes and miscellaneous articles. baseball in other lands.—baseball is peculiarly american and is often called the national sport, but it has made decided progress as a world sport. in canada it is played with much enthusiasm, while it has made strides in mexico and in the west indies. it has become popular in japan, and japanese college teams tour american cities. ‘the chinese and koreans are also interested. ambitious campaigns have been undertaken to introduce base- ball to the whole civilised world. groups of professional players have several times circled the globe. to the uninformed observer the game appears to lack the elements of good sportsmanship. but without question it fosters a spirit of good fellowship. rich and poor meet on an equality, and much of the verbal demonstration is a meaningless escape of pent-up emotion. baseball’s influence in america has been far-reaching and, on the whole, decidedly beneficial. it has fostered a rough but friendly spirit of fair play, developed quick thinking, and stimulated that evolution of athletic sport which is so notable a feature of the 2oth century. bibliography—see a. g. spalding, america’s national game (r911); c. hl. claudy, the battle of baseball (1912); w. j. clarke and f. t. dawson, baseball (1915). (fsc...) basketball has become the national indoor game of the united states. it can be played in almost any space, at any time of the year, though adapted more for winter than for summer. it was invented in 1892 by dr. james naismith, at the y.m. c.a. training school, springfield, mass., in an endeavour to evolve an indoor game that would have the same appeal that baseball, football and other outdoor sports had already attained. its growth in the united states has been phenomenal; and, although played professionally to some extent, it is essentially 338 amateur. the rules are formulated by a joint basketball com- mittee comprising representatives of the national collegiate athletic assn., the young men’s christian assn. and the amateur athletic union of the united states. slightly adapted, it is also played at practically every woman’s college and in every high school. through the y.m.c.a. it has been intro- duced into china, japan, the philippines and into the latin- american countries; also into france and england, where it is much played in girls’ schools. it is played on a rectangular surface, the maximum measurements of which should not exceed 94 ft. in length by 50 in width, and may utilise a space as limited as 60 by 35 feet. there are two goals (the original goals were peach baskets, hence the name) consisting of bottomless nets made of twine suspended from metal rings 18 in. in diameter. the latter are fastened to surfaces 6 by 4 ft., made of wood, painted white, called backboards; these are placed at each end of the court, the height of the ring from the floor is ro feet. ‘the game is played between two teams of five members each, a round leather- covered inflated ball weighing from 20 to 23 oz., and not less than 30 nor more than 32 in. in circumference being used. the object of the players is to throw the ball into their own basket or goal. time of play is divided into halves of 20 min. each, with a 10 min, inter- mission between. these periods may be shortened by agreement. the ball must not be kicked, nor hit with the fist, but may be passed or thrown to another of the player’s own side. he may not run with the ball, but it may be dribbled, that is, bounced along the ground. supervision of play by a referee and an umpire is strict, and fouls are called for any infraction of the rules. the penalty for a foul is a free throw for goal froma point 15 ft. from end of court. the successful completion of this throw scores a point. a goal from the field in active play scores two points. the rules for women’s baskethall are supervised by a women’s basketball committee of the american physical education assn.— although some girls’ teams adopt boys’ rules. a team may comprise from six to nine players, the size of the court approximates that of the boys’ game, but girls’ rules call for two zones when teams are composed of six players, and for three zones for a greater number. certain players are restricted to these zones, points count two and one, as in the boys’ game. rbcbliography.—w. e. meanwell, the science of basketball (1924); f.c. allen, afy basketball bible (1924); i. j. mather and e. d. mitchell, basketball (1925). see also welen frost and c. d. wardlaw, basketball and indoor baseball for women (1920) and spalding’s official basketball guides (men’s and women’s). basle (see 3.462) had a population in 1920 of 135,976. it is a great railway and distributing centre with large electric, metal, and chemical works and a ribbon-making industry. the old town is unspoilt, and its industries are carried on in the rapidly extending suburbs. the kunsthaus, an unpreten- tious building in the heimplatz, was opened in 1910 with exhibitions of pictures, sculpture, ctc., and a library, and an interesting example of a nobleman’s house close by, the landolthaus, was arranged as an annex and museum in 19109. the frau miinster kirche, near the bridge of the same name, was restored and modernised in 1912, and offices for the national zeitung, with painted facades, were built in the market place in 1915. the baden railway station, one of the largest in europe, was finished in 1922. a building for the pestalozztum, which contains an educational exhibition and pestalozzi’s study, has been erected near the urania bridge. basra (see 3.489) has a population estimated at about 50,000. during the world war the port equipment was modern- ised by the inland water transport branch of the british royal engineers, and in 1925 there were 4,000 ft. of whariage served by railway lines, shipbuilding yards, barge and coal depots, warehouses, etc. the port lies some 75 m. up the shatt el‘arab, which is deep all the way, but in 1924 only vessels of less than 19 ft. draught could cross the fao bar. in 1922 the ‘iraq govt. took over the control of the port from the british govt. pending transfer to a port trust. in 1924 an agreement was exccuted with the anglo-persian oil co. for the dredging of the bar at fao; the company was to advance the money required and the ‘iraq govt. undertook, through its port authority, to carry out the work, which was begun in the same year. considerable progress was effected during the period 1922 to 1925 in the administration of the port. during the world war basra was connected by railway with “amara on the tigris, but the lines were afterwards taken up and a line constructed alongside the euphrates, and connecting basle—bataille the port with baghdad. in 1922 an automatic telephone system was brought into operation, and in 1923 a wireless station, which is in regular communication with cairo and beirut, and accepts traffic for england and germany, was opened. a short railway linc to the baghdad gate, unaer two miles in length, was com- pleted in jan. 1923. (sce mesopotamla. operations in.) bastian, adolf (1826-1905), german ethnologist (see 3.500), died feb. 3 10905. basutoland (see 3.503), a british territory in south africa. the increase in population to 498,781 in ro2t and then to about 540,000 in 1925 led to the cultivation of areas, e.g., the maluti mts., formerly used only as grazing grounds. between 60,000 and 80,000 basuto find employment outside the country, chielly in the transvaal mines. agriculture and stock-raising are ihe main occupations. wool, mohair, wheat, and maize are the chief exports. the value of exports rose from £193,000 in 1908 to £958,000 in 1924. imports rose from £239,000 in 1908 to {942,000 in 1924. the revenue, £108,000 in 1908-9, was {£252,000 in 1923-4; the expenditure, £241,000 in 1923-4, in some years exceeded the revenue, but basutoland is self-supporting. the accumulated surplus between 1908 and 1921 totalled £159,000, which sum was spent on public works. about 50% of the revenue is derived from a poll tax on adult males, which in r91r was substituted for a hut tax. a basuto (properly masuto) with more than one wife paid additional taxes for the second and third wife, but nothing for wives in excess of three. fully a fourth of the basuto (incorrectly basutos) profess christianity. education is mainly in the hands of missionary societies. government.—basutoland is under the control of the british colonial office. ownership of land by europeans is forbidden, and the basuto, a virile race of mountaineers, strongly opposed incorporation in the union of south africa. their desire to remain under direct imperial control was repeatedly expressed, as in 1921 to prince arthur of connaught, then high com- missioner for south africa, and in 1925 on the occasion of the visit of the prince of wales. the system of government which, under a resident commissioner, allows a measure of home rule to the basuto continues to work well. the pitse or national council meets yearly, 95 out of its 100 members being nominated by the chiefs and the other five by the administration. it has advisory powers only, but its advice is often taken. sir h. c. sloley, who had been resident commissioner since 1901, was in dec. 1917 succeeded by sir e. c. f. garraway. letsie ii., who had been paramount chief since 1905, died in jan. 1913 and was succeeded by his brother griffith. when the world war began griffith and his people offered to raise regiments for combatant service. the offer was declined, but 1,400 basuto served with the south african native contingent in france, and many were employed in southwest and east africa. maseru, the capital, population (1921) 3¢9 europeans and 1,890 natives, is the largest town. a branch line connecting maseru with the south african railway system runs for one mile in basutoland, and is the only railway in the territory. some four miles from maseru is a leper settlement established in iqr2. | annual reports on the basutoland are published by the colonial office, london, see also phe official year book of the union of south africa, 1910-24 (pretoria, 1925). chee tee, bataille, henri (1872-1922), 'rench dramatist, was born april 4 1872 at nimes. in early youth he thought of becoming a painter and, in 1890, entered the ecole des beaux arts. his first venture into dramatic work, la belle au bois dormant given at the theatre de l’oeuvre in 1894, was a failure; but his reputation was definitely established by a book of verse la chambre blanche (1895), and when his breton drama la /e- preuse was produced in 1896, he stood revealed as a dramatist of real promise. from that time onwards he developed his gift for writing plays in which passion is shown to sway men’s lives more than their beliefs, until he reached maturity with maman colibri (1904), la marche nuptiale (1905) and poliche (1907). among his other works are la femme nue (1908), la batieman—battleship vierge folle (1910), la divine tragedie, a book of war poems (1916) and la chair humaine (1922). he died march 2 1922 at rueil, near paris. bateman, kate (1842-10917), american actress, daughter of hezekiah linthicum bateman (see 3.508), conducted alter 1892 a school of acting, appearing rarely on the stage. her last appear- ance was as kirjipa in false gods at his majesty’s theatre, london, in 1909. she died in london april 8 1917. bateson, william (1861—1926), british biologist, was born at whitby aug. 8 1861. he was educated at rugby and st. john’s college, cambridge, and became known for his biological investigations, which included important researches on mendel- ism and the determination of sex. in 1894 he published afaverials for the study of variation. in 1907 he gave the silliman lectures at yale university, from 1908 to rg09 was professor of biology at cambridge, and in 1910 was appointed director of the john innes horticultural institution at merton park, surrey. from 1912 to 1914 he was fullerian professor of physiology at the royal institution, and in r914 was president of the british association. he received the darwin medal of the royal society, of which he was a fellow and a royal medallist, in r904, and was also the recipient of other british and foreign awards. his works include sfendel’s principles of heredity (1902) and problems of genetics (1913), besides many short studies on biological subjects. he died at merton, surrey, eng., feb. 8 1926. battleship.—the subject of the principles of design of battleships was dealt with fully in the article sure (24.891), and probable changes were suggested. since that article was written the authorities responsible for the defense of their respective countries have not thought it wise to introduce any serious varia- tion from the line of progress then suggested. but everywhere a certain element of public opinion scems to distrust the judgment of responsible authority, and to fear that the new developments in aviation and in submarine service have rendered the accepted type of battleship obsolete. moreover, treaties for the limitation of armaments and in re- gard to the supply of munitions of war have projected the main- tenance of navies beyond the limits of strictly domestic affairs. henceforward, while the treatics run, the design and effective- ness of battleships are an international political matter. this article will offer an explanation of why responsible admiralties were not swerved from their course by the charges of undue con- servatism founded on their adherence to the old type of battle- ship with only moderate changes. control of sea traffic—the sea is the great highway of inter- national traffic. navies have existed and still exist only to pro- tect their seaborne commerce in favour of their own national life and of their military forces overseas, and to use their power in detriment to the traflic of the hostile belligerent. they fight with this purpose as their final objective. a victory at sea is valucless which has no reaction on seaborne traffic. with the growing specialisation of interrelated industries in far-distant regions, the control of ocean trafic in warfare is be- coming more and more important, because national support to combatant forces is more and more dependent on supplies and raw materials drawn across the seca. war on property in transit on the sea is likely to assume even greater importance than it did in the world war. with the domination of sea communications as the ultimate naval objective of either or both belligerents, shipping uscd for strictly combatant service hitherto always fell into three broad classes: (a) supply craft for the fleet and overseas armies, for men must eat and arm before they can struggle; (4) types of reconnaissance craft depending on high speed for scouting, screen- ing and information, because knowledge is a prerequisite for profitable employment of fighting strength; (c) heavy fighting craft whose duty is to beat down opposition after being supplied with munitions and with knowledge by the other two classes. in all times, this last type, built to give and take the heaviest punishment possible under the general situation of the arts and science of the period, has been the battleship of the day. the battleship is by no means invulnerable; what the hand of man has yo le, made it can also destroy. destruction may take place by ad- ministrative failure of duty, by traitorous sabotage, by battle with similar opponents and by attacks coming from the air and from beneath the surface of the sea. like other combatants, the battleship will survive a battle only by her own hard fighting. granting that the control of surface-borne ocean traffic is, and will in the future be, the purpose of all warfare upon the seas, as it has been in the past, we are now asking ourselves where future predominance of type for naval warfare lies. has the ultimate means of control passed away from the surface of the sea into the air or beneath the sea? surface ships of every type have one great advantage over the aeroplane and the submarine. the surface ship floats on the water with a reserve of buoyancy so great that very considerable injury to her structure is necessary to sink her. on the contrary, aeroplanes in the air, and submarines when under the water, have no reserve of buoyancy, and both must seek the surface as soon as injured, and there both are much handicapped. yet their work, like the work of other combatant craft, is ultimately against surface craft. _ functions of war vessels —combatant surface craft have al- ways been divided into two broad classes, those whose chicf military characteristic is fighting strength gained at some expense to mobility, and those whose distinction is speed and mobility gained somewhat at the expense of fighting strength but not altogether excluding it. the speed ships are primarily for scout- ing, screening and securing information, as well as to attack and defend commerce. the strength ships are to overcome the strongest opposition; yet need the support of the speed ships to guide and aid them in fleet battle. after successful fleet action, the speed ships may disperse to control commerce. but success- ful fleet battle is the result of co-ordinated effort of all types, and the speed ships, although comparatively weak in combatant strength, have yet a form of battle superiority over the strength ships. this rests on the tactical advantage of surprise which exists on shore as well as afloat. to meet a surprise time is the essential condition. the time element——speed and superior mobility as com- batant factors bring in the time element. even if the attack is a weak one only, it may be driven home before the defence wakes up to utilise his strength, and the speedy assailant makes off before the stronger defendant can organise his counter-attack and pursue. this is as true of a cavalry attack as of a torpedo boat attack. the tactical answer to speed now as always is to oppose it by a counter-attack and pursuit no less speedy. this time element also causes the success of the new weapons of every kind. the enemy does not know how to meet the novel- ty. when he learns how to do so, the novelty loses much of its effectiveness, for the parry is known. such was the situation in the world war. neither side was ready to meet the first hostile use of submarines, tanks, gas warfare and aviation. now all are less important than they were because the novelty has dis- appeared. methods of defence are known and are still develop- ing. public opinion lags and does not take note of the vital im- portance of this fact. an element of surprise —the considerations here summarised lead to the comprehension of a well-balanced flect as one in which the commander-in-chief has the element of surprise available to him in two different forms. the first form lies in the use of the initiative through a tactical choice of weapons, as for instance the enemy forms for gun action but meets a torpedo attack under a smoke screen. the other form is, through superior mobility, to choose the time and place of attack and to break off action at pleasure, without fear of pursuit. a wise combination of the activities of the two classes of sur- face ships—the strength ship and the speed ship—properly proportioned as to numbers, has hitherto constituted a well- balanced fleet. but now the proper balance is altered! by the in- troduction of submarines and aircraft. in time of peace, as novelties, these necessarily excite relatively more public interest than they deserve in comparison with older types. the use of submarines by the germans to the imperilment of the alhed 340 cause has the romance of crime about it, and that of aircraft has the romance of high adventure; but in any other war they will both be used according to the measure of their serviceability and will lose much of their romantic interest. submarines.—compared with other classes of ships the sub- marine is weak except for her distinguishing characteristic of submergibility. thereby she can lic in ambush and surprise the enemy, but she cannot escape surface craft by mobility; she can only hide. if detected she is lost. the reply to the submarine is found in high speed surface craft seeking the submarine by listen- ing devices and then destroying her. the submarine will always be embarrassing to a surface navy, but not necessarily dominant over it. a surface navy with a well-balanced adjustment of types is perfectly competent to deal with the submarine arm. but with a given aggregate strength of the fleet, the proper balance of types to meet a navy using submarines is different from that required to meet an opponent without them. aircraft.—as for aircraft, they are not weapons but vehicles; they derive their importance from their ability to rise into the air and so to avoid obstacles; and also, under favourable con- ditions, altitude may increase their range of vision. perhaps more of their value comes from the fact that they are the fastest vehicles known. by such mobility they confer upon their riders the choice of time and place of surprise attack. they can be brought under fully effective counter-attack only by equally speedy opponents; that is, by an opposing air force. the chief use of aircraft is where mobility is most important, in scouting, screening and observation information service. in combatant efficiency the aeroplane does not stand high: its defensive struc- ture is weak, and it can deliver an attack effective only through its high speed, which enables it to strike its blow before its own destruction. but the aircraft loaded with weapons (1.e., bombs) moves slowly among its fellows, and is vulnerable to faster aircraft. as in the case of submarines, here also a well-balanced surface fleet will be one prepared to overcome aircraft. but whereas the slow-moving submarine menace is countered by fast surface submarine chasers, the menace of heavy bombing and torpedo aircraft must be met by more speedy opponents, which in this case can only be faster aircraft. the answer of a surface navy lo aircraft attack is to have aircraft of its own in sufficient num- bers, just as it must have enough torpedo boats and enough cruisers and other types to make resistance effective against surface enemies. with regard to further devclopment of aircraft as substitutes for other types of shipping, the responsible heads of all navics are against it. although useful, aircraft did not decide the world war, and nothing since has shown they will decide any future one. the advocates of greater aeroplane development and re- organisation assert that the air service will replace other types and inherit the future, but since the war thcy have no new facts or arguments to adduce in support of their assertions. with air- craft opposed to aircraft as one of the elements in the fleet, vic- tory will fall 10 the best all-round flect; a few aeroplanes in excess will mean no more than a few more guns. or any other minor difference in material. | | limitation of armaments.—the final question concerning the future of battleships regards treaty limitations as they affcct ar- maments and the laws of war. the ostensible reasons put forward for such treaties are humanitarian and the reduction of expense. the public supports such treaties in the hope, scarcely a belief, that they tend to prevent wars. but an analysis of the minutes of the assemblies at which such treaties have been concluded shows that, from the first hague confcrence to the most recent, the delegates ever seek to establish their countrics in time of peace in situations of strategic advantage for war. limitation on exportation of arms throws each non-manuiacturing nation as a client upon some manufacturing power, and a large manu- facturing capacity in readiness to turn out war supplies permits a nation so situated to contemplate international agreements as to formal reductions in armaments or as to limitations upon the export of munitions with more equanimity than another. baudrillart the washington conference (q.v.) of 1922 did away with the threat to british naval supremacy of the growing american battleship fleet, and britain accepted equality in future battle- ship and aircraft carrier strength as satisfactory to her, with a limitation on tonnage; but agreement as to limitations of strength in other types could not be reached, although the size and armament of individual battleships and cruisers were fixed. proposals to abolish submarines could not be put through, be- cause on this point there was sharp divergence between france and england. for generations england has had the dominant navy, and in consequence has always been conservative. she wants no change; for successful novelties challenge her position. the submarine is the weapon of weaker powers, and if france accepted its abolition her diplomatic weight in a dispute with eng- land might be reduced. on the other hand, the abolition of sub- marines would confer a measure of diplomatic and belligerent free- dom upon great britain by freeing her shipping from a scrious menace. the humanitarian point of view most affects the public; but admiraltics may not take this as an exclusive guide, for it is their duty to be more far-seeing than the public. =. as for aircraft, the situation is not altogether the same. their production belongs to the manufacturing nations, and conse- quently their necessity in war aids the four great manufacturing powers to dictate world policies if they can agree upon such. when such an air agreement is lacking, and war threatens, it has not yet been made apparent that war from the air favours one of the four great manufacturing powers more than another; yet it is a serviceable auxiliary to all. so no power objects to aerial warlare on national strategic grounds. as for further treaty limitations:— (a) if limitation or abolishment of present type battleships takes place predominance will tend to pass to modifications of the present authorised 10,000-ton cruisers, which will then embody the age-long idea of the type of ship capable of the greatest endurance against all forms of hostile attack combined with maximum striking power when supported by suitable auxiliary types of combatant craft. (6) should limitation be placed on the total of all classes of com- batant shipping, sea-power and the consequent ability toa dominate world commerce in the national interest will tend to pass to the nation possessing the greatest combined combatant and merchant fleet, and a certain proportion of merchant ships would no doubt be fitted for ready conversion to combatant use in war. (c) should a treaty provide for ratios in each type of shipping, the result would be to favour strategically some one nation whose standard is adopted for distribution of tonnage among types. for any navy whose types are well balanced has made an adjustment between them suitable to her own political and geographical situa- tion, but best suited to herself only. and if other nations accept it they have incurred strategic waste of pre-war effort in order to sign atreaty. the only sound limitation on armaments is one proceeding from voluntary action of nations because they see no occasion for aggression by themselves and feel they offer nothing tempting to aggression by others. that day is distant. until then battleships of some sort embodying the strength characteristic as discussed above will remain the ultimate reliance of navies. under current treaty limitations, it may be assumed without information as to details of design that the british ‘“‘ nelson ” and ‘‘ rodney ” are such ships. it is probable that they differ not greatly in total power from the japanese ‘‘ mutsu ”’ and the american ‘ colorado,” improvements probably lying along battery arrangements, better compartmentation under water, greater deck protection, perhaps a little more speed and other minor differences at the discretion of the designer, but about which it is impossible to guess. these ships of three great powers are the answer of their responsible admiralties to unsupported assertions that the day of the battleship has passed. bibliography.—sir j. s. corbett, some principles of marttime strategy (191l); sir g. g. aston, sea, land, and air strategy (1914); o. gutheneuc, dreadnought or submersible? (1916); sir r. n, cus- tance, war at sea (1919). (we le ra) baudrillart, henri marie alfred (1850- ), french ecclesiastic, was born in paris jan. 6 18509, the son of henri baudrillart. he was educated at the lycee louis-le- grand, the f:cole bossuet, and the ecole normale supericure, taking degrees in history, law, literature and theology. he be- came a priest in 1893, and next occupicd the chair of history at the bauer, gustav—bavaria catholic institute of paris, of which he became rector in 1907. the following year he became vicar-general of paris, and in 1915 founded the catholic committee of french propaganda abroad. in 1918 he was made a member of the academie fran- caise, and in 1921 was consecrated titular bishop of himeria. in nov. 1925 he was made a papal count and bishop assistant at the pontifical throne. baudrillart’s works include: la politique de henri iv en alle- magne (1885); philippe v. et la cour de france (1889-99), (grand prix gobert); l’eglise catholique; la renaissance et le protestantismte (1905); quatre cents ans de concordat (1905); la vie catholique dans la france contemporaine (1918), etc. bauer, gustav (1870- ), german politician, was born at darkehmen, east prussia, jan. 6 1870. he became connected at an early age with the german trade-union movement, and in 1908 was elected president of the general committee of the trade unions of germany. in 1912 he entered the reichstag as a social democrat, being appointed in oct. 1918 secretary of state for labour in the govt. of prince max of baden. appointed minister of labour under the republic in feb. 1919, on june 21 of the same year he became president of the ministry formed to accept the peace treaty of versailles, resum- ing shortly afterwards the former title of chancellor. after the kapp puisch in march 1920, he fled with ebert, the president of the reich, to dresden and later to stuttgart. on his return he became minister of the treasury in hermann mfiiller’s cabinet and shortly afterwards minister of commerce. from may 1921 until nov. 1923 he held, conjointly, the offices of vice- chancellor and minister of the treasury in wirth’s cabinet. bauer, otto (1881- ), austrian politician, was born at vienna. bauer was one of the founders of the socialist educa- tional movement, “ die zukunft.” he founded with f. adler, the theoretical socialist periodical der kampf and collaborated on kautsky’s journal die neue zeit. he became secretary to the parliamentary fraction of the social democrat party in 1904 and at once proved himself the party’s most brilliant theoretician. his first work die nationalitdtenfrage und die oesterreichische sozialdemokratie, treated the problem of nationality in the dual monarchy with deep historical insight and on lines entirely borne out by later developments. as a prisoner of war in russia he studied bolshevism at first hand, and on his return to austria in 1917 became leader of the left wing of his party, which worked for a republic and self-determination for all nationalities. he was appointed under-secretary of state for foreign affairs by victor adler and became minister a few days later, on the latter’s death (nov. 121918). heretained this post under the austrian republic until july 1919. after 1918 it was bauer’s brain which really guided the international and internal policy of his party which he pre- served as a non-bolshevist but advanced socialist organisation. h[e launched the few socialist experiments in austria (see his pamphlet, der weg zum sozialismus, vienna, 1920) and the so- cialist agrarian policy (der kampfum wald und weide, vienna, 1925; dus agrarprogramm dcr oesterr. s. d. partei, vienna, 1926). he wrote an important account of his own and his party’s activities, die oesterreichische revolution (vienna, 1923; english translation, london, 1925). his other chief works are bolshevismus oder sozialdemokratie (vienna, 1920); der neue kurs in so- vietrussland (vienna, 1921); das weltbild des kapitalismus (in der lebendige marxismus, jena, 1925). bauxite: sce aluminium. bavaria (see 3.543), a territory and free state of germany, with which coburg has been united since 1920, its area, is 29,506 sq. m.; and the population (1925), 7,493,000. political history, t9t0-8.—the prince regent luitpold died on dec. 12 1912. during the last years of his reign the catholic-clerical party, which was thenceforward to determine bavaria’s policy (the bavarian people’s party or volkspartei, is the new name of this party), had come into power after pro- longed political struggles. when podewil’s ministry, which had been in opposition to the landtag, and finally dissolved it, was defeated in the electionsof feb. 1912, the princeregent instructed baron von hertling, a member of the centre party in the reich- 341 stag, to form a ministry. he formed a cabinet of officials, ex- cept for two posts, which he gave to members of his party. the ministry decided in sept. 1913 to confer the royal dignity upon luitpold’s successor, ludwig iii., by making the necessary change in the constitution, but was immediately plunged into sharp conflict by the introduction of the bill for increasing the civil list. the world war brought a truce to party politics, but this was subjectecl to a heavy strain during the last year of the struggle, when the discontent of the population gradually as- sumed alarming proportions. von hertling became chancellor of the reich in nov. 1917, and was succeeded as minister- president by von dandl, who, in nov. 1918, found himself confronted with the revolution. the revolution.—on the night of nov. 7-8, before the fall of the imperial govt. in berlin, the revolution broke out in munich. the wittelsbach dynasty was deposed, and kurt eisner, the independent socialist, placed himself at the head of the revo- lutionary government. he at once endeavoured to establish the new republic on a statutory basis by issuing an order for the re-election of the diet, whose duty it would be to determine the new constitution. a provisional constitution of the socialist republic of bavaria was set up in the interim by the govern- ment. the diet was to meet on feb. 21 1919, but on that very day eisner was shot dead. the result was the outbreak, on april 4, of a new revolution, inspired by the bolsheviks. in munich, the councils republic (riate-repubiik) was proclaimed, but its reign came to an end on may 1, amidst fierce fighting. once more the diet was assembled, and on may 5 1919 hoffmann, the minister-president, laid before it the government’s scheme for the new constitution. the new constitutionn—the new constitution, which came into being on aug. 14 1919, was based on the assumption that bavaria was still a sovereign state, although the reich had laid claim to many of its former rights. foreign policy, the army and railways became the concern of the reich. bavaria’s economic policy also became severely restricted, as the financial legislation of the reich had requisitioned her principal sources of income. the form of the state is prescribed by the reich. bavaria, like the reich, is a democratic republic with parliamentary govern- ment; but it is a state without a president, and thus lacks the organ required to maintain the balance of power against parlia- ment. the controlling element is the diet, which has no supe- rior authority except that of the people, which elects its members and can dissolve it by a ‘ popular demand ” (volksbegehren), and is also empowered to administer the laws directly by means of a referendum (volksentschcidung). the dict is elected, like the reichstag, by universal suffrage and secret ballot, based on the system of proportional represen- tation. it consists of a single chamber. there is no upper house. a minister-president is appointed by the diet, and the other ministers are selected by him by agreement with the diet. ministers and secretarics of state are responsible to the diet for their administration. the ministry as a whole, or any single member of it, may be forced to resign by a vote of non-confidence. the dict is the legislative, its ministers are the executive author- ity. the necessary ordinances are issued by the ministry as a whole, but the responsibility for administration rests upon indi- vidual ministers. although the minister-president presides over the whole ministry he has not the standing of a prime minister. direct legislation by the people, by popular vote, may occur in two cases: (1) when the diet rejects a “ popular demand ” for the enactment of a law or accepts it only in an amended form, and (2) when the diet has passed a law from which, within two months, an appeal is made by “ popular demand ”’ or a referen- dum called for by the whole of the ministry. in so far as the people are able to legislate directly, bavaria is, like the reich, a direct democracy, but for the rest her constitution is based upon a system of representative democracy. political history under the new constitution.—the policy of bavaria since 1919 has been governed by (1) the risk of a con- flict with the reich and (2) the risk of a counter-revolution by nationalist and monarchist organisations. relations with the 342 reich were impaired by the view, held by the dominating parties in bavaria, that the weimar constitution involved excessive centralisation and uniformity. bavaria therefore demanded greater independence for the individual states, and wished, not only to restore but to develop still further the federal system of the old constitution of the reich. on the question of the partic- ular rights to be retained by bavaria there were constant battles between the two governments. the rise of the nationalist organisations was due, on the one hand, to a reaction after the temporary rule of bolshevism in munich, and, on the other, to the execution of the versailles treaty by the entente. events, such as the attempted counter- revolution in berlin, the so-called ‘“‘ kapp putsch’”’ (march 1920) could not fail to make their impression on bavaria, espe- cially as many of the participants found asylum there. hoff- mann’s socialist ministry was forced to resign, and kahr's bourgeois (non-socialist) cabinet took its place. on june 6 the bourgeois parties obtained a two-thirds majority in the elections, and the “ law-and-order party ” (“‘ ordnungsblock’”’) began its rule. herr escherich founded the einwehnerwehr or “ or- gesch ” (organisation escherich), a voluntary militia, for pro- tection against possible repetitions of a bolshevik revolution. this organisation was, however, dissolved by order of the en- tente commission, and von kahr resigned in consequence on sept. 12 1921. his successor, count lerchenfeld, had an equally good majority but was also obliged to go out of office in the fol- lowing year on account of a conflict with the reich govt. (oct. 27 1922). von knilling’s new ministry leaned still more to the right and the democrats left the government. meanwhile, the nationalist leagues had gained in strength and now began to defy the government’s orders. the most powerful of them were the national socialists, an extreme mili- tarist, nationalist and, above all, anti-semite body, nominally democratic in tendency, but actually largely used by the rich to break strikes and attack socialism. this body was raised from obscurity by one hitler, a good demagogue but no politician, and it wavered between bavarian separatism and pan-german- ism in a bewildering fashion. it became dangerous in the autumn of 1923, when ludendorff joined it and gave it the backing of all the secret military leagues which called him leader. but it aroused opposition in bavaria by setting itself against a resto- ration of the wittelsbach dynasty and against the catholic church. herr von kahr was appointed general state commis- sioner with full dictatorial powers. on nov. 8 1923 the counter-revolution broke out in munich. it was suppressed with bloodshed, the reich defence force hav- ing remained loyal to the constitution, and hitler and other leaders were sent to prison or lunatic asylums. von kahr’s task was now at an end, and on feb. 18 1924 he retired. the elections for the diet gave no party a majority; a coalition ministry was therefore once more formed, consisting of the bavarian people’s party, the german nationals and the farmers’ league ( bauern- bund). held, the leader of the bavarian people’s party, placed himself at the head. this ministry offered a firm front to the national-socialist party and strove to reach a settlement with the reich government. in the antisocialist and federal tend- ency of its policy, it nevertheless follows in the track of its prede- cessors. the monarchist (wittelsbach) movement is still very strong (see germany). (w. v. b.) beatty, david beatty, 1st eart (1871- ), british admiral, was born jan. 17 1871, the second son of capt. david longfield beatty, of co. wexford, ireland. in 1884 he entered the training ship, “ britannia,” as a naval cadet. from 1896-8 he was with the naval brigade in egypt and the sudan, and later went to china to assist in the suppression of the boxer rebellion in 1g00. his conduct during these campaigns attracted much attention and explains why he reached the rank of captain before he was 30. he owed nothing to the purely civilian virtues of pro- ficiency in examinations and technical efficiency. his mind was unhampered by non-military preoccupations and traditions, his predominating idea being that the purpose of war was a trium- phant peace. he thus commended himself to winston churchill, bea tt y—beaverbrook who in rg1r was first lord of the admiralty. beatty served two years at whitehall as churchill's secretary, a consultative and not an administrative post. in 1913 he was appointed to command the battle cruiser squadron. all doubts as to the wisdom of selecting an inexperienced junior for the leadership of a formidable proportion of britain’s naval forces were dissipated before a month of the world war had passed. in a raid into the heligoland bight in aug. 1914, beatty took his squadrons well within the range at which the german battle-fleet might have been expected to strike, a challenge the enemy did not take, and sank three cruisers and one destrover without loss. a few months afterwards he intercepted the ger- man ships under von hipper in his third attempt on the english coast towns. the battle cruiser fleet was unfortunately re- duced in numbers, and carly in the engagement, the tlagship “ lion ” was disabled. beatty’s last signal, to pursue the enemy’s capital ships and engage them more closely was regrettably mis- understood, with the result that the action was broken off and the german cruiser, *‘ blucher,” alone was sunk. these two experiences of action bore fruit on may 30 1916 in the battle of jutland (q.2.). the debate over the german admiral’s bold and skilful evasion of the traps set for him, the inability of the grand fleet, in con- ditions of acknowledged difficulty, either to bring and keep the enemy under effective fire till his business was done by daylight, or, on the morning of june 1, to intercept and destroy him in his headlong flight from the battle-field, when crippled and dispirited, does not involve beatty’s share in the action, and the com- mander-in-chief’s despatch of june 15 1916 records a tribute unbesmirched by controversy. nevertheless, in the first grief and disappointment that fol- lowed on the news that the germans had escaped, while “‘ inde- fatigable,” ‘‘ queen mary ” and “ invincible ”’ and other ships had been sunk with lamentable loss of life, beatty did not escape censure. he was blamed for the “ rash and impetuous ”’ tactics that had been both costly and fruitless. later, when it was known that the loss of the lightly armoured capital ships was not caused by exposure to overwhelming fire, but by their magazines being open to the blast of chance shells bursting in the turrets 50 ft. above them, opinion swung to the other extreme, and beatty, who, like nelson, missed no opportunity when attack was possi- ble, became a national hero, the personification of aggressive and tenacious daring. if the censure was unmerited, the canonisation was for inadequate reasons. beatty’s record in three engage- ments, his drastic revision of the grand fleet’s battle orders after taking command in dec. 1916, and his no less drastic reorganisa- tion of the guidance and control of the naval service on becoming first sea lord in 1919, remain permanent monuments to his clear insight into the essentials of fighting, of his firm grasp of the only principles by which fighting forces can be led and of his capacity 1o inspire others. in 1921 he was the british delegate at the washington con- ference on the limitation of armaments. he received the k.c.b. in 1914. in 1919 he was raised to the peerage as earl beatty, viscount borodale of borodale, baron beatty of the north sea, and received a grant of {100,000 for his services during the war. he was also awarded the g.c.b. and the o.m. and was the re- cipient of numerous other british and foreign honours and deco- rations. in may 1go1 he married ethel, daughter of the late marshall field of chicago, and has two sons. (a. h. p.*) beaverbrook, william maxwell aitken, rst baron (1879- ), was born at newcastle, n.b., may 25 1879, the son of the rev. william aitken, a presbyterian minister who subsequently became minister at newcastle, where the boy’s youth was passed. at an early age he started business in halifax, nova scotia. his abilities attracted the attention of john e. stair, a local financier, who made him a partner in his business. on the older man’s death aitken, who had made a considerable fortune, removed to the wider field of montreal, where he con- tinued his business operations and in 1907 acquired a seat on the stock exchange. in 1910 he was suddenly plunged into a financial struggle of bebel—bedier the first magnitude and into national notoriety. he was asked by the bank of montreal to investigate the prospects of an amal- gamation of three canadian cement mills. as a consequence of his examination he slipped almost by accident into a scheme for the amalgamation of all the canadian mills. the question was, could this be done, and if so at what price should such a com- bined company be launched on the market? aitken named the figure, and, though most of his associates disbelieved him abso- lutely, he proved right, and made at a stroke an immense fortune. largely owing to his own imprudence, he found himself the ob- ject of an organised press attack, and achieved a considerable unpopularity throughout canada. time has proved the finance of the cement trust to be sound, and it has always paid a good dividend to its shareholders. at this point aitken, having attained his predetermined aim of making £1,000,000, retired from business and entered english politics. he won a sensational victory at ashton-under-lyne in dec. 1910, and in parliament became private secretary to bonar law. his influence with that statesman, who, in 1911, became leader of the opposition, was suspect to many con- servative members. he played a part in making his friend leader against the rival claims of walter long and austen chamberlain, but this was hidden from the public at the time. his skill for political manoeuvre was first generally recognised in 1916, when, by bringing mr. bonar law, sir edward carson and mr. lloyd george together, he helped to engineer the overthrow of mr. asquith and the substitution of mr. lloyd george asa premier pledged to a more vigorous conduct of the war. for this service he was raised to the peerage in jan. 1917 as baron beaverbrook of beaverbrook, n.b. and cherkley, surrey. he had been knighted in rorrand created a baronet in 1916. at the outbreak of the world war he had become canadian “ eye-witness ” at the front. in 191s he became a representa- tive of the canadian govt. with the expeditionary force, taking charge later of the canadian war records. in feb. 1918 he joined the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of lancaster and minister of information in charge of propaganda. immediately after the armistice he resigned from the cabinet and abandoned politics. for some years before this date lord beaverbrook had pos- sessed a financial interest in the daily express, but had taken no active part in its direction. he now took over entire control and gave the newspaper his whole attention. in a short time he raised it from the somewhat depressed condition in which he found it and turned it into a flourishing and powerful organ. in 1g21t he founded the sunday express, and after a prolonged struggle established it successfully as a popular sunday journal. later, when the late sir edward hulton’s newspapers were placed on the market, he secured a controlling interest.in the evening standard—thus creating a kind of triple alliance. his published works are the first two volumes of canada in flanders; success, a study of the ethics of business; and politicians and the press, (1925). lord beaverbrook married in r906 gladys henderson, daughter of brig.-gen. c. w. drury, of halifax, nova scotia. (m. w.) bebel, ferdinand august (1840-10913), german socialist (see 3.601). during bebel’s last years his views regarding the revision of the social democratic programme underwent a con- siderable change; he ultimately favoured revision in the sense of co-operation with other political parties in democratic reforms. in the reichstag he continued to oppose germany’s oflicial militarism; while strongly advocating resistance in the case of foreign aggression. his attitude towards imperial and autocratic russia was throughout uncompromising. it would hardly be too much to say that he would have welcomed a rupture with russia on almost any ground. his influence in this regard powerfully contributed to foster those sentiments in the social democratic party which led it to acclaim the declara- tion of war against russia on aug. 1 1914. one of his last public appearances. was at an international peace conference at berne in r913. he died at @ sanatorium at passugg, in switzerland, aug. 13 1913. 343 bechuanaland (sce 3.604), a native territory in south africa under the control of the british colonial office. the population in 1921 was 152,983, of whom 1,743 were whites, compared with 120,776 in 1904, of whom 1,004 were whites. the protectorate is essentially a pastoral country and in 1921 the bechuana possessed 495,000 cattle and 380,000 sheep and goats. cattle, hides, and skins are the chief exports. the revenue, raised mainly from customs and a hut tax, first ex- ceeded expenditure in 1915-6, when the figures were: revenue, £70,000; expenditure, £68,000. previously deficits had been made good by the british exchequer. in 1924-5 the revenue was {99,000 and the expenditure £87,000. during 1922-5 a locust destruction campaign was carried out with marked success, over 37,000 swarms of tvoetgangers being destroyed. under the administration of a resident commissioner, the bechuana tribes possess autonomy. they have made consid- erable progress and show a keen desire for education. native and european advisory councils were established in 1920. bathoen, paramount chief of the bangwaketse tribe, died in july t910 and sebele, paramount chief of the bakwena, died - in jan. 1911. montsioa, chief of the baralong, died in april rgirt. all these chiefs were noted men in the early struggles between the boers and british for the possession of bechuana- land. a greater figure, khama, paramount chief of the most important tribe, the bamangwato, died in feb. 1923, aged about 93. khama, who had been converted to christianity in 1860, had been paramount chief since 1875 and had been consistently friendly to the british. a stern, self-willed man, he was a great advocate of temperance and of education. when in june 1925 the prince of wales visited bechuanaland, he unveiled a memorial to khama at serowe, the bamangwato capital. linchwe, chief of the bakgatla, a wise and good ruler, the last surviving chief at the time when the country came under the british flag, had died in oct. 1924. sekgoma, khama’s son and successor, died nov. 15 1925. among the white inhabitants, mostly farmers settled along the railway line, which links the cape province to rhodesia, an agitation grew up for admission to the union of south africa. in dec. 1924 gen. hertzog, prime minister of the union, informed a deputation that in his opinion the time was ripe for considering the incorporation of the protectorate, and also the swaziland protectorate, in the union. for geographical reasons that part of southwest africa, known as the caprivi zipfel, was in 1922 transferred for administrative purposes to the bechuanaland protectorate. annual reports on the protectorate are published by the colonial office, london. consult also the official year book of the union of south africa, 1gro-24 (pretoria, 1925). (par g.) beckwith, james carroll (1852-1917), american por- trait painter (sce 3.610), exhibited at st. louis in 1904 “ the nautilus ” and a portrait of mrs. beckwith. the universities of yale and johns hopkins and west point military academy possess examples of his works, and the new york public library has a collection of his crayon and pencil drawings. he died in new york oct. 24 1917. bedier, joseph (1864- }, french scholar, was born jan. 28 1864 in paris and was appointed professor of medieval french language and literature at the college de france in 1893. he won the degree of docteur-¢s-ictires with les fablianx, a work on early french poetry which was crowned by the academie francaise. the publication of his roman de tristan et iseult (1900) set a european seal on his reputation. in les legendes epiques (3 vol., 1908) he developed, with a wealth of picturesque detail, his theory that the great cycles of romance grew up along the pilgrim routes of medieval france. he thus supplied an ingenious and romantic interpretation of the charlemagne, guillaume, and quatre fils aymon cycles, which directly contradicted the theory of their origin from a primitive common epic material maintained by gaston paris and his successors. bedier’s exquisite and lucid style gained him innumerable admirers among scholars and lay- men alike. among his other works are les crimes allemands (1915) and la chanson de roland (1921), 344 beebe, charles william (1877- ), american ornitholo- gist and explorer, was born in brooklyn, n.y., july 29 1877. in 1890, after receiving the degree of bachelor of science from columbia university and completing a year of graduate study there, he became honorary curator of ornithology of the new york zoological society and was later made director of its dept. of scientific research. he originated the collection of living birds in the new york zoological park, and brought it up to the first rank with a census of 900 species and 3,000 specimens. his scientific expeditions took him to nova scotia, florida, mexico, venezuela, british guiana, the himalayas, borneo, china, japan and galapagos. in an expedition in 1924-5 which he organised to explore the sargasso sea, the humboldt current, and the galapagos is., he made many observations of scientific value and secured many rare specimens of marine life. he pub- lished a monograph on pheasants in four volumes, the first of which (1918) won him the elliot medal of the national academy of sciences. in addition to many scientific papers on birds and evolution and - mumerous magazine articles, he has written: two bird lovers in mexico (1905), the bird (1906), log of the sun (1906), our search for a wilderness (1910), tropical wild life (1917), jungle peace (1918), edge of the jungle (1921), galapagos: world's end (1923), studies of a tropical jungle (1925), jungle days (1925) and the arcturus adventure (1926). beecham, sir thomas, (1879- ), british conduttor and impresario, was born april 29 1879, the elder son of sir joseph beecham, 1st bart. he was educated at rossall school and wadham college, oxford, and gave his first concert with the queen’s hall orchestra in london 1905. he founded and after- wards conducted the new symphony and beecham symphony orchestras, and also the beecham opera company. after pro- ducing operas by delius and others at covent garden theatre in roro, he gave a brilliant season of russian opera and ballet at drury lane in 1913, where chaliapin took the title-rele in boris. in 19t5 beecham gave a season of opera in english at the shaftesbury theatre, london, followed by others at the aldwych ‘theatre. in 1916 he was knighted, and succeeded the same year to the baronetcy. in 1917 and 1918 he produced russian, ger- man and italian operas at drury lane theatre, returning in 1919 to covent garden, where he gave a first performance of massenet’s therese. in 1920 under the grand opera syndi- cate, ltd., sir thomas produced operas by bizet, debussy, puccini and others. his work in promoting grand opera in english has been of great value, and contributed largely to the foundation of the british national opera company in 1g2i. beeching, henry charles (1850-19109), british divine and writer (see 3.640), was dean of norwich from rorr until his death at norwich feb. 25 1919.