ARCHAEOLOGY

the articles which follow sum- marise the main features of the remarkable advance made since 1910 in the scientific knowledge of ancient life. as the handmaid of history, archaeology establishes correlations with the record of the climatic variations since the main outline of the world was shaped in the early pliocene age. the antiquity of man has been proved for europe to the lowest limits of the pleistocene age. i. introduction evidence is accumulating to warrant the belief that eoliths mark the existence of a tool-using, tool-selecting, intelligent species which can be none other than the forerunner of homo sapiens in the upper pliocene, if not of homo sapiens himself. great stresses, shakings, compressions and earth movements have taken place since then, so that the wonder is that we have any evidence of this nature left. only stone could survive these processes. stone was the prime material from which permanent tools were fashioned, and is still employed for that purpose by the australian aborigines, who use at the present day a practically complete series of stone implements, representing all the various stages of culture known in prehistoric europe. it persisted long in africa, in oceania and in america. communities like the andamanese can exist without stone implements by fashioning all they need from shells and from the products of the jungle. of the culture of such groups but little proof would survive. continuity of settlement —the science of archaeology discloses a feature of significance, the continuity of settlement. localities have definite site-values which persist from age to age. citles are built, are destroyed, are rebuilt in turn to perish, but the site- values ensure continuity of occupation. it is, therefore, possible to examine the sequence of strata, of deposits, to test this strati- fication and to lay down a chronological order by the sequence method of dating, based primarily on pottery. the tale it tells, in spite of its fragility, is of incalculable importance to the student of civilisation, because the use of pottery indicates a per- manency of settlement, and historical variations in the popula- tion of localities are indicated by the introduction of new de- signs (cambridge ancient history, vol. i., p. 71). we can thus form, as never before, an estimate of life in ancient days and 158 realise how full it was, how vivid, how touched with the problems of life and death, of love and hate, of war with man, with beast and with nature. these records yield proof of the influence of religion on the arts and crafts, of the potency of magic to stimu- late and provide sanction for the economic activities. they show how law and order have grown up, how peace and stabilised con- ditions must be postulated for the development of the high spe- cialisation, which produces the wonderful flint work of the badarian culture, or the jewellery of the new indo-sumerian civilisation, or the statuary of the later dynasties of the older kingdom in egypt. the great empires of babylonia, sumeria, egypt, crete extend their influence, each deriving somewhat from the other. the change from savagery to civilisation comes, as it were, suddenly. agriculture is the necessary basis of all settled civili- sations, but the time and place of its origin are not yet clear. knowledge there was in abundance of the processes of nature; how far that knowledge was checked and controlled by experi- ment, how far it was sustained and conserved by the traditional forces of magic and religion, we cannot yet know. all ideas are changing, not least the belief that maritime activity is of recent origin. how much early egypt owed to mari- time contacts is not known, but the development of maritime in- tercourse in the mediterranean, focused on the cyclades and on crete, has certainly been a potent factor at a later period in dis- seminating culture east and west, tying up the lore of chaldea with crete. on the other side, the persian gulf and the red sea have certainly served as links with india and, at a later date in the 4th century b.c., intercourse was active from india, both from the north up to patna on the ganges, the capital of the mauryan empire, and from the south, the home of that great, mysterious dravidian civilisation, to the still more mysterious east, even perhaps to china. indian maritime activities may have to be correlated in due time with the culture developed in oceania, where in distant new zealand traditions survive of a migration from hawaiki, identified with india, where there are still current modes of speech related to the austric family of which polynesia is a member. from east and west comes evidence of the rise and fall of empires. from china, where early man is now known to have existed, comes a glimpse of early greatness. in the north of india there was certainly established a vast commercialised king- dom with cities almost modern in their architecture, planning and sanitation, and traces of this culture can be found, as we now know, in baluchistan, as the sign-posts on the road to—or is it from?—sumeria. here at one stroke is revealed the secret of the change which transformed the simple society of the pastoral nomad, depicted in the veclas, into the organised, stabilised, hierarchically ordered society of the period of the brahmanas. aryandom is seen to be coloured throughout by elements derived from this prehistoric culture. we now realise that the splendour of the periclean age in greece has a long past behind it, that egypt was then, as herodotus learnt, old egypt, that art had flourished on independent lines elsewhere before. science is concerned with the measurement of time and in the establishment in egypt of the sothic cycle (cambridge ancient history, vol. i., p. 248) and in the astronomical lore of babylon is evidence of observation, record and knowledge, profound and valuable. there must have been record and observation over long periods to permit the formulation of these systems of calen- dars: so too with the maya systems, based on the vigesimal system and on stellar as well as solar and lunar observations. the independent invention by the mayas of the zero is notable in itself and as a mathematical device of first-rate importance and value almost comparable in scientific utility to the inven- tion of fire, and it is due, so far as western civilisation is con- cerned, to india. there are yet vast tracts unexplored; there is still need for extensive survey to form the framework of our picture, the de- tails of which can only be corrected by and compiled from in- tensive studies. new scripts are discovered and, like the minoan and easter i. scripts, remain as yet undeciphered; other scripts archaeology give up their secrets and disclose sometimes new languages, sometimes variants of familiar stocks of speech. ample as is the material, it is still lacking in many respects. it is still inadequate for the testing of extensive theories, but homer has been vindi- cated, herodotus no longer labours under the stigma of credulity and, as tylor bade us remember, ‘“ what the poet relates may be fiction, what he mentions is apt to be history.”’ the old meets the new in many ways and in strange matters. we use steel and concrete as permanent constructional materials, and we seek, as man has always sought, to relieve the severity imposed by our materials by ornament and decoration. it is modern practice now to use solid plaster moulds into which figures may be cast for decorative purposes. this device was used in central asia and to it we owe the survival of hellenistic types in asiatic art so long as the moulds were available for use, till replaced by the ideals of chinese art. though the methods and discipline of modern anthropology differ necessarily from those essential to archaeology, the two sciences are complementary to one another and, while archae- ology helps us in some degree to realise the setting of ancient life, it is to anthrepology that we look for the revival of the spirit by which alone we can picture the fullness of life as it was in the ancient world. there are left to us traces of religious rites for the safety and welfare of the dead, for which modern anthropol- ogy finds many analogies in current practice. if we dare assume a continuity and persistence in belief, such that the mentalities of the lower culture of to-day represent in large measure the spiritual conditions of the ancient world, we can recreate much of the stirring past. we know that they dis- tinguished the successful hunter on his death by special rites, we have evidence of the use of magical means to ensure success in the chase, for the promotion of fertility, for the welfare of the community, and of the utilisation of means identical with those employed by ruder folk to-day. thus, these surveys of archaeo- logical progress throughout the world permit in varying degree a realisation of the conditions in which civilisation, law and order, the arts of life and the beginnings of science made their appear- ance in the history of the world. 7 (x) il. a general survey the word “‘ archaeology ” is commonly used in several senses. to some, it is the general study of antiquity as a whole; of life, that is, as 2¢ was, within selected limits of time, in a selected region. in this sense, we speak, for example, of greek or roman or mediaeval european archaeology. but in this wide signifi- cance it is not easy to distinguish archaeology from history, or at all events from that wide and vague penumbra of political history, which is concerned with the background, circumstances and accessories of those “‘ great events ” which preoccupy the political school of historians. to others, interpreting archaeology more strictly, it is thestudy of the material remains of antiquity, as technology is the study of the material achievements of the present day, and the proc- esses by which they are brought into being; of the ways, that is, in which man satisfies material needs by material means. in this sense, archaeology is the comparative study and interpreta- tion of craftsmanship in bygone times. but this conception of archaeology as “ technology in the past tense, ” though fundamentally justified, concentrates attention on materials and processes, to the neglect of the needs which they subserve, and the satisfaction which they are devised to ensure. in particular, current usage accepts, as an integral and important aspect of archaeology, the study of the ways in which man has in the past satisfied his aesthetic and other ideal needs by some material device such as sculpture or painting, either as self-suf- ficient arts or as enhancements of some other aspect of the crafts- man’s work than its sheer utility—as means to a material end. distribution of interest—in this aspect, archaeology is, or at least includes, the “ past tense ” of art-criticism; and this aesthetic consideration has in fact determined the distribution of archae- ological interest and enquiry among periods and regions of culture. to apply a crude practical test, it is usually easy to taise archaeology funds for archaeological research, when there is prospect of re- covering ancient works of art; usually difficult, on the other hand, when the questions to be answered are primarily techno- logical, or even historical. examples are the relative popularity of egyptian and of babylonian archaeology; of the minoan and mature hellenic periods in comparison with the austere and al- most artless early iron age which separates them in greek lands. such study of bygone schools of representative or even decora- tive art is obviously concerned not only with descriptions of the objects themselves, and their manufacture, but with the inter- pretation of them as expressions of aesthetic ideals, and also as aids to the comprehension of religious or political conceptions which stimulated or dominated the creative imagination of their makers; the symbolic art of egypt, india and mexico, the ideal types of greek deities and christian iconography, the great schools of portraiture, athletic sculpture and genre painting, with their political and social implications, are illustrations of this. relations with epigraphy, etc—very special cases of such ulterior significance are the archaeological study of documentary objects, inscribed monuments, papyri and other classes of written records, and (in their historical aspect) of coins and medals. in so far as they are concerned with the materials, craftsmanship, circumstances of preservation and discovery, as evidence for date and significance, epigraphy, palaeography and numismatics are to be reckoned as archaeological studies, however closely the application of the facts which they reveal, is related to the work of the historian. when a writer like rostovtzeff! speaks of “ writ- ing history with the aid of archaeology,” he has however in mind, not documentary evidence acquired through archacological re- search, but historical conclusions circumstantially established by archaeological considerations; the distribution, sequence and characteristics of certain kinds of human handiwork. relations with the “ humanities.”,—apart from curio-hunting the formation of decorative “ galleries ” of old masterpieces, and such occasional freaks of zeal as the excavations of assurbanipal or nabonidus, archaeology is a recent offshot of the humanities. though the renaissance scholars were no less interested in ancient art (and especially architecture) than in literature, ma- terial relics were rarer and less manageable than texts; the first systematic publication of antiquities in j. gruter’s thesaurus dates only from 1603; and j. selden’s afarmora oxoniensia from 1628. deliberate travel in search of such relics begins with the mission of the marquis de nointel to the grand turk in 1673 and the travels of spon and wheler in greece in 1676; organisa- tion of scholars for such research with the foundation of the society of dilettanti in 1733 and the travels of stuart and revett (1751-3), pococke (1751) and chandler (1764-6); and in france, of choiseul-gouffier and pouqueville. other landmarks are the docirina numorum veterum of j. h. v. eckhel (1792-8) and a. f. mionnet’s description de medailles an- tiques (1806-13) which laid the foundation for the scientific study of coins; leake’s pioncer work in greek topography from his arrival in constantinople in 1793; and above all, the scientific work of napoleon’s egyptian expedition in the same year, of which the best known incident is the discovery of the ‘* rosetta stone ” which gave champollion the clue for the decipherment of hieroglyphic texts. tomb-robbing had been habitual in the near east, as in italy, especially in etruria and campania, since ancient times, but the notion of recording the finds as they were made hardly goes back beyond the days of sir richard colt hoare (1812-9). systematic excavation of an ancient site was first attempted on a large scale at herculaneum in 1738 and at pompei in 1763; but these were essentially sites of a single period and layer of deposit, and gave no scope for stratigraphical re- search, even if the historical perspective of the excavators had been sufficiently developed to allow this. type sequences.—for another century, indeed, and more, the sole available method of investigation was the comparison of types and styles, with occasional aids to a fixed chronology from 1 iranians and greeks in south russia, preface. 159 inscriptions on monuments and coins. consequently it was long before archaeology could be regarded as more than an illus- trative “‘ handmaid to history.”’ in certain departments of fine art, and especially in painting, the comparison of dated examples of successive phases of style made generalisations possible as to certain characteristics of ‘‘ primitive ” or “ archaic,” ‘‘ mature ”’ and ‘‘ decadent ”’ work within the same school; and in the early roth century the same method gave brilliant results in the study of what had hitherto been merely ‘“‘ gothic ” architecture. it was not until some progress had been made in the kindred subject of geological “ fossils,” with the aid of the “‘ systematic ” zoology of linnaeus and cuvier, and the evolutionary concep- tions of lamarck, that a beginning was made by c. j. thomsen in the morphological classification of the prehistoric antiquities of the national museum founded in copenhagen by nyrup in 1806. thomsen, forming continuous series of implements, of less and more specialised types, and observing the resemblance (for example) of the most mature types made from stone, to the least-developed types in bronze, had established before 1830 the sequence of distinct “ ages ” of stone-, bronze- and iron-using culture within the same region. the same conclusion was reached independently by f. lisch in the ducal museum of mecklenburg- schwerin in 1836; and thomsen’s pupil, j. j. a. worsaae clinched these results by the discovery that in danish peat-bogs, stone im- plements were found mainly in the lowest layers, characterised by the presence of remains of scotch firs; bronze mainly in layers above these, with oak; and iron in the uppermost layers, where beech alone occurred: thus proving not only sequence of the three ‘““ ages,” but periods of sufficient duration to allow considerable changes of climate. keller’s demonstration of similar super- position of types on the floors of swiss lakes, in 1854, attracted even wider attention—the word kultur-schicht for such layers of remains of handiwork, first occurring in 1855; and in 1859 the same stratigraphical argument, in the hands of prestwich and evans, confirmed the brilliant anticipation of boucher de perthes, of the glacial antiquity of the ‘ palaeoliths ” in the terrace-gravels of the somme. thomsen’s morphological argument, reformulated on a wider basts, and applied to human handiwork generally by g. klemm, was interpreted afresh on the new darwinian principle of ‘ sur- vival of the fittest *’ by sir j. lubbock, prehistoric times (186s), and a. h. l-f pitt rivers, “ principles of classification, ” jour. anth. inst., vol. 4 (1874); e. kapp’s grundlinien einer philosophie der technik (1877), g. semper’s der stil (1878), and m. hoernes, urgeschichte des menschen (1892), marking important extensions and refinements. and meanwhile the work of keller and troyon among the swiss ‘‘ lake dwellings ” stimulated the copious well- directed explorations of gastaldi (1860), strebel (1861), pigorini (1863), chierici (1864) and their pupils, in the far more accessible terramare settlements of lombardy. it was indeed in this ex- ceptionally favourable material that the technique of scientific excavation was mainly developed; to be applied, less than 10 years later, by schliemann, on the traditional site of the homeric troy, to the first dissection of an exclusively dry-land site, on which the deposits had been accumulated in the open, without water-action. use of photography.—by this time, the new art of photography had immensely increased the rapidity and accuracy with which discoveries could be recorded; h. schliemann’s atlas trejan- ischer alterthiimer (1874) is the first important use of it for pur- poses of publication. by way of contrast, the epoch-making tomb-records of von sacken and ramsauer, in the great early- iron-age cemetery at hallstatt (1862) remained almost unutilised for a generation, because they consisted only of a single set of water-colour-drawings. photography had indeed been employed rather earlier to record architectural monuments, as in the roman excavations of j. h. parker, published in 1874; but for field work it was not till gela- tine began to supersede collodion as the sensitised film, about 1875, that modern photographic registration became possible. even the british barrows of w. greenwell and g. rolleston 2 allgemeine kulturgeschichte der menschheit (1843-52). 160 (1877), a model of scientific research and description, is but scantily illustrated by wood-blocks of single objects. organised excavations ——with experience gained in schlie- mann’s trojan excavations, in the roman forum, and on less im- portant sites elsewhere, the new imperial govt. of germany initiated at olympia in 1874 the first large-scale excavation of an untouched classical site. the far earlier excavations of newton (1856-66) at halicarnassus and cnidus, and those of wood at ephesus (1863-74) had at best surveyed and despoiled important sites which the barbarous ottoman administration mace it impossible to conserve. at olympia and similarly later on the acropolis of athens, in the french excavations of delphi and delos and elsewhere, a civilised government undertook in advance to protect and maintain what was found, either on the spot, or in national collections, even more effectually than had been assured by the french inspectorate of antiquities in egypt organised by mariette in 1858. obviously it is only on some such guarantee for the conservation of results that it is justifiable to leave exposed the foundations and other immovable monuments which excavation exposes to the risk of vandalism. preservation of aflonuments—such public guardianship of ancient monuments other than buildings in habitual use, begins with a french statute of 1810, the official inspectorate of french monuments in 1830, and guizot’s commission des afonuments historigues in 1837; and with the farsighted legislation of the newly founded greek kingdom in 1834. the first british ‘ ancient monuments act ”comes much later, in 1882, with the hungarian act of 1881 and the turkish antiquity law of 1884, which was the first to provide for equitable division of portable objects between the state, the landowner and the excavator. public custody of ancient monuments appears in the greek, italian and most of the continental enactments compulsorily; in the british act of 1882, only in the event of voluntary transfer of a monument by its owner to the public commission of works. in addition the “ national trust for places of historic interest or natural beauty ” was recognised by the second british act as a legal custodian, and has rendered many valuable services in this way. systematic registration, somewhat on the french model, is contemplated under the historical monuments c&m- mission of 1908, and some degree of conservation at public ex- pense by the irish act of 1892 and the third british act of 1913. records and surveys.—monuments, if sufficiently conspicuous or notable, have at all times found record in ordinary topographi- cal maps; but the notion of a deliberately archaeological survey is comparatively modern. the first large scale map of the antiq- ulties and ancient sites of a district is the magnificent karten von alitka of f. curtius and j. a. kaupert (1884); rather earlier, but necessarily on a smaller scale, is the survey of western pales- tine, with seven volumes of memoirs, executed for the palestine exploration fund and published in 1881. a fine later example of such work is thearchueological survey of nubia, necessitated by the imminent submergence of large numbers of sites and monu- ments by irrigation works. local archaeological surveys in britain, for the most part organised by private enterprise since 1890, are now supplemented and co-ordinated by the appoint- ment of an archaeological officer to the ordnance survey. out- side europe and egypt an archaeological survey of india, re- vived and developed during lord curzon’s vice-royalty, is the only attempt to plot the antiquities of a considerable region on a coherent plan, though the french d/emoires de la delegation archaecologique en perse contain valuable pioneer surveys and also records of excavation. air survey —the employment of aircraft as an aid to archaeo- logical discovery hardly occurs before the world war and is still rare and experimental. remarkable results, however, have al- ready been obtained in great britain, by the co-operation of training-units of the british r.a.f. with the archaeological de- partment of the ordnance survey, and elsewhere, by british, french and italian airmen in regions such as north africa, syria and mesopotamia, where distances are great, surface travel arduous and exposure and visibility on the other hand unusually good. the peculiar value of such air-surveys results from the archaeology revelation (under favourable conditions of light, at dawn or sun- set) of surface features due to denuded earthworks, hut-circles and other disturbances of the natural soil, of which the actual elevation is too slight and gradual to be plotted or even detected by an observer on the ground level (see section xix. arr sur- vey). value of maps.—in a quite different direction, the employ- ment of mapping as a means of interpreting the significance, not only of sites and monuments, but even of casual finds, is only recently becoming appreciated, now that a sufficient quantity of data have been accumulated and classified, and the significance of the mere find-spot of an object is more clearly appreciated. such distribulion-maps represent the analysis of the miscellane- ous information incorporated in the regional survey, into appro- priate categories, and the correlation of these with one another, and with natural features or resources cognate to their produc- tion or use. distribution of ambery.—for example, the distribution of ob- jects of amber (the sources of which are known to be geographi- cally limited) is already sufficiently well known to give valuable information as to the routes along which it was transmitted to- ward the most distant find-spots; and seeing that a commodity so widely prized was also highly valued, the distributions of other commodities, sometimes of unknown origins, along the same routes, throws fresh light on each other, as elements in a return- traflic, and on the significance of other resemblances between the cultures of the regions which these trade-routes interconnect. similarly, the growth and spread either of this or that type of culture as a whole, such as the hallstatt or la tene civilisation of the early iron age in europe, or of particular devices or prac- tices such as the safety-pin or the leaf-shaped sword, or zoo- morphic ornament or the custom of cremation, are demonstrated by comparing the distributions of early and of late phases of each type of object concerned; or conversely, the place of an anom- alous variant in the series of development may be shown by the relative geographical extent of its distribution. instructive examples of recent research in these directions are the work of aberg on the frankish types of brooches, of peake on the leaf- shaped sword, and of rostovtzeff on the polychrome jewellery and schools of animal-decoration in late classical and early medi- eval times. sequence-daiing.—though archaeology is seldom concerned, as history usually is, with individual (and, to that extent, unique) events, and consequently reckons far more often in terms of relative antiquity than of precise chronological data, some ad- vance has been made—especially by sir w. flinders petrie, working on the very large masses of cognate material derived from the predynastic cemeteries of the nile valley, and by sir arthur evans on the copious contents of the palace-sites at knossos, ancl other deposits of the aegean bronze age—toward a method of “f sequence-dating ”’ capable of considerable refine- ment, especially wherever the series of development in different classes of craftsmanship support each other’s indications. uni- tary modifications in the general complexion of a culture, or of a single art or craft in it, appear under such circumstances to be closely related to the careers of individual craftsmen, leading to a rough reckoning by human generations. synchronisms.—occasionally, such “‘ sequence-datings ” and the approximate coincidence of corresponding phases in distinct regions are even found to be confirmed and correlated with the ‘absolute ” chronology of a country such as egypt, of which there is documentary evidence for its history, by the occurrence of what are known as “‘ datemarks.”’ the argument from such “ datemarks,”’ formulated first in essentials by flinders petrie and generally accepted as valid about 1890, is as follows. an object belonging to a particular phase (c) of a changing culture (1), and found in the same layer of deposit—a rubbish heap, ruined house or tomb—with a particular phase (d) of another culture (b) in the region of that culture, cannot be of later (late than the objects with which it is found, while it may (obviously) have been itself more or less old already when it became associated with them. with such archaeology unilateral association only, no further conclusion may be drawn. if, however, with objects of phase (c) in the region of culture (a), there be found even a single object belonging to phase (d) of culture (8), then it follows similarly that the intruded object (¢), though it may have been older, cannot be of later date than the objects (¢) with which it is found. but it has been already established that phase (c) cannot be later than phase (d); and phases, neither of which can be later than the other, are neces- sarily contemporary. in this way it has been possible, for example, to synchronise phases of the early minoan culture of the south aegean with the v. and vi. dynasties of egypt; phases of the middle minoan, with the xii.; and the palace-style of the second late minoan period with the middle reigns of the xviii. dynasty. such synchronisms are rare as yet; but they become more numerous as the material becomes more copious and is more accurately recorded; and they illustrate the stages by which the purely morphological comparisons of the archaeology of the early roth century are re-interpreted in the light of strati- graphical exploration into a closely reasoned construction which is difficult to distinguish from historical knowledge. (j. l. m.) ill. continental europe and great britain eoliths —the existence of tertiary man or of a tool-making animal, first mooted in 1867 at the congress of paris, was only re- cently proved near ipswich, thanks to mr. reid moir’s researches. tertiary deposits in east anglia were laid down, for the most part, in a shallow sca, and must have formed low sandbanks, sometimes carrying a sparse vegetation, not unsuitable to the existence of primitive man living mainly on shellfish. the argu- ment for the existence of a tool-making animal is that certain flints have been found, chipped in several directions in a manner practically inconceivable had natural forces been the only agency at work. further in the case of some of the east anglian finds, it is difficult to see what natural forces could be involved. at thorington hall, near ipswich, a bi-valve shell was found in the gravels with the hinge still intact, thus indicating no dif- ferential movements in the gravels which could have set up shearing actions. nor could the flints have been naturally chipped elsewhere and introduced later into the deposits, because tiny chips as well as larger chipped implements are found in defi- nite layers associated together. this would not be the case if the objects had been washed in from a distance. naturally the chipped flints are exccedingly primitive, the usual types being scrapers and beak-shaped tools. in the light of these new east anglian discoveries a number of classical tertiary sites are being reconsidered, such as boncelles (belgium) and puy de courny (auvergne, france). palaeolithic cultures! a considerable advance has been made in our knowledge of palaeolithic man. work has been done on the archaeological sequence both relative and absolute, though the exact correla- tion of the various cultures with the geological record still re- mains rather obscure. the french sequence of cultures has become standardised as follows, the names being taken from typical find-stations:— magdalenian from la madeleine, tur- sac, dordogne. solutrean from solutre, seine et loire. upper palaeolithic : aurignacian from aurignac, hte. ga- ronne, widdle palaeslitice eat from le moustier, dor- acheulean from st. acheul (amiens), lower palaeolithic somme, |chellean from chelles, seine et marne. pre-chellean. these cultures have been separated on stratigraphical grounds supplemented by a typological study of the tools. layers con- 1 a culture is perhaps definable as the sum of the activities of a people as shown by their industries and other deducible character- istics, 161 taining definite industries (7.¢e., assemblages of contemporary artifacts) are often found in super-position one above the other in cave deposits. these typical industries are exclusively made of stone in lower and middle palaeolithic times, but also of bone, horn, ivory and antler in upper palaeolithic times. doubtless wooden tools were always manufactured, but this material of course readily disappears. it has been possible further to sub- divide each culture, according to its special tool or series of tools. thus, the magdalenian shows no less than six sub-divisions, sclutrean three, aurignacian five, mousterian three, acheulean three and the chellean two. naturally these sub-divisions are of less general importance, but none the less they can be recog- nised over large parts of western europe. it has been increasingly realised that the french sequence is not of universal application and that in other districts outside the immediate influence of prehistoric france, conditions were not exactly similar; thus in moravia, second only to france in importance from a palaeolithic point of view, nothing earlier than mousterian is found, while upper palaeolithic cultures, starting apparently from a similar aurignacian stock develop on their own, only slightly influenced from other areas. the pre- historian, even in these early times, has to deal with areas of cultural development in europe, connected with, and influenced by, each other to a greater or less extent, but by no means neces- sarily similar. chronology.—the correlation of the archaeological and gco- logical records remains a thorny question. on penck’s hypoth- esis quaternary times, coinciding with the great ice age, can be sub-divided into four glacial maxima with warm inter-glacial periods between. these are called from earliest to latest: giinz, mindel, riss and wtrm, after four tributaries to the danube basin from the german alps, the inter-glacial periods being called respectively giinz-mindel, mindel-riss and riss-wtirm. connected with the glacial maxima was the laying down over large parts of europe of wind-borne deposits of loess, due to the cold, dry steppe-like conditions prevailing. the early loesses and much of the evidence for earlier glaciations have been neces- sarily destroyed by the later ice advances, but the wiirmian glaciation being of less intensity than the riss, its terminal moraine has not reached out as far into the plains as that of its predecessor, which has thus been preserved. other investiga- tors have denied a fourfold glaciation system, and consider there were only three or even two glacial maxima. correlation between the archaeological and geological record is obtained by finding industries typical of a culture in or on a datable deposit such as a loess, river terrace or known moraine. an absolute chronology in time is a very difficult matter. attempts have been made to determine when the retreat of the wiirmian ice began, but these have not been very successful. however, 20,000 years ago as an approximate date for the dawn of the upper palaeolithic has the support of many authorities and is probably not far wrong. home art and cave art.—this consists of sculptured and en- graved (rarely painted) objects found in home sites associated with datable tools. lately a number of important examples including two good human figures, an ivory one from the pyre- nees (see fig. 7 on plate), and a dried clay one from moravia have been found, as well as other statuettes and engravings of horse, mammoth, bear, etc. the solutrean folk, except under the immediate influence of magdalenians nearby, were not an ar- tistic people, but there is both an aurignacian and a magda- lenian art. the old theory that sculpture necessarily preceded silhouette, which in turn preceded line engraving, no longer holds good. we find line engraving from the earliest times and sculpture of course continues to the end. it is true, however, that the pro- portion of engraving to sculpture increases with the development of the art. although the“ venuses” are aurignacian, the magdalenian art is by far the richest and comprises naturalistic figures of animals, patterns and conventionalisations, these latter increasing towards the end of the period. some of the patterns seem to correspond 162 with our fashions of to-day, having a very limited existence in time, but a wide distribution in space, e.g., a broken zigzag pattern is found at the same period in such widely separated areas as cantabria and the jura, while certain early magda- lenian motives ate found as far east as moravia. attempts are being made to classify the magdalenian home art of france ac- cording to technique and types of designs into six sub-divisions corresponding to those made with regard to the tools. cave art consists of paintings and engravings on the walls of caves and rock-shelters; they seem generally to have been made for ceremonial purposes. two distinct groups are known of which the first, of upper palaeolithic date, occurs in the caves of the limestone districts of dordogne, lot, the pyrenees and canta- bria and includes two anomalous areas, in southwest spain and the heel of italy (one cave only). figures of contemporary animals, many of them now extinct, such as the mammoth, cave bear and woolly rhinoceros (see fig. 6 on plate), are wonderfully portrayed. the materials used were natural oxides and carbonates of iron, oxide of manganese and charcoal; these were ground up and mixed with fat, the colours obtained being light red, dark red, chocolate or light yellow, orange, blue black or coal black. the authenticity of this art can be shown from the fact (a) that certain engravings have been found covered by undisturbed palaeolithic deposits, which must therefore be later in date than the engravings themselves; (6) that figures of extinct animals occur sometimes covered with layers of stalactite. the draw- ings, with rare exceptions, bear no relationship to one another and are made one upon another. from such palimpsests studied in conjunction with the different techniques present here and in the home art, it has been possible to determine four distinct chronological phases, characterised by certain styles or tech- niques. thus phase 1 is aurignacian, phase 2 early magdalenian, phase 3 middle magdalenian and phase 4 late magdalenian. the engravings of phase 1 show a deep, continuous line; both they and the paintings have no idea of perspective till right at the end of the period, and generally only two jegs are indicated. a number of representations of the human hand occur as well as series of engraved parallel wavy lines. phase 2 shows a very con- siderable advance. the engravings are no longer made with one continuous line, and sculptures in high and low relief have been found. natural bosses of rock or stalactite somewhat resembling an animal are often utilised and improved, and the paintings show stump drawing or fine punctuated outlines. this perhaps was the most vigorous moment in the career of palaeolithic art. in phase 3 the engravings become finer, but the paintings show considerable falling off. their vigour is lost, the stump drawing becomes flat wash and the fine, punctuated lines de- generate into coarse, continuous ones. in phase 4 the engravings become exceedingly fine—mere scratchings—but are beautifully made. in one or two cases something of the nature of impres- sionism is present. for example, a little hairy mammoth is represented with his feet appearing from under his woolly coat, but on careful observation it will be seen that the feet have no linear connection with the body, yet the general appearance is perfect. the paintings regain somewhat the vigour of phase 2 by the use of polychrome, but although the beauty and skill of the later frescoes on the ceiling at altamira (spain) is astound- ing, the pristine freshness and vigour of the art of early magdalenian times is perhaps somewhat lacking. magic——possible motives for this art involve the concept of sympathetic magic. decoration or desire for expression are not explanations that satisfy the circumstances. they were certainly made for magic purposes connected with a desire for food. the fact that the phases change at the same time over wide areas indicates a continuity of intercourse between the artists-medicinemen-priests, involving something like schools of tradition. at the trois freres cave near st. girons (ariege, france) there is a little chamber at the end of a long cave, the walls of which are covered with beautiful engravings, the whole being dominated by the figure of a man masked, with antlers, as a stag and with a long tail (see fig. 1). close by this figure and equally dominating the chamber below, is a sort of natural archaeology pulpit accessible from behind, whence no doubt the sorcerer him-. self officiated. the darkness and the weird silence of the cave must have been very conducive to a readily influenced state of mind, and among a hunting people an induced self-confidence is half the battle for success. the second group occurs in rock shelters in eastern spain and comprises paintings (and in one instance an engraving) in a totally different style from those in the caves. scenes are com- mon and, unlike the first group, so are representations of the human form. from the fact that a number of animals no longer living in spain are painted, such as the rhinoceros, elk and bison, a late palaeolithic age for this group is considered probable. fic. 1.—the ‘‘sor- cerer’’ at the cave of trois freres (after breuil). (cambridge untverstty press.) motives are unknown, but since they are quite clearly un- connected with “homes” they may possibly have been decorations at some sacred place. mesolithic cultures at the end of palaeolithic times, the climate rapidly changed to a more genial one (why is still uncertain) and the old arctic fauna disappeared. new cultures appear, some doubtless evolved from late palaeolithic originals. of these so-called “ transi- tional ’’ cultures, four main ones have been recognised: (1) azilian named after mas d’azil, ari¢ge, france. (2) tardenoisean named after tardenois, aisne, france. (3) asturiense or asturian named after asturias, spain. (4) maglemosean named after the maglemose or great bog, zealand, denmark. the azilian seems to have been a comparatively small culture, mainly focused round south france. it is found, however, in north spain, east france and, in one instance, in belgium; and anomalous finds have been discovered in western yorkshire and in scotland at oban. no domestic animals with the exception, once, of the dog, occur. the industry shows tremendous falling off from the magdalenian standard, though a new type of bone harpoon and painted pebbles (river pebbles with red dots, lines, circles, etc., on them) appear. art disappears. the tardenoisean culture is mainly characterised by pygmy industries, these little tools being doubtless hafted as knives, teeth for saws, etc. pygmy industries indicate the idea of a com- posite tool, and this idea could quite well develop at different times and in different parts of the world, so that the existence of pygmy industries in various continents does not indicate con- nection with european tardenoisean cultures. the asturian is a small culture found in asturias (spain) stratigraphically post- azilian, but without domestic animals or pottery. its origin and distribution are not yet fully known. the maglemosean culture with its flint and stag-antler industry, is centered round the baltic where it is the first post-glacial arrival, unless we are to separate some rare finds made of reindeer antler. it has been recognised as far south as boulogne and as far west as eastern england. the typical tool is a special kind of harpoon. archaeology plate i. bs x 7 | ) ee ot - . ~ a = = ss 7 —e———— 5 4 —_—— me ee ee —_ se — mae at fics. 1 and 5. impressions of signets from mycenae (see text). fic. 2. head of terra-cotta statuette; thessaly. fic. 3. octopus vase; mycenae. fig. 4. marble statuette; thessaly. f1c.6. reindeer on stone, laugerie basse, france. fic. 7. ivory figure from lespuzue, pyrenees. fic. 8. piers of the middle minoan viaduct, knossos figs. 2 and 4. fitswilliam mus, cambridge. fig. 3. copyright a.g. b. wace, fig. 7. courtesy of comte 1. st. perier. fig. 8. sir a, evans.) archaeology neolithic civilisation the neolithic civilisation first introduced (a) agriculture, (d) domestic animals, (c) the making of pottery and (d) the making of stone tools by grinding and polishing. the effect of these four discoveries on human progress was enormous; (a) and (0d) per- mitted a great increase of population, and also concentrated this population into definite communities. specialisation was thus possible and practical knowledge increased; (c) refined the home and provided an excellent medium to be decorated for its own sake; (d) could produce an edge on stone thereby tough as well as sharp) a great addition to the sharp but brittle chipped flint edge. this was especially useful for carpentry. where these new developments had their sources is uncertain but (a) and (4) were probably introduced from central asia. the neolithic civilisation in europe can be divided into three areas or circles, an eastern, a northern and a western, and in each circle there is possible a chronological sequence, generally three- fold. until the end of neolithic times, the whole of central fu- rope was occupied by a primeval forest and, except for the loess lands which were free from trees, there was little intercourse be- tween the various circles. in late neolithic times, however, a dryness set in, the forest disappeared, the three circles coalesced and there developed a bewildering series of hybrids, closely fol- lowed by the introduction of the use of metal, the dawn of the copper age, and then that of the early bronze age. eastern circle—the early neolithic folk of eastern europe seem to have arrived from central asia, probably driven thence westwards by increasing dryness due to the slow disap- pearance of the great sea area of late quaternary times, that had made all those regions so suitable for human development. the culture is at first characterised by the so-called band pottery decorated with spirals, meanders and the like. this early linear pottery is succeeded by decoration by means of punctuated lines (stich band). a little later, an anomalous group of painted pot- tery appears as well, but the exact relationships of this latter are not clearly known. its distribution extends from south russia to moravia and southwards as far as northern thessaly. the western circle—in the western circle which extends from south holland round to italy, occur the well-known polished stone axes, and in lakes throughout the lower slopes of the alps, pile dwellings. megalithic buildings abound comprising dol- mens, passage graves, stone kists, etc. the exact cradle of this megalithic tomb cult is still uncertain. in south spain where they are especially varied, they coincide with a flourishing cop- per age, early developed in that country, owing to the abun- dance of suitable ores. the northern circle-—-the northern circle includes scan- dinavia and the baltic area. here is seen development from the maglemose culture (see ante) to that of the kitchen middens where pottery occurs, although domestic animals, with the ex- ception cf the dog, are absent. this, in turn, influenced by the megalithic culture from the southwest, gives rise to the well- known megalithic cultures of scandinavia. the earlier in- dustries continue, however, to exist in the hinterland under the name of arctic culture. but the northern circle suffered further influences from outside, for the so-called comb pottery culture coming from northern asia seems to have arrived here at an early period, and rather later the introducers of the “ single grave ” and “battle axe’ arrived from the east, originally probably cradled in south russia. the hybrids which developed at the end of neolithic times cannot here be described; sufficient to say that strong northern influences are observable as far south as southern germany, while the pile dwelling culture spread along the alps till we find it in slovenia. finally the so-called beaker folk, who were cradled in south spain, arrived with their characteristic bell-shaped pot- tery vessels in central europe, possibly via beliort, and spread as far east as budapest, reaching our own coasts by way of the rhine valley. they had some knowledge of copper and it seems to be they who first introduced this metal into great britain. neolithic art-—a very conventionalised art in rock-shelters in spain of late neolithic or copper age is known, also a semi- 163 naturalistic art engraved on rocks in western norway which must be referred to the arctic culture. late figurines occur in the eastern circle but otherwise, with the exception of a good en- graving of a fish on a cork float from lake wauwil and decorated pottery, home art is rare. england.—except from the point of view of chronology and its tertiary deposits, england is not specially important from the prehistorian’s point of view. it lies far to the north and was long under the influence of the great scandinavian ice-field. rich lower palaeolithic deposits occur, specially in the basins of the ouse and thames. mousterian industries, both with warm and cold fauna, have been found in the thames basin and pre- sumed mousterian industries occur in caves in the southwest as well as in derbyshire. upper palaeolithic industries are rare, some being found in a few caves. these show aurignacian de- velopment with only a little influence from the solutrean and magdalenian cultures farther south. pygmy industries are being discovered, specially round sheffield, and include the pygmy burin typical of tardenoisean times. in northern england, an azilian harpoon has been found to the west of the pennines, tardenoisean industries on the hills themselves and a maglemo- sean harpoon to the east.! little progress has been made in systematising the british neolithic industries, although much has been done in docketing the megalithic constructions, and neolithic home sites with pottery, etc., have been excavated near peterborough. distribution maps for eastern england show that the forest lands were not peopled by neolithic folk, who preferred the dry, sandy areas of norfolk and suffolk overlook- ing the fens, with an open hinterland behind for their small flocks and herds. the absence of sickles points to but little agriculture. the fen islands were only occupied at the end of the time, probably on account of pressure from the oncoming beaker folk. tue bronze age the outstanding bronze age discoveries since roro are, ‘of course, those of crete, the aegean and mesopotamia. elsewhere systematic work has continued following largely typological grounds. one of the earliest sites seems to be aunjetitz in bo- hemia, but exactly how metal was introduced into northern europe is still a moot point; certain it is, however, that the beaker folk knew of the use of copper. the earty [ron age similar systematic work and excavation continue in early iron age sites. the dryness of late neolithic and bronze age times was replaced by increasing dampness, and possibly the big folk-movements of the early iron age were due to deteriorat- ing climatic conditions. the main discovery in england of im- portance, is the find of this “hallstadt ” culture, hitherto be- lieved absent. typical pottery was first recognised near devizes and is now probable from a number of sites in east anglia and elsewhere. binliography.—m., hoernes, urgeschichte der bildenden kunst in europa (1915); e. a. parkyn, prektstoric art (1915); h. f. osborn, men of the old stone age (1918); r. a. s. macalister, a text boor of european archaeology (1921); marcellin boule, les hommes fossiles (1923); c. fox, the -irchaeology of the cambridge region (1923); g. g. maccurdy, izuman origins (1924); h. obermaier, fossil afan .in spain (1924); w. j. sollas, ancient hunters (1924); m. c. burkitt, prehistory (1925); v. g. childe, the dawn of european civilisation (1925); o. g. s. crawford, the long barrows of the cotswolds (1925); sir a. keith, the antiquity of man (1925). (m. c. b.) iv. italy and the western mediterranean italy.—despite wars and the resulting poverty in italy, excavations continue. archaeological reports since 1910 in the standard publications (the notizie degli scavt, the monument antichi and the two bulletini) cover more than 20,000 packed pages. in the prehistoric field the harvest is still of great im- portance. the picene region has yielded hundreds of well- 1 tt is possible that some of the small industries found on the sur- face in east anglia may belong to this latter culture. 164 stored inhumation tombs which form a series of links between the neolithic and historic times. the finds are well placed in the ancona museum (dall’ osso, museo di ancona). they explain fully why the rich adriatic littoral was not disturbed by the terramara invaders: the neolithic folk lived on in picenum and barred the way. unfortunately, some recent archaeologists, obsessed by the new “ picene hypothesis,”’ have forgotten linguis- tic evidence to the point of substituting the word picene for sabellic throughout eastern italy. north of the po, at and near este in the euganian region, valuable excavations have been carried on for over ro years (bull. paletn. ital. 1911; not. d. sc., 1916-22). the “ atestines ”’ were evidently a strong and wealthy people from the 8th till the sth century, with a civilisation akin to that of the villanova folk and in their later days strongly influenced by the etruscans. from the great terramara people we have had but little fresh material. the golaseccans of the italian lake region are still a riddle. a few new discoveries seem to indicate that they were a tribe distinct from the terramaricoli, and some scholars incline to the view that they represent the first celtic invaders of italy, though a very early group. nothing decisive has been found in the ligurian country. the few cremation tombs re- cently unearthed there may possibly belong to a wedge of ter- ramara folk. they certainly do not prove the ligurians indo- european. villanova sites throughout etruria and neighbouring regions are still yielding rich rewards that confirm previous discoveries. randall-maciver’s! assignment of the early iron age settlements of rome and the alban hills to this people will probably carry conviction. the most fruitful discoveries have been made near bologna, at vulci, veii (still unpublished), the faliscan region (holland, the faliscans in prehistoric times), terni (not. d. sc., 1914, p. 3), the alban hills (bull. paletn. ital., 1924) and antium (oth century cremation tombs found on landing the italo-american cable in 1925). clearly the sabellic tribes brought inhumation into the eastern border towns of the villa- novans (from falerii to latium) a century or more before the etruscans reached those places. for the excavations of many important nuraghi in sardinia one may consult taramelli’s new catalogue of the museum of cagliari. for the whole ficld of pre- historic archacology in italy down to the 7th century we have now a nearly complete corpus of the material in f. von duhn’s ttalische grdberkunde (1924), a book of profound erudition. of etruscan sites, caere has yielded exceedingly fine greek vases besides valuable funerary objects and inscriptions, which will aid in restoring the history of etruscan culture from the earliest day till roman times. unfortunately very few of these tombs have been published. veii has proved unexpectedly fruit- ful. the foundations of a three-cella temple were found, and near it considerable fragments of a 6th-century terra-cotta group representing a contest between apollo and hercules, probably an acroterion of the temple. the apollo, now in the villa giulia, is a masterpiece of its century (not. d. sc., 1919). many of the terra-cotta antefixes (not. d.sc., 1922, 206) are also of rare beauty. on the acropolis of the city have been found parts of the old city wall, foundations of several etruscan dwellings and two public buildings, and a large elliptical basement, which is supposed to be the foundation for a straw-thatched town hall of very early date. farther north were discovered the stone walls of a 7th- century dwelling-house of five rooms—the oldest structure of its kind in italy (not. d. sc., 1913 and 1922, 206-380). the tombs have proved that veii was once a villanova city which fell into the hands of etruscan rulers sometime before rome’s foundation. populonia, which prospered on the manufacture of the iron- ore of elba, has yielded many important finds. during the recent war numerous shiploads of iron slag from the ancient etruscan furnaces were removed for re-smelting, and in the process an old cemetery was uncovered. ‘these graves and others near by were ‘found to be well-stored with urns, arms and ornaments which a. minto has recently published in a volume entitled populonia 1 villanovans and early etruscans (oxford, 1925), a reliable survey and a penetrating analysis of the material. archaeology (firenze, 1922). a similar series on excavations at marsiliana has also been published by the same scholar. at orvieto a 4th- century etruscan temple with excellent pedimental terra-cottas has been found, important especially because of the tendencies of contemporary greek art which they reflect. good illustrations of these finds have just been published in dedalo (1925, p. 136). vignanello has yielded good greek vases as well as much etrus- can ware. a grave at todi has been found to contain numerous red-figured vases and some good etruscan armour. finally, at rome, on monte mario behind the vatican, casual building operations revealed a very interesting 7th-century etruscan village built over the site of an early bronze-age settlement. the corpus of etruscan inscriptions has also advanced by several fascicles with many new inscriptions, but no real advance has yet been made toward their interpretation. a convenient sum- mary of etruscan art in rome is to be found in r. a. l. fell, etruria and rome (1924)2 rome.—the city of rome still yields a constant stream of ancient works of art. the terms of the recent treaty restored the whole of the capitoline hill to italy, and the government with characteristic zeal at once ordered the excavation of the site of rome’s chief temple. the massive foundations of tarquin’s structure were laid bare and found to agree with the dimensions recorded by ancient authorities (not. d. sc., vol. 18, t921r). un- fortunately none of the decorative terra-cottas of the old temple have as yet come to light. in the forum little has been done be- cause of the long illness of senator boni, whose recent death end- ed a remarkable career as an excavator. on the palatine the rear of the imperial palace was cleared in ro1g5 and some excellent wall paintings and mosaics of the claudian and neronian periods brought to light in abandoned rooms beneath. in similar rooms found under the front of the palace were discovered wall decora- tions of great historical interest dating from the ciceronian period. these are briefly described in g. lugli’s recent guide to the zona archeologica di roma (1924). the most valuable treas- ure yielded by the palatine in recent years is the exquisite but still unpublished nike, which will probably find a worthy position in the national museum. the city government has excavated a large part of the augus- tan forum. the numerous architectural fragments found from the temple of mars ultor, the portico near by and the marble covering of the enclosing wall are of great beauty and precision, and several inscriptions of historical importance have also come to light. . sevcral rooms of nero’s ‘‘ golden house ” were cleared. the debris had been searched long ago for works of art, but the walls, protected by the superimposition of hadrian’s buildings, were found to be decorated in a style resembling that of the ‘‘ claud- jan’ rooms of the palatine. the small and richly coloured panels set in embroidered stucco are excellently executed but overloaded in design, as are the renaissance loggia arabesques which they inspired. in many places on the walls were found the signatures of renaissance artists who had crawled over the debris to study the ceiling decorations (partial report in jahrb. des kaziser-deutschen. arch. inst., 1913, p. 217). among statues re- cently found, there should be mentioned, besides the nike, an excellent portrait of augustus (vat. d. sc., 1910, 223), an “ ar- temis ”’ from aricia (jahrb. des kaitser-deuischen. arch. inst. 1922, 112), an excellent bronze representing a youth of the julio-claudian house, now in new york (am. jour. arch., 1915). furthermore, some forgotten fragments of great im- portance, which have long been lying and awaiting study in the basement of the vatican, include a fine head from a parthenon metope and a good copy of one of the “ tyrannicides ”’ (unpubl.). in 1917 there was discovered under the railway outside of porta maggiore a mysterious underground “ basilica ”’ in almost perfect preservation, probably of the rst century a.p. it had been built by sinking shafts in which the concrete walls and the piers of the nave were moulded. after a concrete vault had been cast over the walls, the enclosed earth had been removed and the * see also randall-maclver, and von duhn, op. cit., who will both treat etruscan archaeology more fully in their forthcoming volumes. archaeology walls and ceiling plastered and very richly stuccoed in low relief with mythological and genre scenes. it is, perhaps, the best pre- served monumental structure of the roman world, and the lavish stucco work, though not quite as delicate as that of the farnesina, shows an ease and freedom of execution which gives it high rank. whether the themes were merely decorative or were meant to be symbolic, 1s not known. indeed, the purpose of the structure is still under discussion. scholars incline to the belief that it was the meeting-place of a group devoted to some mystical cult (mrs. e. strong, jour. hellenic stud., part i, 1924). the tomb of the aurelii found on the viale manzoni (mon. ant., 1922) has awakened much comment because of its excellent figures in fresco and the christian symbolism that some of the paintings scem to contain. there is a seated figure before a flock that seems to symbolise christ as judge. eleven excellent standing figures have with less certainty been identified with the apostles. the new excavations of imperial rome constantly disclose the evidence of oriental cults. another tomb well decorated with interesting wall paintings is that of octavia north of the vatican (wot. d. sc., 1922). the two largest mithraea known have also come to light in this period, one under s. clem- ente, the other under the baths of caracalla (not. d. sc., 1912). under the church of san sebastian were found a number of columbaria of the 1st century made for pagan cremation and decorated with excellent paintings and stucco which in the znd century were converted into burial places. the area was then levelled off and a room for funeral banquets constructed. the walls of this room contained a great number of invocations to peter and paul rudely scratched. these finds will have an im- portant place in early christian history (not. d. sc., 1923). recent restorations of the churches of santa sabina, s. quattro coronati and s. giorgio in velabro have also revealed earlier structures of value to church history. in the rapid expansion of rome since 1918 a very large number of tombs with sarcophagi, hundreds of important inscriptions, and three new series of cata- combs have been found. these have been reported with com- mendable speed in the notizie degli scavi. in the vicinity of rome the more important excavations have disclosed ‘horace’s villa on his sabine farm (soon to be pub- lished in not. d. sc.), details of domitian’s palace at albano, of hadrian’s villa near tivoli, a splendid and very old temple with fine terra-cottas at lanuvio (afon. ant., vol. 27, 1921), valuable fragments of a pre-julian calendar at anzio (not. ad. sc., vol. 18, 1921), and a very important part of the seaport town of ostia. at ostia the finds are sonumerous that a mere enumeration would require pages. the walls and gates of the oldest settlement (4th cent.?), which virgil seems to describe in his seventh book, have been disclosed; the more extensive wall of the 1st century b.c. has been traced throughout and two of its excellently con- structed gates cleared; the forum of the late republic has been excavated, a temple of rome and augustus found at one end, and beneath the pavement of the forum a series of barrack- rooms and offices of the oldest town. many new temples, the offices of the city guard, the offices of the foreign shippers, the large cistern of the city, numerous state granarics, the founda- tions of what seems to be the earliest temple of jupiter, the municipal senate house, a very interesting safety storage house, and much else can now be studied. of particular interest in re- vealing the plan of city dwellings are the extensive ruins of the “ casa di diana ” which, rising to three or four storeys, contained many suites of independent apartments which received their light through windows opening to the streets. this rather than the pompeian type of dwelling we must now assume for the city of rome.’ the excavations at pompeii in 1925 yielded a magnificent greek bronze ephebus, perhaps the best work of art that the buried city has disclosed. it is now in the naples museum. (see bull. d arte, 1926, p. 341.) the work of clearing the western part of the city has progressed uninterruptedly. a large number 1 prof, calza, the director of excavations at ostia, has issued a convenient guidebook with references to the publication of the various finds (calza, guida di ostia, 1925). 165 of houses of moderate size with fair wall paintings have ‘been found, among them several of religious import —a cybele group, a pompeian venus, a group of the twelve gods. of particular interest are several with picturesque balconies, and an office decorated with representations of armour, supposed by some to. be the headquarters of the juvenes, the ancient “ boy scouts.” the newly found structures have been carefully restored and the paintings well protected from weathering and decay, but publi- cation has not kept pace with the excavations. finally, very important excavations have been diligently and carefully conducted on the greek sites of lower italy and sicily. | i). gabrici published in two sumptuous volumes the discoveries made before the war at cumae (afon. ant., vol. 22). since cumae was for centuries the greek tutor of italian barbari- ans these volumes are indispensable to students of greek and itahan studies. unfortunately the excavations of the temple of apollo, the home of the sibyl whose oracles brought so many greek rites to rome, were stopped by the war and left incom- plete. in southern italy p. orsi has excavated locri, caulonia, medma and other sites, with striking finds of greek vases, re- markably fine architectural decorations in terra-cotta, early greek entablatures of great beauty, and large numbers of terra- cotta votive figures of no mean artistic value. (‘ caulonia,” mon. ant., vol. 23 [1914-6]; w. a. oldfather, “ locri in pauly- wissowa; not. d. sc., 1917 for medma.) at ciro in calabria he has found a remarkable head of an acrolithic apollo of about 460 b.c. (alene e roma, 1925). he has also published the finds from an important archaic temple of megara hyblaea in afon. ant., p. 110, (1921). but the most important work of the kind has been orsi’s extensive excavations in syracuse, especially of the site and ruins of the great temple of athena. here were found a rich store of objects from pre-greek huts, of early greek edifices and especially many exquisitely executed fragments of the sth- century temple (wot. d. sc., 1910, and mon. ant., 1918, pp. 354-762). the state has also begun a thorough-going archaeo- logical survey of italy, the first fascicle of which has been pub- lished by prof. lugli. spain.—spanish archaeologists have in recent years done their most, vigorous and fruitful work in the palaeolithic sites, where discoveries of capital importance have been made. it is now clear that spanish culture of the late lower and the upper palaeolithic periods is closely connected with the capsian art of tunis. be- cause of a greater readiness to use human figures in their paint- ings, in hunting, ritualistic and battle scenes, than the contem- porary aurignacian-magdalenian art of southern france has revealed, this art of spain promises especially to attract the students of early anthropology. obermaier has made a careful summary of results in his fossil man in spain (1924).? for the beginnings of protohistoric art we have many valuable bronze objects from a sunken cargo of about the roth century b.c., found outside of huelva, apparently destined for, or coming from, the then important city of tartessus (c. r. acad. insc., 1923, p. 203). the city itself is being searched for near the mouth of the guadalquivir by a. schulten (arch. anzetger, 1924). of the numerous minor objects found in carthaginian and iberian sites a full account may be read in bosch-gimpera’s recent report (arch. anzeiger, 1924, col. 172). the greek colony of emporion has yielded little but walls and an aesculapius statue which, though heavy in execution, is pronounced by carpenter a s5th- century athenian work (the greeks in spain [1925]; p. paris, promenades arch. en espagne, 1921). carpenter (ibid.) seems also to have discovered the site of the important greek city of iiemeroskopeion. on roman sites excavations are continuing at merida, especially in the imposing theatre constructed by agrippa, where a good seated ceres was found; at italica, the first roman colony of spain; and at the roman camps around 2 the detailed reports of the more striking of recent finds are: for northwestern spain: h. breuil, le pasiega (1913); h. obermaier, com. inv. pal. pre (1918); e. hernandez-pacheco, thzd.- (1919); for the east and south: h. obermaier, com. inv, pal. pre. (1919); h. breuil, l’anthr. (1912, 1920, 1921); and la pileta (monaco, 1915). g. g. maccurdy, zuman origins (1924), records the most important finds. 166 numantia constructed during the famous siege of that celt- iberic city (cf. p. paris, prom. arch. en espagne, 1921; j. r. melida, el! teatro romano de merida, 1915; a. schulten, numan- tia, 1905; bosch-gimpera in arch. anzeiger, 1924). france.—here also the striking discoveries have been made in the caves of the palaeolithic period. in 1923 casteret found in the caverns of montespan over a score of animal figures mod- elled in clay, in relief and in the round (rev. anthr., 1923). many of the bodies were significantly covered with dart thrusts. of almost equal importance is the “ cavern of david ”’ with its many paintings and especially its engraved figures of men and women, relatively few of which have hitherto come to light north of the pyrenees (zi/ust. lond. news, 1923, oct. 20). other impor- tant discoveries of the period are reported from dordogne (g. lalanne, l’ anthr., 1912; dr. l. capitan, c. r. acad., 1913) and from ariege (comte h. begouen, congr. int. anthr. geneva, 1912, and c. r. acad, 1920, p. 303). many scattered finds of the hal- statt and la tene periods have been recorded in french reports, but none of striking importance. for the roman period exca- vations have cleared large areas at and about alesia, disclosing, particularly, parts of the fortifications of caesar and vercinge- torix (c. r. acad., 1912 and 1924), at the roman citadel of lyons (fdid., 1925) and at the sites of the public buildings of vienne and orange (rev. arch., 1924). (t. fr.) v. north africa cyrene.—the outstanding archaeological event of the period under review in north africa is the exploration of cyrene. since the expedition of lieut. murdock smith, r. e., and comm. porcher, r.n., in 1860, this important site had not been approached until a party from an american yacht reached it in 1904. as a result of their visit, a permit to excavate was obtained from the turkish govt. and an expedition under the late richard norton was sent out by the archaeological institute of america in 1910. work was at first impeded by the fears and ignorance of local arabs, and, when these obstacles had been overcome, one mem- ber of the staff was shot by assassins. but the excavators were not deterred, and considerable results were obtained in the first season (bulletin of the arch. inst. of america, vol. 2, 1910-1). a beginning was made in the clearance of buildings on the acrop- olis, cultivated land near the fountain of apollo was tested, and some of the conspicuous chamber-tombs were examined. sev- eral pieces of sculpture were found, the best being a head of athena. from the cultivated land thousands of terra-cotta votive statuettes of archaic greek style were recovered. all the tombs had been robbed in antiquity. in 1911 tripoli and cyre- naica were occupied by italian military forces, and the american expedition was not allowed to resume its work. the excavation was continued in the following years by the italian colonial service of antiquities. several buildings were cleared and identihed, and extensive finds of marble sculpture were made. the most highly appreciated piece is a headless statue of a nude aphrodite, thought to be greek work of the 4th century b.c. this was taken to rome where it is now exhibited in the museo delle terme. the rest of the material from cyrene has been placed in the museum of benghazi. the aphrodite was brought to light by the collapse of a wall supporting the platform of the temple of apollo. excavation in this place laid bare the baths from which 20 hellenistic or greco-roman statues were recovered. the central niche in the great hall was occupied by a colossal portrait-statue of alexander the great. a colossal figure of zeus azgzochos was found in a temple, in front of a large inscribed base, which may have supported cult-statues of the capitoline triad. besides the official publication of these finds in the notiziarto archeologico of the italian colonial office, many of the statues have been illustrated and discussed elsewhere.' more recent excavations have cleared the temple of zeus (or the capitoline deities) and the tubwlartum, and have revealed an earlier greek structure beneath the temple of apollo. two marble torsos of archaic kerai and votive terra-cotta statuettes 1 bullettino d’arte, cronaca (june, 1914; nov. 1915; may to aug. 1918); journal of hellenic studies (1920, 1921). archaeology are the only material known that belongs to the time of the city’s greatness. the early cemetery has not been located. an account of the work done at cyrene from 1919 to 1922, was published in aegyptus, 1923. tripolitania.—much has been done on other sites in tripo- litania, and in the archaeological organisation of the new prov- ince. museums have been established at tripoli, benghazi and homs: the last is the repository for finds made in the excavation of leptis magna.? this particularly splendid roman city has been found marvellously well preserved beneath sand dunes.’ the triumphal arch of marcus aurelius at tripoli has been cleared. a torso of apollo, discovered in the demolition of the fortifications, is said to be the finest piece of greek sculpture in marble yet found in africa, and a roman villa at zliten contained the finest mosaics.* another prolific source of hellenistic sculpture, which alone would have brought north africa to the first place among classi- cal lands, is a sunken ship which was located off mahedia, near thapsus in 1907. a valuable document in the history of art is a bronze herm inscribed with the name of its sculptor, boethos of chalchedon. later salvage includes small decorative bronzes belonging to furniture, parts of large marble vases and cande- labra in neo-attic style, and a painted campanian plate of the 2nd century b.c. the ship has been closely examined. its hold was divided into three compartments, in which the statuary was stowed, and it carried a deck-load of 65 unfluted marble columns. it seems to have brought its last cargo from athens. the sur- viving pieces are in the museum of the bardo (musee alaoui) at tunis. two large bronze statuettes of the same kind, a standing boy and a seated girl, came from the harbour of hippo regius in 1912, and another of earlier style, perhaps a greek original of the 5th century, representing a young horseman, was found at volubilis in 1918.’ morocco —the excavation of volubilis (qsar-farun), the centre of roman domination in morocco, was begun by direc- tion of marshal lyautey in 1015, the labour being supplied by german prisoners of war. a triumphal arch and the ruins of a basilica were the visible monuments of the site. the excava- tions, which are still in progress, have revealed the general plan of the city, the forum with its tribune, baths and other public buildings, shops and private houses. in the latter are some good mosaics, one showing a rider sitting backwards on his horse and holding out a cup, presumably a winning jockey with his prize. numerous inscriptions throw light on the date and status of the city; curiosities among them are dedications to mithras and commodus by one aurelius nectorega, a centurion in command of british cavalry stationed there. tunisia.—new cities added to the imposing series of tunisia are bulla regia and thuburbo majus; sufetula has been further excavated, and the three temples of the capitol, the gate of the forum, the triumphal arch and other monuments have been repaired with their original stones. this is one of the finest roman cities of north africa.2 a complete set of bronze cult- vessels was found in a vault of the capitolium at pupput. algeria.—no new work of importance has been begun in al- geria, but in this province, as in tunisia, the clearance and re- constitution of cities such as timgad and lambaesis goes on with constant accumulation of new material. thubursicum can show a particularly well-preserved theatre, and madaurus has baths with latrines. inscriptions and mosaics are the peculiar riches of north africa. among the latter there is now a portrait of xeno- phon at sufetula to match the virgil of hadrumetum; favour- ite subjects are ships, buildings, landscapes and animals. the 2 notizario arch. 3 (1922). 3 dedalo (april 1925). 4 dedalo (nov. 1923). 5 comptes rendus, academie des inscriptions (1908-11, 1913). 6 the finest of the bronzes recovered up to 1910 were published in afonuments et memotres: fondation piot, 17, 18 (1909-10), and the marbles in rev. arch. 18 (1911). 7c, r. acad. des ins, (1919); gazette des beaux arts (jan. 1921). 8 a. merlin in notes et documents, tunis, direction des antiquites et arts 5 (1912). archaeology mosaic floor of a tomb at lambiridi bears extraordinary figures which are said to illustrate hermetism.' carthage.-—new interest has recently been shown in the site of carthage, although it is too late to save much of it from dam- age done by building-contractors and irresponsible excavators. in 1924-5 an american university expedition has begun opera- tions there. dr.l. carton has done valuable work on the topog- raphy of the punic city, identifying the commercial and war- harbours, the admiralty island, lines of sea-walls and quays and other features.2, three cemeteries, covering in succession the period from the 7th to the grd century b.c., have been located, and a sanctuary of tanit has been explored. the latter was full of votive offerings, each consisting of a monumental stone or altar and a buried jar which contained the relics of burnt sacri- fice, charred wood and bones of infants. punic graves have also been explored in the neighbourhood of thapsus. libyan elements —beside the intrusive semitic, greek and latin cultures, the native libyan elements are being more closely studied. remains of the ancient language have been connected with modern berber dialects, prehistoric rock-paintings have been compared with those of french and spanish caves, and a special study has been made of dolmens and megalithic structures in the district south of constantine. other iberian connections are indicated in libyan place-names, and on the eastern side of the mediterranean region research has detected strong libyan influence in the minoan civilisation of prehistoric greece. bibliography.—academie des inscriptions et belles lettres, inventaire des mosaigues de la gaule et de l'afrique (1910- ); o. bates, the eastern libyans (1914); r. cagnet, l’armee romaine d'afrique et l’occupation milttatre de l'afrique sous les eempereurs (ed. 2, 1913- ); cagnat, merlin and chatelain, inscriptions latines d'afrique, tripolitaine, tunisie, afaroc (1923- ); s. gsell, adlas archeologique de l'’algerie (1911), inscriptions latines de [algerie (1922— ), and histoire anctenne de l'afrique du nord (1913- ata vi. south and central africa the boundary between africa and egypt and the northern and northwestern portions of the continent must be both con- ventional and provisional. the explorations during the last 20 years of reisner at kerma in nubia (between the 3rd and 4th cataracts) and of garstang at meroe, have carried egyptian influence so far south in the nile valley that these sites, al- though inhabited by peoples of mixed culture, must from the archaeological standpoint be referred rather to egypt than to the sudan. no such line of division exists in the west between the north african cultures and those of negro-land; indeed gautier® has shown that there is good reason to suppose that the latter has advanced perhaps as much as 1,c00 km. at the expense of the former, during the last two or three thousand years. moreover, meroe itself does not accurately represent the southern limits of the mixed civilisation to which it has given its name; some 12 m. south of khartum on the right bank of the blue nile are the re- mains of soba, a meroitic site, later the capital of the christian kingdom of ‘alwa (the alut of the hieroglyphs) while, as will be seen later, meroitic remains have been recently discovered 200 m. south of khartum. yet meroe, which lies in the neighbourhood of the 17th parallel of north latitude, and which as far as our present knowledge goes was the most southern city of importance in classical times, may well stand as the main southern bastion of egyptian iniluence, and the area with which this article will deal is that part of africa lying south of 16° north, which will be divided into three provinces, eastern, western and southern. the nile-congo watershed, a natural feature of geographical and ethnic importance, constitutes part of the dividing line be- tween the eastern and western areas, which continues north- wards along the broad ridge of relatively high land that roughly 1 rev, arch. (may to june 1922). 2c, r. acad. des ins, (1912; 1918-20); rev. arch. (sept. to oct. 1911; may to june 1919; may to june 1923). 3 gautier, e. f., “ etudes d’ethnographie saharienne,” l’anthro- pologie (1907). 167 divides the territories of the anglo-egyptian sudan from those administered by france. thus the boundary line somewhat close- ly follows the western confines of darfur, while south of the nile- congo watershed it coincides with the boundary between the belgian congo and british territories to the east, both eastern and western provinces being limited to the south by a line roughly following the 1oth parallel of south latitude. the eastern province palaeolithic artifacts —were discoveries have so far been limited to the sudan, uganda, somaliland, kenya colony and abyssinia, while surprisingly little is yet known of the early pre- history of even these territories. except possibly in the extreme north, within a few miles of halfa, no implement of river-drift type is known to have been found in the sudan. this fact may be due to incomplete exploration, but is of some significance con- sidering the abundance of specimens which have been found on the surface in egypt and libya, in somaliland (where mr. h. w. seton-karr has collected countless specimens of river-drift and mousterian types), south africa, and recently, in deposits, by mr. wayland in uganda, though the majority of the implements he discovered are perhaps to be associated with the le moustier facies rather than that of the river-drift. be this as it may, mr. wayland has collected chellean hand-axes in gravels, con- sidered of pleistocene date, capping quartzite hill tops some 300 ft. above the present level of the lake, and also implements of a well-developed mousterian type, including “ points, side-scrap- ers, flake knives, tortoise cores and tortoise points,” as well as two typical side-scrapers in a cave under some five ft. of cave earth.* no typical mousterian specimens have yet been found in the sudan; certain specimens were collected from two sites, namely, jebel katul in northwest kordofan, and jebel gule in dar fung. at the former site were found near the foot of the hill, a number of roughly worked stones, considered by the abbe breuil to belong to the mousterian period, to which he also re- ferred a number of thick fluted and engrailed scrapers from jebel gule, which somewhat closely resemble palaeolithic discs from suffolk and other localities, while one implement was regarded as a true but much worn coup-de-poing of mousterian age. so far as is known no implements attributable to the latter part of the old stone age have been found anywhere in the eastern prov- ince, certain pygmy implements which will be mentioned later being regarded as neolithic.§ neolithic age.—evidence concerning the new stone age is furnished by a number of finds made on widely scattered sites in the sudan, uganda and kenya colony, but there are hints that in parts of negro-africa, which nowhere had a copper or bronze age, stone implements may have persisted to within the last few centuries and the use of iron be quite recent. stone axes.—the distribution of the most typical of neolithic implements, the ground stone axe, makes it necessary to refer to the conditions prevailing north of latitude 16 degrees. unknown in predynastic egypt polished axe heads are common in nubia, where a number have been found in predynastic and early dy- nastic tombs. many examples have come from meroe, and speci- mens probably occur on every site of neolithic date in the sudan; they have been found, e.g., at jebel geili, 90 m. east of khartum, at jebel gule, between the white and blue niles, and at faragab in northern kordofan; moreover, the grooves in the rock faces on which they were ground exist both at jebel gule and jebel geili, while stone axes of a peculiar type have been found in western darfur by mr. d. newbold. these facts all seem to support the idea put forward (rep. brit. assn., pres. address, section h. 1915) that the ground stone axes of the nile valley are of negro origin, a view consistent with their occurrence 4a. a. smith and fe. j. wayland, some primitive stone implements from uganda (uganda protectorate, geological survey dept., 1923), and verbal information. 5 for an account of the jebel gule site and the different types of implements found, see c. g. seligman, ‘a neolithic site in the anglo-egyptian sudan,” jour. roy. anth. insi., vol. 40 (1910). 168 in the congo, and, in relatively enormous numbers, in the gold coast. perforated disks or rings, and hollow conical and spherical stones, all ground in the usual neolithic style, have been found at meroe, on jebel haraza (kordofan) and at jebel! geil, where stone disks and axe heads can be definitely associated together and with meroitic potsherds. besides the types already alluded to, jebel gule yielded a large number of pygmy implements of quartz, carnelian and horn- stone (similar to those found in south africa and attributed to bushmen), and there is reason to believe that this industry also existed at faragab, where these “ points ” were used to bore the innumerable disk heads of ostrich egg-shell which cover the ground. of these pygmy implements from gule one was a well- marked lunate of tardenoisian form, and this specimen may lead to the consideration of the distribution of the tardenoisian type in the eastern province. the british museum has a number of beautifully worked dos abattu specimens of obsidian from the neighbourhood of njoro in kenya colony; typical lunates, of jasper and of carnelian respectively, have been found in uganda (wavland), while to pass northwards of latitude 16°, dr. g. a. reisner (sudan notes and records, vol.2, no. 4, 1919) has found in tombs dating to the egyptian xxyv. dynasty in upper nubia, perfect lunates of carnelian, in such numbers that there can be no question of their inclusion in the tombs being accidental. the handiwork of man is evident. this may close the account of stone implements which may be assigned to the stone age cultures, so long as it is realised that the neolithic certainly comes down to a period vastly more recent than the neolithic of even northern europe, and that in the sudan, at least, it is overlapped by the meroitic civilisation, numerous outliers of which have been found, including those of jebel geili, another in the neighbourhood of the makwardam on the blue nile, notable for its greco-roman bronze vessels, and at abu sofian in western kordofan. although there is no evi- dence to show that they are meroitic it will be convenient here to refer to the discoveries made by mr. h. s. wellcome at jebel moya near the blue nile, and by seligman in the mounds near faragab, a village of sedentary arabs some 20 m. east of bara in northern kordofan. though made about toro only the most meagre descriptions of the jebel moya discoveries have been published, although they are of prime importance to the history of the sudan. besides stone implements, were found beads and amulets, a number of scarabs and small plaques bearing ethiopian and egyptian cartouches, ranging from about 700 b.c. or perhaps going back to an even earlier date ( brit. assn. reports, 1912), while a paper by prof. d. e. derry! giving anatomical details of skeletons from graves at this site indicates that the inhabitants were tall negroes resembling in height and cephalic index some of the present day negroes of the hills of southern kordofan.? at faragab the mounds extend over acres and their surface and the areas between them are literally covered with disk beads of ostrich egg, fragments of bone debris and other foreign objects, including fragments of imported rocks. two types of potsherds are of special interest, one consisting of a fabric bearing the im- pression of the string mat on which it was made (such mats are still used in the hills of northern kordofan ), and in this resem- bling the coarser wares found by garstang in the graves of meroe, the other oblong-oval in shape and rather shallow, often deco- rated with gcometrical designs and produced at each end into a solid mass (handle?), its general appearance recalling that of many melanesian wooden food bowls. this type seems to be hitherto unknown anywhere in africa. the beads are of ivory, dolomite and scolecite; the single dolomite beac is definitely not of a type hitherto regarded as negro, while a single carnelian bead, if egyptian, as no doubt it is, is regarded by sir flinders petrie as certainly not later than xviii. dynasty.* the ‘this will be found in proc. 17th internat. congress of medicine, sec. 1, pt. 2 (london, 1913). 2 for figures of nuba resembling the jebel moya burials see c. g. seligman, jour. roy. anth. inst., vol. 40, 1910, especially plate axxv., figs. 8 and 9. archaeology presence of many pieces of worked ivory is noteworthy. of meroitic monuments of any size, apart from those found at soba, ¢.g., the “lamb” now in the palace gardens at khar- tum, the rock drawings discovered by mr. crowfoot at jebel geili, representing a king wearing the uraeus crown worshipping a rayed solar divinity, which may be taken to be of late meroitic date, is of special interest. rock pictures —the only other rock pictures described in the sudan are in kordofan and darfur. generally they are outlined in red or blackish pigment, but examples roughly graved on masses of granite also occur in the jebcl haraza massif. draw- ings with pigmented outlines are found on jebel haraza and jebel el ‘afarit, and seem to form two groups. to the first be- long rough but spirited sketches of men on horseback, camels and giraffes. the workmanship of the second group is rougher and much less vigorous; it includes representations of camels, men on horseback and men marching or dancing, carrying the small round hamitic shield. this, together with their general resem- blance to the “ libyo-berber ” rock pictures of the southern sahara, indicates a comparatively recent date. moreover, mac- michael notes that the work is faint and indeterminate, and that there is no trace of graving; in other words the neolithic tradition has not persisted. probably they are more recent than the stone disks and hollow conical and spherical stones found on jebel haraza, already mentioned. megalithic monuments megalithic stone monuments occur in the sudan, some of the present day, others certainly recent, a few apparently of some antiquity, though as to these our knowl- edge is of the slightest. in the northern sudan the beja tribes surround the graves of their dead with a circle of upright stones; round some of the older graves individual stones were occasion- ally taller than a man, and it is probably the persistence of such stones after their smaller neighbours have disappeared that has given rise to monoliths such as that some two metres high, to which the prophet, according to the accepted tradition, tied his horse, overlooking the khor arab near the sinkat-erkowit road in the red sea province. another monolith of much the same dimensions has been described and figured by j. w. crowfoot from ‘isa darheib, in- land from ‘aqiq (geog. jour., may 1911), and in this instance there seems nothing to suggest its origin in a beja grave. further south megalithic monuments have been reported from the madi, while stone circles are made by the lotuko-speaking tribes wher- ever stone is abundant, as squatting places for the men, though in no case could evidence be obtained of stones large enough for this use being carried even a few miles. again, although megalithic structures are said to occur among the bari-speaking tribes of mongalla province, it ts certain that at least some of these are recent erections over graves. although megalithic neither in structure nor form there is a type of stone monument some 8o ft. long and about 5 ft. high occurring in some number in the neighbourhood of erkowit. these (jour. egvpi. archaeology, vol. 2, 1915) are constructed without any cement or mortar; the face consists of a limiting wall of more or less flat slabs of local rock, while the spaces between the contain- ing walls are filled in with smaller fragments. each of these monuments may be considered as consisting of three main elements, viz.:(r) an oblong rectangular portion, (2) two oval masses, to each of which is attached an expansion shaped somewhat like a fish’s tail and (3) the curved walls uniting the other elements. their orientation seems to have been toward the rising sun, while each oval element is interrupted at a con- stant point in its circumference by the interposition of from two io four upright slabs. there is no chamber or space behind these stones, but from their constant presence and the uniformity of their position it is obvious that they must have had a perfectly definite significance to the builders, indeed they recall the false doors of egyptian monuments. mr. j. w. crowfoot found hu- man bones under the filling of the rectangular portion but no objects with them. they may provisionally be regarded as $c. g. seligman, “ prehistoric site in northern kordofan,” annals of archaeology and anthropology, vol. 7 (liverpool, 1915). archaleology mediaeval, but as antedating the spread of mahommedan in- fluence which was becoming dominant towards the middle of the 15th century. it is as yet too early to estimate the significance of the objects found by mr. d. newbold (sudan notes and records,vol. 7, 1924) on his recent journey from bara in kordofan to the international boundary (long. 24° e.) between the sudan and french equa- torial africa. evidence of former occupation of the country, now desert or the poorest steppe, was abundant, including cairns, pottery (some meroitic), a small brick pyramid at abu sofian (16° n., 28° e.), and five ground axes of glauconite of hitherto unknown type from the wadi hawa. drawings roughly incised on boulders, e.g., at sobat el hammad, showed tailed and phallic men, elephants, giraffes, ostriches, oryx, cattle and several other animals which could not be identified. at umm tersawen there were also a number of human figures, some tailed, some armed with bows. ‘‘ at abu sofian two groups of pictures, obviously of the same date and ‘ school,’ were within a day’s march of one another. here the drawings were incised on rough boulders, and were very numerous. camels are shown literally in hundreds; giraffes and ostriches still appear; but the cattle dwindle in num- bers, while the elephant is not represented, and the bowmen give place to men armed with spears and carrying shields.” the latter armament appears to bring these drawings into the libyco- berber class. abyssinta.—discoveries relating to the prehistoric periods are as yet lacking in abyssinia, where interest centres in the monu- ments dating from the 4th century a.p. discovered at aksum by theodore bent (the sacred city of the ethiopians, 1806). littman, the leader of the german expedition to aksum, holds that the carved and decorated monuments generally termed “ obelisks ” are in fact stelae (of huge dimensions it is true, e.g., from 15 to 33 metres) and therefore each to be regarded as part of a tomb, a point of view rendered the more probable by the presence at their base of stone slabs, often carved, which have every ap- pearance of being altars. all this seems to imply a cult of the dead, but, apart from this, inscriptions dating from the 1st and 4th centuries record the names of the gods of the semitic con- querors of northern abyssinia. a greek inscription of adulis, no longer in existence but copied in the 6th century by cosmas in- dicopleustes, states that the king of aksum of the ist century, who caused this record to be cut, worshipped zcus, ares and poseidon. a later document of king aizanas (about a.d. 350) is in greek, sabacan and old ethiopic. an analysis by littman of this inscription, together with one dating from about a century later, indicates that worship was rendered to heaven, sea and earth, together with mahren “‘ who begat the king,” the latter being identified with ares. other monuments include rude mono- liths, some ornamented with bands, and a most spirited rock- carving of a lioness in low relief. the western province palaeolithic remains.—it is only recently that stone imple- ments of river-drift type, and therefore to be regarded provi- sionally as of palacolithic age, have been discovered in west africa. in the british museum there is a series of massive imple- ments of chellean type, consisting of quartz porphyry, which on the surface have weathered to the softness of chalk. these come from the alluvial deposits of the bauchi plateau, as do a smaller number of implements of mousterian type of the same mineral, and one very steep end-scraper of a more homogeneous stone showing no surface weathering.1 there is also in the national collection a number of short stumpy implements of drift type of a reddish quartzite, for the most part with unworked butt, found on the golf links of accra (gold coast). similar specimens have been found in the local gravels, the actual specimens in the museum having apparently been washed up from the beach. neolithic age.—polished axe-heads of ordinary neolithic type are by no means uncommon in west africa and the congo val- 1 since this was written the geological survey of nigeria has pub- lished an occasional paper (no. 4), by mr. il. j. braunholtz, de- scribing and figuring the implements of the bauchi plateau. 169 ley. they are found in northern nigeria, especially in the bauchi plateau gravels, where it is said that they overlap to some extent the drift types. they are, however, of a different stone, for the most part of dolerite. in the gold coast colony they are found in large numbers, as are perforated quartz discs, while a few bossed spheres about two inches in diameter, of anomalous ap- pearance and unknown use, have been recovered. a collection of neolithic implements from calabar includes stone axes, un- usual in that they possess a definite tang for hafting. under the title “ tumbakultur’”’ oswald menghin (a nthropos, 20, 1925) has recently described a culture characterised by scries of implements, widespread in the lower congo area, which he tends to approximate, though with difficulty, to the campignian of europe. be this as it may, menghin finds a long series of arti- facts passing insensibly from implements of coup-de-poing type, campignian pics, flattened ovates of almost laurel-leaf type, to notched and roughly cruciform spear or arrowheads, some, though larger and coarser, irresistibly recalling the “ freak ” forms from breonio in italy. apart from these, many ground. stone axes have been found in the congo area. afegalithic monuments —megalithic monuments are distrib- uted widely in west africa in the form of stone circles and stand- ing stones. in gambia both classes of monuments have been carefully described by the late henry parker in a paper published after his death (jour. roy. anth. inst., vol. 53, 1923):— the circles themselves are generally found in groups or clusters comprising from two to nine, but single circles are met with. with one possible exception there are no uncompleted circles, except those formed by concentric outer pillars standing round an inner circle. ... the groups of circles are arranged in single straight lines; in nearly parallel lines consisting of two, three or four circles; or in pairs; but never in triangles or pentagons. many stones are pros- trate and ... almost invariably these fallen pillars . .. are at least partly buried by the soil... . some have their upper face almost level with the ground, and asa rule the others are half or three- quarters covered by the earth. . . . superficially considered this is the only indication of the age of these structures, and... it would be of great value if we knew the rate of elevation of the soil. without sieh knowledge it is only possible to draw the conclusion from this evidence that both the circles and the menhirs must have been erected many centuries ago. in addition to the concentric outer pillars, there are several in- stances where the outer pillars are arranged on the eastern side of the circle in a straight line, or even in two parallel lines, in a north a south direction. such lines are invariably to the cast of the circles. 4:46 the circles are considered sacred to the earth spirit, and cere- monies are performed in them to propitiate the latter, as also for the protection of the crops. it does not, however, appear that mr. parker excavated in them, and their date and purpose must be left for future exploration, though in the light of information received on the spot the contents of the circle (human remains, spearheads, copper armlets) dug by messrs. j. l. todd and g. b. wolbach (fan, no. 96, 1911) suggest that in recent times these monuments were the sites of sacrifice for success in warfare. in some of the northern villages of the cross river division of nigeria, 7.e., in the villages of the akayu, indem and atam districts (on the left bank of the aweyong river) there are stone circles, the stones often more or less conical and carved to rep- resent the human body from the waist upwards. these have been described and figured by mr. c. partridge (cross river natives, 1905, pp. 268-599); the navel is specially prominent, and cicatrices seem to be reproduced. at agba village the circle surrounds an old tree, and the grove of the great chief who erected the circle. the tree is sacred, and of the stones it was said by the ancestors “ these stones are your forefathers, your very great chiefs; every year you must sacrifice to them” (p. 271). beads.—in the past, claims of high antiquity have been made on behalf of the so-called “ aggry ” beads that have been found in west africa. yet as stated by sir hercules read, with the single exception of the necklace to be discussed immediately, none of these beads show features not to be found in mediaeval or later beads from the factories of venice. the necklace, pre- sented to the british museum by mr. l. p. davies, was obtained from the grave of ‘‘ a renowned chief ” at mansu, a town on the 170 route from elmina to kumasi. it is described in detail in afan, no. 1 (1905-__). for present purposes interest centres in some 20 beads of crys- talline glass, irregular-facetted, and especially one bead of crys- talline glass moulded like a mulberry. sir hercules read writes of these as being in a state of iridescent decay, the surfaces being in many cases deeply pitted and presenting exactly the same appearance as beads of the same kind from the mediterranean area. he points out that the crystalline glass in this necklace is identical in appearance with those from the tombs at kameiros in rhodes, dating from the 6th century, and goes on to suggest, but “‘ without insisting too strongly on this point,” that here are “ glass beads of classical style found for the first time in west africa, and presenting features that in point of date may justi- fiably be associated with the name and time of the carthaginian hanno, a name often invoked when objects of indeterminate age are found on the african coast.” though probably not of any great age, reference must be made to the soap-stone carvings of human heads or figures (occasion- ‘ally animal figures) found in the ground, sometimes apparently in pits, in certain districts of sierra leone, where they are used as agricultural charms. these figures are for the most part roughly carved, the work being well within the scope of present- day africans, and joyce, who has figured and described them (man, no. 57, 1905, and no. 40, 1909), points out that there is really no reason to see in them—as has been proposed—evidence of foreign, i.e., egyptian or carthaginian influence. the objects described by frobenius from old ife (the voice of africa, 1913, vol. 1, chap. 14; “‘ the archaeological finds ”; and das un- bekannie africa, munich, 1923), the ancient capital of the yo- ruba, are also probably of no great age; there do not seem to be any which the 16th century benin civilisation might not have produced. possibly of about the same date are a number of bronze and silver objects, now on deposit in the british museum, from a sandy mound (no doubt a grave) at tumuni in the sokoto prov- ince of northern nigeria. sir hercules read holds that they exhibit features and analogies which are unusual in negro african metal work, pointing to artistic or commercial relationship with the culture of the mediterranean area, doubtless at a period remote from the date of the manufacture of the relics themselves. the most important pieces are a bucket with incurved sides and lugs, and a barrel-shaped armlet (?) for wear on the bicepital region. the lines and casting of both, and the geometrical pat- terns tooled on their surfaces, are good and careful work. while the find, as a tomb-group, may date to 1480 a.d. as suggested by mr. h. r. palmer, yet, as stated by sir hercules read, they are of unusual interest from the analogies they present with the early mediterranean cultures, and we may have here a distant echo of the early art of the bronze age. at the same time there is no reason to think that the actual objects are anything but local productions, though they may differ from those of more recent date. the southern province palaeolithic implements artifacts of rude chellean type, often larger than the corresponding implements of western europe, are found over the greater portion of south africa, nor does there seem to be any reason why these should not be regard- ed as true palaeoliths of an age comparable to those of europe. one of the most satisfactory finds of this order is constituted by a considerable number of implements of chalcedony, quartzite, etc., exactly similar to types characteristic of the river-drilt period of western europe and great britain, associated with _ and evidently forming part of ancient terrace gravels deposited as drifts by the zambesi (in the neighbourhood of victoria falls) at a remote period. the position of these terrace gravels and surface drifts in regard to the batoka gorge indicates their real antiquity, since they must have been deposited by the river when the latter was covering the old valley floor more than 4oo ft. above its present level. here mr. henry balfour excavated several implements from undisturbed gravel deposits at depths archaeology varying from 6 in. to 2 ft., some greatly waterworn and heavily patinated. leaving this particular site, it will be remembered that peringuey distinguished an axe or cleaver type of coup-de- poing. dr. k. m. barnard has informed the writer that an im- portant find at montagu (cape colony) demonstrates that this “type ” is but a stage in the preparation of an ovate. a curious point was the total absence of chips. the bouchers occurred in layers of black and white earth, indicating clearly the presence of fires... . three separate occupational layers were found, separated by deposits of sand due to natural causes which may indicate lengthy periods of time. no skeletal remains or bone implements or rubbing stones of any kind were found. the whole deposit was capped by a thin layer containing small chert flakes of the type usually ascribed to the bushmen. ’ implements of mousterian type, though less common than those of the river drift certainly occur and are widely distrib- uted. with regard to stone implements of more advanced types than mousterian, there has been a tendency to describe these as “‘ solutric ” (e.g., in the publications of the late j. p. johnson), an unfortunate and inaccurate term carrying entirely premature implications. indeed since the generality of advanced types of south african stone implements should be regarded as neolithic or later, reference should be made to the typical tardenoisian lunates of late nubian tombs, as well as to the admitted use of pygmy points by the bushmen. pottery.—it is not clear that examples of pottery of any con- siderable age exist. these figured by peringuey—provisionally assigned to bushmen, strandloopers and hottentots—are of the rudest type, predominantly ovoid with conical bottoms, some- times ornamented, the kneading and baking being very poor. the bushmen—no apology seems necessary for considering the “ archaeology ” of the bushmen with that of the kindred strandloopers (no longer to be regarded as a distinct race, the name describing a mode of life and not implying a constant phys- ical difference), for even though the former are not utterly extinct, the few survivors no longer pursue their characteristic arts of painting and graving on rock. it is generally admitted that the bushmen stock came into south africa from the north, and stow was of the opinion that there were two great divisions, each with its characteristic mode of life and art, viz.: (1) cave-dwellers (painters), and (2) kopje-dwellers (sculptors), the latter producing their works by “ pecking ”’ the rock face on which they worked. this view does not seem to be generally accepted, perhaps it only emphasises differences in technique due preponderantly to environment. the paintings of the bushmen, naturalistic polychrome studies of high artistic merit, for the most part record the animals which they hunted and upon which they subsisted. but paintings of the carnivora are not absent, and cattle raids, dances and magico- rcligious (?) scenes are also portrayed. belonging no doubt to the latter class are the fairly numerous examples of animal- headed human figures, not to be confused with the wearing of animal skins as a hunting ruse to admit approach to the game, as in the famous picture in the hershel district of cape colony of a bushman wearing an ostrich skin while stalking a flock of these birds. the character of bushman paintings has been well summed up by mr. henry balfour:— they are “ remarkable not only for the realism exhibited by so many, but also for a freedom from the limitation to delineation in profile which characterises for the most part the drawings of prim- itive peoples, especially where animals are concerned. attitudes of a kind difficult to render were ventured upon without hesitation, and appreciation even of the rudiments of perspective is occasion- ally to be noted, though only in a crude and uncertain form. the practice of endeavouring to represent more than could be seen at one time... is far less noticeable in bushmen art than might have been expected from the rudimentary general culture of these peoples, and one does not see instances of beth eyes being indicated upon a profile face, or a mouth in profile on a full face... . the colours were usually jaid on uniformly over the surface which they pe a a a | for figures of typical tardenoisian lunates, as well as many other stone implements of unusual form or special interest, a paper by mr. john hewitt, printed in the south african journal of scrence, vol, 18 (1922), should be consulted. archaeology individually covered, but a shading off is sometimes exhibited.’ (bushmen paintings, 1909, p. 9.)* dr. k. m. barnard points out that examples similar in execu- tion to those described by l. peringuey (trans. s. afr. philos. soc., 16, 1906, and 18, 1909) have been discovered at various places in southwest africa, the farthest north being in the grootfontein district. in addition to the usual animals there are representations of the human foot, and the spoor of various bucks, while from the position in which these latter occur the explanation that they are “ sign-posts”’ to water cannot be maintained. quite recently maj. f. j. bagshawe (afan, no. 92, 123) has discovered in tanganyika territory rock-paintings of bushmen type of so high an artistic quality that their origin can only be referred to this race, an extension northwards which goes well with the distribution of the bushmen swe (digging-stick weight), of which specimens, known in tanganyika, have been discovered in uganda (wayland) and even among the bari of the southern sudan (seligman). the tanganyika rock-paintings include an eland, cow, ostriches, giraffe and antelope. strandloopers.—the strandloopers are a people of whom, apart from their skeletal characters, we know little, though concerning these there is a fair volume of reliable if not always consistent data. their cultural attainments may be judged, e.g., from the remains found in the caves and rock-shelters of t'zitzikama clilfs, about 100 m. to the west of port elizabeth. one of these shelters explored by mr. f. w. fitzsimons (described by sir arthur keith, the antiquity of afan, i, 1925), contained deposits some 30 ft. deep. the lower 5 ft. and the upper 6 ft. were sterile; below this latter layer was a stratum some 7 in thickness in which nu- merous strandlooper burials were encountered amidst remains of fireplaces, broken pottery, implements and ornaments in stone and bone. then came the third stratum, over 6 ft. in thickness. while removing this stratum and working at a depth of 15 ft. below the original floor of the shelter, mr. fitzsimons found graves containing remains which differed from those he had met with in the stratum above. unfortunately the bones in the lower stratum were imperfectly preserved. the graves had been partly pro- tected by slabs of stone some of which had been rucdely engraved with human figures. there were lumps of red ochre, necklaces of shell and bone and tools of stone and bone. in a still deeper stratum, also about 6 ft. in thickness, there were traces of burials and hearths, the human remains being fragmentary, but con- sidered to belong to individuals of the boskop types. as to the zimbabwe and similar ruins in rhodesia, the conclusions of d. randall-macliver (mediaeval rhodesii, 1906) (see 28.980) have not proved generally acceptable in south africa. while there is no inherent improbability in the early semitic origin of these ruins, it seems unnecessary to seek a foreign colonisation where the facts in no way contradict a local origin. no authentic in- scriptions have been found, and no objects discoverect in the great zimbabwe, around which the controversy has chielly centred, need be more than a few centuries old, while those that are not foreign imports (porcelain, etc.) are of african type. moreover a re-examination of the evidence, including unpub- lished material in the library at lisbon, has led father schebesta (mitt. der anthrop. ges. in wien, 1922-3) to the conclusion that not only is the zimbabwe a product of the indigenous kingdom of monomotapa described by the portuguese, but that its build- ers culturally resembled the baganda, and probably certain other of the more advanced peoples of central africa. for bib- liography, see the references in the text. (c2g.s5)) vil egypt since 1910 excavation in egypt has progressed, if we except the four years of war, at a much faster rate than ever before. the methods of excavators have improved, and there has arisen 1 this is the standard work on bushmen paintings; for rock- gravings reference should be made to j. v. zelisko, felsgravierungen der stidafrikanischen buschmdnner (leipzig, 1925), which contains much of the unpublished material collected by emil holub in his journeys in the seventies and eighties of last century. 171 a tendency to undertake specific pieces of work designed to clear up definite archaeological problems. a chronological arrange- ment will best show the contributions of the more important excavations of the period under review toward the pure archae- ology of each successive period. tue predynastic period in predynastic archaeology the outstanding discoveries are those made near badari, 30 km. southeast of asyut, and in the faiyum. the full reports of these excavations have not yet been made public, but it would seem from what has already transpired that the finds take back our knowledge of the predynastic egyptian stage beyond what was previously considered to be the beginning of the predynastic period, namely, the moment known in petrie’s sequence dating as s.d. 30. at bada- ri itself a stratified settlement has been found, the upper layers of which contain material of the usual predynastic kind. the lower strata, how- ever, yield finds of a type hitherto unknown in “zvpt. among these are very finely worked flints (see fig. 2), including arrowheads of two shapes, and pottery which would seem to be the precursor of the predynastic red-polished and black-topped wares; this pottery, like some of later date already known from nubia is frequent- ly ripple-marked on the surface. in the lower strata, along with this ware, rough pottery of a type quite new to egypt makes its appearance. remains of huts were also found. if the eviclence of the stratification is sound—and there seems no reason whatever to doubt it—these finds take us a stage back beyond the earliest predynastic previously found in egypt. any attempt to put a date cither to the beginning or to the end of the period would, on present knowledge, be folly. not far from the settlement was found a cemetcry whose contents show it to be contemporary with the lower levels of the settlement. many tombs yielded glazed beads, and two contained objects of copper, in one case beads of copper ribbon and in the other a borer. the new civilisation, to which the name badarian has been given, must therefore be considered not as purely neolithic but as belonging in part at least to the copper age. probably quite distinct from this culture is that revealed by recent discoveries in the faiyum. flints picked up on the sur- face in this area have long been known, and settlements in which the makers of these {flints lived have now been found. a few rough pottery vases were recovered, but in such poor condition that it is difficult to appraise their original appearance and tech- nique. numbers of polished stone axes, bone borers and har- poons were picked up, and there is evidence, though not as yet quite conclusive, that they too belong to the settlements. the archaeological position and date of this faiyum culture remained undecided in 1925, and all that can be said pending further excavations ts that it must in no way be confused with that of badari. predynastic civilisation.—the predynastic civilisation in the old sense of the word continues to receive illustration from every part of upper egypt, though we are still without evidence for its existence in the delta. at abydos were excavated two settlements, the main lesson of which is that in a settlement there will always be found types of rough flint and etg, flint imple- ment from the faiyum. 2.—— cgooossh oyooowo goo . nee ee fic, 3.—plan of grain kiln, showing two lines of jars, and roughly rectangular form of kiln. (from cemeteries of abydos. t. e. peet.) ow ch) 172 bone objects and pottery destined for every-day use which are virtually unrepresented in the cemeteries of the same period, and which would, at first sight, from their very roughness, be put down as earlier in date than the finer objects of the contem- porary tombs. in each of these settlements was found a “ grain- kiln” consisting of a group of large jars set in the sand and surrounded by wood fuel enclosed by a brick wall, so as to form a sort‘of closed kiln with the mouths of the jars free. these structures were undoubtedly used for parching grain, and throw an interesting light on predynastic agricultural science (see figs. 3 and 4). discovery of copper and ivon.—the discovery of copper in badarian tombs seems to settle in the negative the question re eee pita gs ncta say ar aa fp baked brick fe3clay wb pottery ex sandstone fic. 4.—section through ab (fig. 3). inside each jar, at the bottom, is a small basin of rough clay, intended perhaps to prevent grain from lodging in the pointed bottom of the jar. each jar is heavily coated with clay on the outside and supported by four rows of eens of different sizes; the fuel was placed among and between these. (from ‘cemeteries of abydos "'—t. e. peet.) whether any part of the predynastic period previously known is rightly to be considered neolithic. the finding of beads of ham- mered iron in two tombs of the middle predynastic period at maidum takes back the knowledge of this metal in egypt to a much earlier date than had been imagined, though the stringing of these beads along with others of gold seems to show that iron was a great rarity. there is still no evidence for the gencral use of iron in egypt before about 1200 b.c. gebel-el--arag kunife-—the most striking single predynastic find during the ro years 1915-25 is undoubtedly the flint knife with carved ivory handle from gebel-el--araq. the delicacy of the work in the battle and hunting scenes on this handle is such as to give us a much higher idea than we had before of the skill of the predynastic craftsman, some see elamite affinities in the work and therefore postulate a period when egyptians and flam- ites were subject to the same cultural iniluences. it may be said here that this and some suggestions on similar lines are the only contributions made of late years to the problem of the origin of the early egyptians, which, so far at least as archaeological evidence is concerned, remains very much where it was 10 or even 20 years ago. tue archaic period and old kingdom the archaeology of the i. dynasty has been very considerably illustrated by excavations of that period at tarkhan and tura. at both sites it is noticeable that the passage from the predynas- tic to the dynastic pcriod is marked by no violent change visible in the cemeteries. at tarkhan the main novelty is the custom of burial on beds, of much the same structure as in later egypt, with wooden legs and side-posts, and leather straps on rush mat- ting stretched across. in several tombs were found planks which had evidently been derived from portable houses formed of boards fastened together by rope or twisted gut, holes for which still remained. these houses probably served the same purpose as the maize-stalk huts of to-day, in which the peasants often dwell in their own fields during the busy agricultural season. physical anthropology —in some respects, however, the most important results of the excavation of tarkhan are the measure- ments taken of the long bones of the skeletons, which, according to the discoverer, indicate the gradual infiltration of a new people into egypt just before and during the i. dynasty. in the lack archaeology of similar material from other sites it is perhaps too soon to say whether these figures prove all that is claimed for them. early architecture —the early history of architecture in egypt seems likely to be revolutionised by recent discoveries at saqqara. against the north side of the step pyramid of king zoser of the ilf. dynasty has been found the shrine containing the royal statue. it is a small and simple but very finished construction in limestone, and the statue, in the same material, painted, which was visible from outside through two small “ squint holes,’ while recalling the still earlier figure of khasekhem, anticipates in the moulding of its features the fine style of the 1v. and v. dynasties. afastabas——two mastabas within the boundary wall of the pyramid have been excavated. in each case the south facade shows fine limestone masonry of a type only equalled at this early date by that of the north face of the boundary wall of the step pyramid. each facade was decorated by four engaged fluted columns terminated by fluted leaf capitals. the dimen- sions of the column drums suggest that the facade was two- storied and that the whole building in its original state repre- sented a house or palace with a forecourt. the side walls of the court which lay in front of the facade were ornamented with smaller engaged columns each exactly imitating a single papyrus stem and flower. in the centre of each facade a door surmounted by a kheker- frieze leads to a small l-shaped offering-place containing no fewer than five niches. the roof of this chamber is formed of limestone slabs set on edge in such a way as to imitate the rafters of a wooden roof. the pit of one of the mastabas yielded a vase inscribed with an unknown king-name nubnefer. the significance of these finds is clear. here, as the excavators themselves state, we have at a very early date a type of architec- ture in stone which is not only quite new to us but which repre- sents the final development of a style the earlier stages of which are totally lost. pyramid architecture—one of the chief contributions to our knowledge of egyptian architecture has been the clearing up of the structure and lay-out of the pyramid. the pyramid of che- phren at giza shows the following features. against its east side lay the temple which formed the offering-place for the king buried under the pyramid. this temple was approached by a covered inclined way from a smaller introductory or “‘ valley ” temple which lay down on the edge of the cultivated land, the pyramid itself being on the plateau. the introductory temple of the chephren pyramid is that long known as the sphinx temple, and the sphinx itself forms a part of the pyramid-com- plex and is therefore a portrait of king chephren. similar arrangements can be observed in the case of all pyra- mids which are not too badly destroyed. they have been worked out both for the mycerinus pyramid at giza and for those of the v. dynasty kings at abu sir. the vexed question whether the pyramid grew out of the mastaba form by the addition of a series of coats of stone and an apex may be said to be still in dispute. the mastaba cemeteries of the royal families and nobles which adjoin the pyramids are found to have been regularly laid out, forming veritable cities of the dead. the substitution of a mere limestone head or heads for the funerary statues usual in the tombs is a not rare feature of this period. the deep and as yet, unexcavated shaft-tomb, containing objects bearing the name of sneferu should add largely to our knowledge of the tomb and perhaps house-furniture of the old kingdom, which is at present very small. temple architecture—the excavations at abu sir have also revealed much that is new in connection with the temple-archi- tecture of the old kingdom. the sun-temple built by king neuserre’ resembles in its general design a pyramid, having a valley-temple and inclined approach. the temple itself has been restored by its finders as resting against the east wall of a trun- cated pyramid surmounted by a huge obelisk. in the offering- court was found an alabaster altar with a slightly raised circular archaeology from ° portraits of q zeen nofe -t-ete’’ by be rehardt: pp bli. her j. ¢ hint ich 3, le ipzig. queen nefertete (‘the beautiful one has come”), wife of «the heretic king” . | 4 ) e ’ recently excavated, and now in the neues museun berlin archaeology centre surrounded by four blocks each in the form of a hofep- sign, thus taking back to the old kingdom a form previously known only from the new impire. south of the temple was a brick structure in the form of a boat, doubtless representing the barque of the “ morning sun.” similar boats have been found in connection with other pyramids. the earlier intermediate period the lacuna between the end of the old kingdom and the be- ginning of the middle has been largely filled up on the literary and historical side by the publication of the two new petrograd papyri. archaeologically the results indicated by these have been borne out by excavation, more particularly at qau el kebir and at sidmant. it is now clear, for instance, that the button- seals with their rather crude geometric and naturalistic designs are to be attributed to the end of the vi. dynasty and just later, and they are regarded by some authorities as a product of the syrian peoples who invaded the delta at this moment. the herakleopolitan period, ix. and x. dynasties, represented by cemeteries at sidmant, has yielded material which completes the link between the old and the middle kingdoms (see fig. 5). scarabs.—in the sidmant tombs simple scarabs are found which determine the types for this period, and the scarab can recto. 11.70-72.) “(egypt fights) 70 in the necropolis. eft 2m%- js fic. 5.—fragment of hieratic papyrus. from the advice of king (kheti) to his son king meriker@c. (gol. pap. hierat. pl. xi. 1116a. injure not the tombs with deeds of injury (?); for even so i did and even so it did i73 within, and the wooden models of servants, farm scenes, etc., is earlier, and must be pushed back into the xi. dynasty, if not in some cases even farther. to the xi. probably belong, for example, the pit-graves which lie in front of the great rock-tombs at beni hasan. the typical xii. dynasty coffin is almost plain, often with a single band of inscription down the centre, and the more elaborately painted examples, though they do in some parts of egypt survive into this dynasty, are perhaps to be asso- ciated with the hegemony of herakleopolis in the ix. and x. dynasties, a hegemony which, historically as well as archaeolog- ically, is just beginning to come to its own. jewellery—among the smaller archacological material of the middle kingdom none has received of late more ample illustra- tion than jewellery. in the shaft and chamber tomb of a princess sithathoriunut, near the pyramid of senusrct ii. at el lahun, was found a mass of jewellery which can be only compared for quantity and quality with the early finds from dahshur. the finest pieces are a superb gold diadem, and two pectorals of the dahshur type. all three pieces are inlaid with semi-precious stones, lapis lazuli, turquoise, carhelian and garnet. similar work was found in jewels from a tomb at riqa, and we may now take it that this form of cloisonnee work was a product of the egyptian jewellers of the middle kingdom, if not earlier; at any sys *tiaee.8 roe € oe “ £2 occur, even as should be (??) done to 71 one who has transgressed in this way (?) with (?) the god. deal not evilly with the southern land, for thou knowest the prophecy of the residence concerning it. transgress, according as they said . . i speak of (?) thinis . of egyptian archaeology, 1, 22 ff.) now be traced back almost, if not actually, into the vi. dynasty. the supposed examples of the iv. and v. dynasties are still highly suspect. the sidmant cemeteries also show the develop- ment of the wooden models of servants, cattle, granaries, etc., which reached their highest perfection under the xi. dynasty. models in tombs. —to this later date belongs the wonderful find of such models made in the tomb of mehenkwetre in the hill behind sheikh ‘abd el qurna at thebes. they include gar- dens with pools, scenes of cattle-inspection, slaughter-houses, carpenters’ shops, breweries, bakeries and weavers’ yards. they infinitely surpass in delicacy of technique and attention to de- tail—as well as in preservation—any of the models hitherto known to us, and will be of real service in reconstructing the methods of egyptian craftsmen, more particularly spinners and weavers. the mippte kincpom the xii. dynasty continues, in the matter of large monu- ments, to maintain its reputation for secrecy, and we are still without a single even tolerably preserved temple of ordinary type, though the design of the pyramid offering-temple, a nor- mal development of that of the old kingdom, is now known from lisht and dahshur. in respect to smaller antiquities a great increase in our knowledge has taken place. in connection with the xii. dynasty tomb of senebtisi at lisht it has been shown that much of the tomb-furniture previously held to be of this dynasty, notably the brightly painted coffins with texts inscribed 72 that (?) shall (?) happen even as this did happen. they did not bm the . . 73.” (translation by dr, alan gardiner in journal rate there is no longer any reason for seeking its origin abroad. the two ebony caskets with inlay of ivory and other material in which the el lahun jewels had originally lain take back this type of box, now so well known from the tombs of yuia and tuyu and tutankhamun, into the xii. dynasty. the later intermediate period new discoveries affecting this dark epoch have chiefly been made in two types of tomb, both of which are in a sense exotic, the so-called “ pan-graves ” and the hyksos tombs. , many years ago shallow tombs scooped in the desert sand were found at hu which contained crouched burials accompanied partly by normal egyptian objects typical of the end of the xii. dynasty and jater, partly by black-topped vases not unlike those of predynas- tic date, skulls of animals, often painted with black and red spots, and bracelets made of rectangular slips of mothcr-of- pearl. similar tombs are now known from rifa's balabish and elsewhere. the contenis of these tombs show close affinities with those of the later period of the c-group in nubia (sce below) though at the same time there are disturbing points of difference these latter are not, however, so scrious as to invalidate the con- clusion that at about the end of the middle kingdom there was a considerable infiltration of people from nubia into upper egypt. one grave at rifa‘a contains a scarab of the hyksos king sheshy, but the “ pan-grave ”’ civilisation would appear to have died out in egypt at or before the rise of the new kingdom. pype of grave.—in this same consiection must be noticed a 174 type of grave occurring not in groups but only sporadically in egypt (e.g., el qurna, abydos) at about the same period. these tombs all contain specimens of the very thin beautiful red pol- ished pottery with black top of which the most frequent shape is the cup or bowl with flared rim found in such quantities at kerma in nubia and clearly typical of some southern civilisation, allied to but not identical with the nubian c-group and the egyptian pan-graves (see below). such burials must be those of isolated immigrants from the south. the other type of burial typical in egypt of the dark age which followed the middle kingdom is that of which examples were found at tell el yahudiya. here there exists an enormous fort with earthen walls, which is doubtless rightly assigned to the hyksos invaders, and beside it lies the cemetery of its inhabi- tants. the bodies are crouched, and the more remarkable finds in the tombs, which contain a certain amount of normal egyp- tian material, are scarabs with names of ilyksos kings, and a type of black pottery, mostly tall jugs with handles, with white- filled incisions. the home of this pottery, which occurs sporad- ically in tombs throughout egypt and even as far south as the sudan, is still uncertain, though many place it in syria. a clever attempt to assign a nubian origin to this ware has lately been made, but has not yet met with general acceptance. cretan pottery.—with regard to foreign pottery in general it may be recorded here that most of the foreign painted ware found many years ago at el lahun is now recognised as being cretan of middle minoan date. an almost complete vase of this style was found in a tomb at abydos together with cylinder-seals of amenemhet ili. and senusret lil. the new empire our archaeological knowledge of the new empire (xviii. dynasty onward) has been increased mainly by three facts, the systematic excavation of tell el ‘amarna, the discovery of the tomb of tutankhamun and the clearance of the royal cemeteries of the ethiopian period in the district of napata. domestic architecture ~the importance of the tell el ‘amarna excavations, apart from the artistic value of many of the objects found, lies in the fact that here for the first time we learn the details of egyptian town-planning and domestic architecture. a considerable portion of the city of akhefaten built by king akhenaten about 1375 b.c. has now been laid bare. the design of the town is simple and regular. two main streets, one of them more than 50 yd. broad in places, traverse it from north to south, but both are completely unpaved. the houses were all built of mud brick, occasionally with details, such as door-posts, lintels and column bases, in limestone. the nucleus of each house was the central hall, the walls of which were carried up higher @® © © © ® ® ® © seale — metres na fic. 6.—plan of the house of the vizier nekht. . (from city of akkenaton, peet and \wooiley.} archaeology than those of the surrounding rooms and provided with windows towards the top. this hall was roofed with wood and mud-plas- ter supported on wooden columns from one to four in number. round it were grouped two long rooms, one on the north and the other on the west, both perhaps partly open to the weather on the outer side, bedrooms, workrooms, bathroom with lime- stone bath and lavatory. a staircase led up from the central hall on to the roof. in one instance at least there seems to be evidence for the existence of a second storey. the walls of the rooms were in many cases painted with bright designs in colours on the plain mud-plaster background. the larger houses were enclosed in a garden with trees, flower-beds and possibly in some cases an artificial pond. ina part of the enclosure were granaries, kitchen, a well and servants’ quarters (see fig. 6). palaces.—in addition to houses two other buildings have been excavated. the one, called maruaten, seems to be a combina- tion of a palace with religious buildings, the other, the north palace, may have served a purely secular purpose. both are destroyed almost to floor level, but in our nearly complete lack of information with regard to such buildings, they are of high value. with them may be included the palace of amenophis ii. on the west side of thebes and that of merenptah recently exca- vated at memphis. all testify to the extensive use of fresco paint- ings both for the walls and the pavements of buildings of this period (see fig. 5 on plate). religious architecture—in the matter of religious architec- ture there is little new to record save the clearance of the so-called osireion, at abydos, behind the seti temple. this is unique in- somuch as it is the only subterranean building as yet known in egypt. its massive columns and roof-blocks, necessary to sup- port 30 ft. of superincumbent sand, are a new feature in egyp- tian architecture. it was finished as a cenotaph of merenptah, though the burial-chamber itself was inscribed with funerary texts in the name of seti i. the identification with strabo’s well seems very probable. king tutankhamun’s tomb.—from the archaeological point of view the main value of the discovery of the tomb of king tutankhamun lies in the almost numberless specimens which it has produced and is still producing of the arts and crafts of the egyptians at this period. it will be many years before all its contents can be thoroughly studied and the skill of their makers properly appraised. in the meantime it may be said that, though the artistic value of the objects is somewhat variable, their tech- nique is uniformly good. taking the finds of this tomb in con- nection with those from the tomb of yuia and tuyu it will be possible to write a detailed treatise on egyptian furniture of this period: the forms of beds, couches, chairs, stools and cabinets seem to have been very definitely fixed by tradition, but there is infinite variety in the manner in which decoration of carving, inlay, applique and painting on stucco was applied to them. from these same tombs and that of tuthmosis iv. we have now evidence which enables us to reconstruct in its smallest detail the egyptian war-chariot, with its broad stout axle and flimsy body, usually of leather framed in wood. the jewellery —tutankhamun’s jewellery bids fair to rival in quantity all that previously found in egypt; it is not as yet published, but it shows us the logical continuation and devel- opment in the new empire of the openwork, the granular and the inlaid techniques of the middle kingdom. specimens of garments seem to show true needlework embroidery as_con- trasted with the embroidered tapestry hitherto known on egyp- tian materials: the use of applied golden sequins as a deco- ration is a new feature. a great contribution is made to the much discussed question of egyptian lighting by the discovery of wicks of twisted linen suspended in oil cups. in connection with this same subject it may be added that de garis davies has recognised in certain tomb-pictures representations of can- dles consisting of large conical masses of fat consumed by means of a small wick at the apex. the shrines —from the funerary point of view the chief addi- tion so far made to our knowledge by the tomb is the verification of the purpose and arrangement of the so-called shrines of wood archaeology pate 11) 1-4 by permission of the british museum; 5 by permission of the egypt exploration society specimens of egyptian art 1. string of beads and pendants in glazed faience (modern scringing)\—from tell el-‘amarnah., c. 1370 b.c. 2. painted pottery vase of rare design—from tell el-‘amarnah. c.1370 b.c. 3. variegated glass vessel in shape of a fish—from tell el-‘amarnah. c. 1370 b.c. 4. cup of xii dynasty black-top ware—from nubia c. 2000 b.c. 5. fragment of wall fresco (with restoration) from a house at tell el-‘ amarnah. archatology with gilt decoration which, one within another, conceal and protect the coffins. such a canopy was found in fragments in the tomb of queen tyi, and the use then conjectured for it is fully confirmed by the finding of tutankhamun’s canopies in position. egyptian archaeology in nubia and syria no account of egyptian archaeology can afford to omit the dis- coveries of the period r910-25 in nubia. in the predynastic period the civilisation of egypt and nubia was one and the same. from the i. dynasty onward nubia fell behind and produced for many centuries mere modifications of this early culture. these are known as the a-group, parallel to the early dynastic in egypt, the b-group, parallel to the old kingdon, and the c- group, roughly parallel to the middle kingdom. during the mid- die kingdom the egyptian governors of nubia lived at kerma, near the third cataract, where a curious new civilisation secms to have been built up by egyptian craftsmen on the c-group basis. the most remarkable product of this culture is the beau- tiful thin red-polished pottery with black top referred to above (see fig. 4 on plate). the egyptian governors at kerma were buried on their beds surrounded by large numbers of native vic- tims slaughtered at their funeral, apparently in imitation of a local custom observed, though less fully, in the tombs of con- temporary nubian chiefs. the new kingdom brought the whole flood of egyptian civilisation into nubia, and the local industries hardly survived this inruption except for certain of the old types of pottery. revival of nubian culture——some centuries later this nubian culture underwent an astonishing revival, the centre of which lay farther south in the sudan, where dr. reisner has laid open an entirely new field of research. historically he would divide his finds into two periods, the napatan kingdom of ethiopia, about goo to 300 b.c. and a meroitic kingdom of ethiopia from 300 b.c. to 500 a.d. the archaeological importance of his work lics in the fact that he has discovered the tombs of the whole of the rulers of the ethiopian kingdoms throughout these periods, to- gether with objects typical of the civilisation which they en- joyed. the earliest tombs of the napatan kingdom at el-kurru are mere mounds or tumuli, but with piankhi, the conqueror of egypt and founder of the xxv. egyptian dynasty, the pyramid once again becomes the correct form for a royal tomb, after a lapse of about 1,000 years. the finds in the tumuli include nu- merous arrow-points of flint and chalcedony of libyan forms, and these, combined with certain inscriptional evidence, indicate that the ancestors of piankhi were not ethiopians but immigrants from libya. graves of horses were in some cases found close beside those of their royal owners. the finds in general show that ethiopia formed a stronghold of egyptian arts and crafts during the period of decadence in egypt itself, and possibly pre- pared the way for the renaissance of the xx vi. dynasty. the meroitic kingdom.—the meroitic kingdom is almost without interest archaeologically. the local pottery seems, how- ever, to make one last effort, and side by side with a survival of the ancient nubian black and brown ware with white-filled in- cision, produces 4n elegant thin yellow ware painted with geometrical—more rarely naturalistic—designs or orna- mented in the barbotine style. all else is decadent egyptian or still more decadent graeco-roman. relations with syria and palestine. in conclusion a short reference is neccs- sary to the new field of egyptian arch- aeology which appears to be opening up in syria-palestine. the interest of the discoveries of beisan (the biblical beth- shan) are in the main historical, but the excavation of a xix. dynasty egyptian fortress and of an egyptian temple of ashtaroth of similar date, with still earlier temple beneath it, is a matter of fic. 7.— alabaster vase from byblos. v. or vi. dynasty. (brit ish museum.) 17d very new archaeological interest. at byblos, too, where the egyptians from very early times, appear to have made offer- ings in a temple, among which are vases inscribed with names of v. and vi. dynasty kings and a cylinder which can hardly be later than the thinite period (i. and ii. dynasties), there appears a likelihood that tmportant archaeological material from a remote period but poorly represented in egypt itself may be recovered. the occurrence in the tombs of certain chieftains of byblos of egyptian objects of xii. dynasty date, in conjunc- tion with local pottery and silver vases possibly of aegean origin, is also noteworthy (see section x., western asia). cpb po vil. crete later archaeological discovery has hardly altered any of the results stated by sir arthur evans, the most experienced and most active of cretan explorers, in 1910, but the very consider- able accumulation of new material confirmed and extended his conclusions. it is only at knossos that architectural novelties have since come to light, but two more palaces have been found, at tylissos and mallia, and several towns, some containing large and almost palatial houses, have been partially or completely cleared in the islands of pseira and mokhlos, at nirou khani on the north coast of crete, and at arkhanes and plati in the interior. further work in the great palaces revealed new details of their plan and structure, and at knossos much has also been done to- ward replacing the upper floors. the sanctuary cave of kamares has been re-examined, and other mountain shrines were investi- gated at arkalokhori and on juktas. the most extensive finds, however, are sepulchral. few cemeteries were known before 1910, and they belonged mostly to the end of the late minoan age (zapher papoura, liliana, kourtes); since then the earlier periods are represented on numerous sites, the most notable of which are in the mesara plain (bechive-tombs), in mokhlos, near gournia (sphoungaras and pakhyammos), and again at knossos (isopata). the latest transitional phase was illus- trated by remarkable finds at vrokastro. several works of sculp- ture of great distinction appeared during the period under review, having been found in some instances in their proper context by scientific excavation, and duly received into the museum of candia; in other instances accidentally or illicitly unearthed, and passed through the hands of dealers into foreign collections. the first volume of sir arthur evans’ book, the palace of minos at knossos, includes all the significant material that had been found on every cretan site up to the time of its publication (t921). the varieties of hieroglyphic and linear scripts find their latest discussion in its pages, and an isolated document so re- mote from knossos as the phaistos disk is fully examined there. no further progress had been made toward the determination of the minoan language, but sir arthur evans stated that the painted inscriptions on certain mycenean vases found at thebes in boeotia agree both in form and grouping with the script in use at knossos in the latest palace period (l.m-ii.), a coincidence which argues identity of language as of religion and general culture in the mainland (mycenean) in the phaistos disk and cretan (minoan) civilisations. he is inclined to recognise in the phaistos disk a section of a pictographic metrical composi- tion celebrating a sea-raid, a religious song of victory, conveyed to crete from a lycian or kindred anatolian country. the book includes the results of supplementary excavations in knossos undertaken in 1912 for the purpose of clearing up some obscure points in the plan and history of the palace. an instructive but difficult feature was the existence of superimposed pavements and floor levels, which showed successive chronological phases often involving complete change of function and design. it be- came evident in the course of these probings that the site was still productive, and excavation was accordingly resumed in 1922 and continued in the following years." | at the southeast angle of the palace several huge blocks of masonry were found 20 ft. out of place, having been hurled to 1a. j. (oct. 1922), j. h. s., part ii. (1924). 176 that distance by an earthquake shock, and having demolished a house in their fall. the pottery and other objects abandoned in the house give an accurate date for the catastrophe at the end of the middle minoan period (1600 b.c.). it seems that the widespread destruction and the general set-back which was long observed at the end of this period must now find its explanation in this physical cause. some parts of the palace structure were not rebuilt after their collapse, and this house and another that shared its ruin were methodically filled in after a religious sacrifice had been performed on the spot, presumably to pro- pitiate the earth-shaking power. relics of the rite were found in two skulls of long-horned bulls and fragments of portable tripod altars. rich stores of polychrome pottery of the finest (m. m. ii.) style, were recovered from structures underlying these houses. a subsidence at this angle of the palace wall was shown by further exploration to have been a subterranean quarry with vaults and galleries from which potters and plasterers of the early minoan epoch had derived a certain kind of red earth. in regard to the structure of the palace particular attention was given to the entrances. by the north gate the foundations of an outer bastion were traced, and the discovery of an early magazine for oil-jars points to its use as a depot for stores arriving by the sea-gate from the harbour town of knossos. the state entrance of the palace was the west porch. here the removal of large fallen blocks revealed for the first time its true inner lines. opening out of a reception area there was found a warder’s lodge, a feature which recurs elsewhere in cretan palaces. the processional corridor leading south from this entrance turned left to a southern propylon which, in its original form, contained a large sacristy cist. from this propylon a broad flight of steps led through a spacious upper porch to the principal hall of the west wing. beyond this, unexpected evidence come to light of a staircase leading from the stepped porch on the central court to an upper storey. these structures have been replaced in their original positions and the great hall and its approaches covered with floors of reinforced concrete supporting the original column bases and door joints. this makes at once a monumental feature of the site, a protection for the lower rooms, and a permanent conservation of the existing elements. - but the most remarkable discoveries were made in connection with the south gate, where excavation revealed a monumental portico with inclined steps climbing up the slope. in connection with this on the farther bank of the stream that fed the kairatos, there came to light, beneath an indurated natural deposit of gypsum, the most colossal piece of minoan architecture that has been found in crete, the piers of a massive viaduct by which the southern road was led across the torrent (see fig. 8 on plate). the stepped intervals between the piers, through which the flood-waters were released, are precisely like the spillways of a modern dam. further sections of the road were traced at in- tervals across the island, over the low watershed of the central sea. its track is visible in the ancient cuttings, in some surviving sections of its heavily built retaining walls, and in guard-houses, residences and shrines along its route. its terminal port was at ‘komo near phaistos and h. triada, which it also linked with the dominating power at knossos, but it doubtless served as the gent line of traffic to knossos from the libyan sea and egypt. at the knossian road-head, in front of the viaduct, evans found a caravanserai of unique character. its remains show a front yard backed with stone stables and storerooms, which served as the basement of upper storeys, partly brick-built. there was a refectory in the form of astepped pavilion, adorned with a painted frieze of partridges and hoopoes. attached to the pavilion is a smaller porch containing a sunk basin for foot- washing, and fragments of clay bath-tubs in an adjoining room indicate that more extensive ablutions were performed in greater privacy. there are even traces of a piped hot-water system. a small spring chamber was heavily choked with gypsum in- crustation; but when this was hewn away the water at once rose in its ancient place, and the system here and elsewhere is now in working order. after the choking of the spring at the end of the palace period, the well house was used as a shrine, and archakeology was filled with votive offerings belonging to the latest mycenean and the earliest geometric periods, which show the same con- tinuity of culture on an inhabited site as is seen in graves at vrokastro and elsewhere. the lowest date that can be provi- sionally assigned to the proto-geometric material is tooo b.c. the date of the main structure of the inn, as of the great viaduct and portico beyond it, is l. m. i.a (1550 b.c.), to which period the painted frieze belongs. the viaduct in its original form and the stepped portico belonged to m. m. i.@ and were therefore contemporary with the original foundation of the palace. some other frescoes came to light in the palace itself, where a lower level of the processional corridor (to which the well-known 4 = 2 ( = — i] ma ~ a yellow f225 blue red i! . = an my ‘= yx i i \ hh it in as ai in a ir ss pe val | ut “| wens es —2 pi ‘ f= ae = =, fic, 8.—minoan officer leading negro soldiers: part of painted frieze from the house of the frescoes, knossos. ** cup-bearer ”’ belonged) yielded fragments of figures of the same early style as the “ ladies in blue.” many very important paintings were obtained in an area west of the palace, in a house since named the house of the frescoes. these pictures, which are not yet fully pieced together, are remarkable both for style and subject. t hey represent rich landscapes, with great variety of rocks, shrubs and flowers, done in the free naturalistic manner of l.m. i.¢. among the plants are birds and animals, including a monkey that can be identified as a sudanese species. one piece shows a jet of water rising from an artificial fountain. another bears the figure of a minoan officer accompanied by two negro soldiers (sce fig. 8). the intimate african relations which are illustrated by these paintings became increasingly apparent in minoan remains. one of the late discoveries at knossos may throw light upon the beginning of this influence. in the south- west part of the central court, where paving slabs had been re- moved, wall foundations were discovered, and were thoroughly investigated in 1923 and 1924. two main strata could be dis- tinguished, though both belonged to the concluding phase of the upper neolithic, and in these the ground-plans of two rectan- gular houses were made out. the accompanying pottery showed some anticipations of e.m.i. forms, such as stemmed goblets, which seem to have had metallic prototypes. a find was a copper axe on a house floor in a pure neolithic context, probably imported, like the models for the vase-shapes, from protodynastic egypt. in the same house was the base of a mottled limestone cylindrical pot of late predynastic type, and other fragments show that the local fabric of variegated stone vessels, which culminated in the magnificent specimens of mokh- los, had already begun before the end of the stone age. the archaeology house-plans are an agglomeration of rooms like the later palace itself, but an entirely new and unexpected feature in them is the fixed hearth, of which two examples were discovered. these are the only instances in crete before the latest minoan period, when the fixed hearth reappears in conjunction with the mycencan megaron as an importation from the greek mainland. the fact that throughout the long interval of the minoan age only port- able tripod hearths and chafing-pans are found must be referred to an influence coming from the milder climate of north africa. the fixed hearth must now be regarded as part of the original anatolian inheritance of crete, which persisted until the end of the stone age, and was then displaced by a new movement. the african influence, which had previously been noted in many physical and personal characteristics of the minoan race, has had further confirmation on the sepulchral side. between 1904 and 1917 a series of beehive tombs (tholoi) were located in the mesara, and their contents proved to be objects of the same early class as the h. onuphrios deposit, the egyptian and pos- sibly libyan affinities of which were pointed out by sir arthur evans in 1895. two of the present series were found at h. triada; most of the remainder were published by their excavator, the cretan ephor, s. xanthoudides, in 1924. the vaults have megalithic doorways and in some cases rectangular antecham- bers. they were used for communal burial during the whole of the early minoan age, and some contained remains of several hundred interments. the associated material consisted mostly of pottery, notably of rare e.m. types, stone vessels, carved ivory seals, copper and silver weapons. one of the most signifi- cant foreign elements is a babylonian cylinder of about 2000 b.c. (=m.m.1i.) the beehive vault and the square entrance enclosure occur, as sir arthur evans has pointed out, in certain tombs of north africa, where an origin for the form is indicated in the huts of libyan nomads. on the other side these early cretan tholoi may supply the ancestry of the stately mycenean tombs, which first appeared in mainland greece after the cretan occupation at the end of m.m. hi. during the middle minoan age such vaults seem to have gone out of use for sepulchral pur- poses in crete, but their design and method of building are exemplified in a circular well-house discovered by evans at arkhanes near knossos in 1922, which is contemporary with the earliest mainland tombs. the strange variety in minoan methods of burial has been amply demonstrated by recent work. besides the tholet, which may have been peculiar to mesara with its close libyan outlook, early minoan communal interments have been found in a cave at pyrgos! and in rectangular enclosures or rock-shelters at mokh- los. cist graves of the same period have been found at mokhlos, pseira and sphoungaras. this cycladic mode of burial was prac- tised also in the middle minoan age, but burial in jars then came into use beside it, and is represented on the same three sites and at pakhyammos. jar-burial was usual in l.m.i., when the great square chamber tombs began (isopata); the latter per- sisted with beehive tombs as the typical late minoan and my- cenean method. shaft-graves and pit-caves were frequent in l.m. il. and after (zapher papoura), and in l.m. iii. the cus- tom arose of using clay chests and bathtubs for coffins, the un- earthing of which in classical times doubtless gave rise to the stories that minos and agamemnon had been killed in their baths. rich finds of coloured stone vases and unique gold jewels came from the e.m. tombs of mokhlos. the same cemetery and those of sphoungaras and pakhyammos produced fine examples of painted burial jars, particularly of l.m. i. date. the knossian chamber tombs opened in 1910 belong to a group situated on the plateau of isopata.? their earliest elements go back to the end of m.m. iii. the tomb of the polychrome vases (l.m. i.) contained two goblets brightly painted in unfixed colours which illustrate the survival of an obsolete technique for sepulchral use. the cult of the dead is more impressively displayed in the neigh- bouring tomb of the double-axes (l.m. ii.), the singular form “ 2 ae. (eee of the double-axes,”’ etc., archaeologia (1914). | 177 of which, with central buttress bearing a carved half-column, is a symbolical reproduction of a minoan columnar sanctuary with its supporting pillar-crypt. there are benches along the walls as in a living-room, and a cist grave cut in a platform on the stone floor has the plan of a double-axe. the tomb, like most of its kind, had been rifled in antiquity, but among the few pieces of jewellery remaining were some amber beads and disks, and several fine specimens of palace style vases were made up from fragments. smaller vases were a bull’s-head “ filler’ and a jar of the same shape as the ritual polychrome vases, and there were two bronze double-axes. similar cult objects were found in the large house west of the palace known as the little palace, which is connected by a paved way with the theatral area. in this building a room with sunken balustraded floor approached by steps (such as were once thought to be baths, and are now recognised as sacred chambers) was already known. further exploration revealed other architec- tural features which seem universally to have been connected with the minoan cult. these are basements with heavy square pillars supporting the roof at points where columns above carried the ceiling of an upper hall. between the pillars in this instance were vats for receiving libations; in other knossian houses cups have been found holding remains of offerings and the stepped socket of a double-axe. here, in the well of a staircase giving access to one of the columnar upper rooms, were found a similar axe-socket, clay vases in the shape of a bull’s head, and other ritual forms, and a magnificent bull’s-head vase carved in black steatite, half natural size. its nostrils were inlaid with white shell, its eyes painted behind crystal inlay, and the horns were gilt wood. very curious finds of cult objects were also made in a large house at nirou khani by xanthoudides in 1919.4 in one room were four colossal double-axe blades of bronze, of which the biggest was nearly 4 ft. long and more than 2 ft. wide. in two other rooms 40 or 50 tripod-altars made of unbaked clay had been stacked in rows along the walls. it must be supposed that these sacred implements were manufactured here, and that one of the privileges of the priest-kings who lived in the palaces was the sale of such furniture to their subjects. the pottery from this building ts mostly of l.m. i. style. another palatial! house of the same date was excavated by j. khatzidakis, at tylissos.6 it had been destroyed by fire about the same time as the palace of knossos. remarkable objects were found: four gigantic basins, from 4} ft. to 23 ft. in diameter, an obsidian libation-vase (“ filler’’) 9 in. high, fragments of painted plaster, one with a picture of a large ceremonial fan, anda bronze statuette of a praying man. this last figure was the means of identifying a very fine example of the type which had lain in the british museum for many years.* another bronze statuette, perhaps representing a flute-player, which is said to have been found near phaistos, was acquired by the rijksmuseum of ley- den.? a quite extraordinary piece of minoan sculpture is a small bronze group representing a man somersaulting backwards over a charging bull. this belongs to an english collector.® sculp- ture in ivory is also illustrated by two exquisite pieces. one, which is now in the museum of fine arts at boston, is a figure of the minoan goddess or her votary wearing a flounced robe enriched with gold and holding two golden snakes.® the other,'® obtained by sir arthur evans, represents a boy with arms up- raised in adoration, and was apparently the companion figure of the boston ivory in a group of the goddess and her son-consort. a marble statuette bought by the fitzwilliam museum at cam- bridge (1926) represents the goddess holding her breasts. it re- produces in detail the costume of the snake goddess of knossos. another palace has been located at mallia, on the north coast 3 jhid. 4 “apx.*e@ (1922). 8 ‘apy.'e@ (1912). 6 jit.s. (1921). 7 jahrb. d. deutsch. arch. inst. (1915). od ds. (1921). 9 a.j.a,. (1915). this will be published in vol. 2 knossos. of the palace of minos at 178 of crete, and is now being excavated by the french school at athens. it was destroyed at the very beginning of the middle minoan age, and consequently supplies much valuable chrono- logical information, as, for instance, that the hieroglyphic script of knossos was fully developed in m.m.i.¢. to the same early period belongs the largest bronze sword that has been found in europe, a splendid weapon with inlaid hilt and faceted crystal pommel. it comes from what may have been a royal tomb on this site. the excavation of the palaces of phaistos and h. tri- ada is regarded by the italian mission as finished. <a final plan and description of tphaistos were published by l. pernier in 1914.1 a street of houses, described as an agora, of the late minoan period was uncovered at h. triada in 1gro, and in 1912 an l.m. iti. shrine was found there, containing the customary stacks of cups for offerings. such domestic shrines or the more intimate pillar-cult of houses are represented in every consider- able minoan building. public places of worship are less common and of different kind. a built sanctuary was found by sir a. evans on mount juktas,? but other mountain-shrines, sacred to the powers of nature, seem to have been left in their natural state. the kamares cave, situated on mount ida, in which the first finds of m.m. polychrome pottery (“ kamares ware ’’) were made about 1894, was fully explored by the british school at athens in 1913. this cave is a great hollow in the limestone, nearly 6,000 ft. above the sea, running about 100 yards into the mountain at a downward slope of 30 degrees. at its bottom is a smaller cave with a very narrow entrance. no trace of habi- tation was found. the place was evidently a sanctuary domi- nating phaistos and the mesara, and the offerings found in it were made “ by people coming as far down into the cave as they could, or perhaps as far as they dared, and laying their vases among the great boulders.’ little was found besides pottery, and that belonged almost exclusively to m.m. 1. and if. most of it was plain ware, but painted shards were numerous, and among the recovered vases are some of the most decorative in minoan art. the absence of the kinds of votive offerings, par- ticularly bronzes, which have been found in other cretan sanc- tuaries, must probably be explained as a fashion of the time. in the same year khatzidakis cleared a very small cave which was nowhere more than three feet high or six feet wide, at arkalok- hori near lyttos. the predominant offerings were copper dagger- blades and double-axes of early minoan date. the first examples of e.m. i. stemmed goblets in black pottery with burnished patterns were also found here.‘ the end of the minoan age is still obscure in detail. untversal destruction is apparent at the close of l.m. ii., and in the island towns of psetra and mokhlos there was no subsequent recovery. the cretan sites, however, were reoccupied at once, and although the palaces were not fully rebuilt their partial inhabitation and the continuous use of towns and cemeteries indicate no cultural or racial change in the last period (l.m. 111.). but late myce- nean (myc. iji.) elements were brought from the mainland at this time to crete, as they were carried to cyprus, rhodes and elsewhere in the aegean, and the last phase of prehellenic culture in crete seems to have been the same as in the rest of greece. the following age of transition, which was represented by the offerings in the well-house at knossos, is best seen at vrokastro. there, on a series of high hills and ridges near gournia, has been found an extensive settlement with attached cemeteries of the jatest bronze and earliest iron ages. two distinct funeral rites are recorded: inhumation in chamber tombs, and cremation in the same tombs or in bone enclosures. the style of the pottery in the chamber tombs is sub-mycenean or proto-geometric; that in the bone enclosures is early and mature geometric. the pottery in the town is of the latest mycenean class (myc. iii.8). different types of fibulae were associated with the three kinds of pottery, iron weapons were found with both kinds of burial, and in one chamber tomb there was a bronze tripod of the kind 2 ann, scuola ital., i. (1914). 2 palace of minos, i., p. 1 34- 3 r, m. dawkins in b.s.a., 19 (1912-3). 4b.s.a., 19 (1912-3). archaeology that had been previously found with transitional material at knossos, in cyprus, at athens, and most recently at tiryns. six egyptian faience seals were found with the tripod, which had not been precisely dated. but it is clear that the vrokastro finds cover the period between 1200 and 800 b.c., and display the stages by which hellenic (geometric) art displaced minoan, without, however, offering an historical explanation of that phe- nomenon. crete evidently felt the full activity of these momen- tous changes. discoveries made by an italian mission at afrati, the ancient arcadia, in 1924° revealed a remarkable series of vases in the early orientalising style, which tend to show that the island was prominently concerned with the revival of art in the archaic greek period, partly by maintaining the minoan tradition, partly by resuming its old position of intermediary between europe and the middle east. the period was also marked by the publication of many im- portant books. some of these are final records of excavations made before 1910, but previously known only from provisional reports in periodical publications: such are the late richard seager’s accounts of his valuable explorations in pseira and mokhlos, the first part of the publication of objects found by the british school of athens at palaikastro, and the first volume of sir arthur evans’ great work. books reviewing the cretan mate- rial in its aegean or wider mediterranean relations were written by dussaud, fimmer, glotz, hall and mosso; and two useful pictorial surveys were produced by maraghiannis and bossert. bibliography.— periodicals: american journal of archaeology; annual of the british school at athens (london); annuarto della r. scuola archeologica (italiana) di atene (bergamo); anetiquartes’ journal, and archaeologia (i.ondon ); ‘apxatodoyixey aedridv, and ‘apxatodoyix} ‘ed@nyepis (athens); jahrbuch des deutschen archdo- logischen instituts (derlin); journal of iellenic siudies (london); university of pennsylzania museum anthropological publications (philadelphia). general and special books: g. maraghiannis, antiquates cretotses (1907, 1911, 1915); r. dussaud, les civilisations prehelleniques (1910); a. mosso, the dawn of afediterranean civilisation (1910); rk. b. seager, excavations on the island of pseira (univ. pa. mus. anth. pub., 3.1); e. h. hall, excavations in eastern crete, sphoun- garas (univ. pa. mus. anth. pub., 3.2, 1912); r. b. seager, explora- tions in the island of mochlos (1912); e. h. hall, excavations in east- ern crete, vrokasiro (univ. pa. mus. anth. pub., 3.3, 1914); h. r. hall, aegean archaeology (1914); r. b. seager, zhe cemetery of pachyamrzos (univ. pa. mus. anth. pub., 7.1, 1916); d. fimmer, die kretisch-mykenische kultur (leipzig 1921); r. c. bosanquet and r. m. dawkins, unpublished objects from the palatkastro ixcava- tions, part 1 (b.s.a., suppl. paper no. 1, 1923); a. j. evans, the palace of minos at knossos, vol. 1 (1921); h. t. bossert, alt-areta (1923); g. glotz, la civilisation egeenne (1923) and eng. trans. (1925); s. xanthoudides, the vaulted tombs of mesara ae ' ix. greece and eastern mediterranean greece.—in greece since 1910 the increase in our archaeological knowledge has been great in spite of the cessation of work during the war. it is best to divide the field into two sections—the prehistoric and the historic. the gain to knowledge seems greater in the former than in the latter, because practically every discovery in the prehistoric sphere, where we know so little, adds considerably to our knowledge. on the other hand the historic period is already so well explored that only important discoveries make really serious additions. the prehistoric period the greek and british researches in phocis and thessaly in 1912 and rg91o0 show that a neolithic and bronze age culture flourished all over northern greece between 3000 b.c. and the close of the mycenaean period about 1150 8.c. its development shows four periods, of which the first and second are neolithic. the culture of the first is well advanced and indicates that man had progressed far beyond the palaeolithic stage. the second has connections with similar cultures that centre in the upper balkans round the carpathians. the third period is the arly bronze age and it also is related to the early cultures of macedo- nia and serbia. the fourth period is the later bronze age and a 5 j.hs. (1924). archatology time of decline until in the 15th century n.c. mycenaean civilisa- tion invaded the country. recent american researches in corin- thia, argolis and arcadia have shown that in neolithic times a similar culture covered southern greece. in both north and south brightly painted hand-made and polished pottery is char- acteristic of the neolithic periods, and as it is technically good, is in strong contrast to the coarse, incised neolithic pottery of crete and the islands. this suggests a racial difference between the islands and the mainland at that time, and since the poly- chrome pottery of the second period is related to that of the carpathian area, this might point to the coming of people from east central europe into the peloponnese before the close of the third millennium. during this second neolithic period a bronze- using folk akin to the population of the islands and crete entered southern greece, and overran the peloponnese and ail central grecce, as far north as mount othrys. this probably occurred about the middle of the third millennium. the bronze age.—the remains of the early bronze age in southern greece (early helladic period) are well illustrated by the american excavations in corinthia and by the swedish at asine, by the german at tiryns, by the greek in boeotia anc euboea and by the british at mycenae. the same series of exca- vations with more recent work by the americans in boeotia and the discovery of the “ house of cadmus” at thebes by the greeks have immeasurably increased our knowledge of the mid- dle bronze age and late bronze age (middle and late helladic periods) in continental greece. the middle bronze age is marked by the intrusion of people characterised by the use of pottery known as minyan ware. the origin of this is not yet known and though it is common on the greek mainland and occurs also in the islands, none had been found in crete up to 1925. it would appear that in the middle bronze age, owing to this intrusion, relations between crete and the mainland were broken. before the beginning of the late bronze age about 1650 b.c., the cretan civilisation established itself on the mainland partly by trade and partly by colonisation. the receptivity of the people of the mainland for the more advanced civilisation is exemplified by the rapid rise of places such as thebes or mycenae to first-class importance. then with the late bronze age begins the mycenaean age par excellence and the history of this has been completely rewritten as a result of the excavations just referred to at mycenae, tiryns and thebes. during the 16th and 15th centuries b.c. crete was culturally dominant on the mainland and was possibly politically dominant as well. but before the close of the 15th century b.c. the character of the mainland as- serted itself so strongly that when, about the beginning of the 14th century b.c., the palace of knossos was destroyed mycenae succeeded to the artistic and political inheritance of crete. mycenaean culture——mycenae in the 16th century b.c. was ruled by a dynasty of kings who were buried in the shaft graves discovered by schliemann. they were succeeded by a second dynasty about 1500 b.c. and the monarchs of this were buried in the nine beehive tombs which are one of the marvels of my- cenae. brilliant remains have also been found of the frescoes which decorated the palaces of tiryns and thebes. about 1400 b.c. when mycenae took the place of knossos as the centre of power and culture, there arose a great king who extended and refortified its citadel, built the lion gate and the grave circle, and reconstructed the palace on the summit of the acropolis. to him may also be assigned the treasury of atreus which dates from the same period. to the same century belong the citadel and palace of tiryns and the latest phase of the “‘ house of cad- mus”? at thebes. at both sites a quantity of vases bearing painted inscriptions in the still undeciphered minoan script have been discovered. well-furnished tombs excavated at mycenae, thebes, chalcis and asine have yielded a rich series of objects illustrating the art, customs and religion of the people. the latest bronze age stratum at mycenae seems to indicate that, although mycenae itself perished by fire during the 12th century b.c., there was no sudden break in civilisation at the beginning of the iron age. the seals, a, b, c, d, (see figs. 1 and 5 on plate) are of the 15th, 14th, 13th and 12th centuries b.c., respectively. 179 the hrstoric period excavations by the americans at vrokastro in crete and on mount hymettus, by the british at halos, by the swedes at asine and by the french at delos have thrown further light on the early iron age and it is becoming clearer that its culture, from which classical greek art is descended directly, was an age of transition when the art of the bronze age absorbed new ele- ments and so commenced a fresh evolutionary process. the finds on wlymettus hint that the employment of the greek alphabet may perhaps have to be put back even earlier than the 7th century b.c. this need cause no surprise, for the comparatively high stage of development which it had reached in the 6th cen- tury b.c. indicates that it had been used for some time, and we know the art of writing was well known in the bronze age. the evidence concerning the rise of archaic art has been en- riched by the german and greek work at corfu and thermos in aetolia. the important discovery of a pedimental group in high relief at corfu has much enlarged our knowledge of early temple sculptures. in the centre is a great gorgon being slain by a small perseus and on either side of her is a large lion. other small figures occupy the interspaces and the angles. the primitive composition of this group shows that early temple sculpture fol- lowed the types of the heraldic groups of the bronze age like the lion gate of mycenae. a similar composition of a goddess be- tween two lions has been reconstructed from fragments found in the artemision at delos. the french researches in the heraion at delos, the greek in the temple of zeus thaulios at pherae, the italian at arcadia in crete, by their richness in potteryand other small objects, well illustrate the gradual development of greek art from the geometric to the late archaic period. classical period.—in the classical period the principal progress that has been made lies in the attempts to read the early history of famous buildings such as the parthenon, the olympieion and the nike temple at athens, the heraion at olympia and the temple of apollo at thermos. when these temples were first excavated they were regarded as units of one period only. now the early altar of nike has been found; also two earlier temples below the heraion and at least one earlier temple below the parthenon and below the olympieion. the first temple at ther- mos was surrounded by a colonnade curved at one end and prob- ably dates as far back as the 8th if not the gth century b.c. it is thus the earliest greek temple. on the sites of great cities such as argos, elis and corinth work has been continued by the dutch, austrians and americans, but in proportion to the expense involved and the fame of the cities the results are disappointing except for some interesting classical inscriptions from argos and a few imperial statues of the ist century a.d. from corinth. similarly the new british excava- tions at sparta, apart from one good archaic marble statue, a few small bronzes and a crop of hadrianic inscriptions, have not been encouraging. on the other hand experimental work by the americans on the smaller sites of phlious and nemea has proved very promising. fresh work has been undertaken by the french at delphi which has revealed a shrine of hermes to the west of the sanctuary. buildings previously excavated, such as the athenian and sicyonian treasuries and the temple of athena pronoia have been re-examined with valuable results as to their history, plans and decoration. in delos the sanctuary of the foreign gods was found and cleared and other work done in and around the sanctuaries of apollo and artemis and in particular the posi- tion of the tombs of the hyperborean maidens mentioned by herodotus is believed to have been identified. a greek excava- tion has found a sanctuary of herakles on mount oeta where, according to legend, was the hero’s funeral pyre. at koroneia interesting inscriptions of roman date have been found which refer to the maintenance of the dikes of lake kopais. study of the hellenistic remains of asine and of mycenae by the swedes and the british has provided interesting information about the life of small townships. the greeks have begun work on the important byzantine ruins at nicopolis. balkan area.—in balkan lands, owing to the disturbances of war, not so much has been done as might have been hoped. 180 albania and southern serbia are still more or less virgin fields, though the byzantine monuments of the latter region have been carefully studied by the french. still, the results achieved are worthy of enumeration. macedonia.—a distinct advance has been made in greek macedonia, where french and british explorers have been at work on the prehistoric mounds. the results are only provisional, but we can estimate the character and connections of its culture in the bronze age. though, as might be expected, there was con- tact with serbia to the north, with thessaly in the south and with thrace in the east, macedonia had distinct individuality. finally in the period just before the beginning of the iron age it was subjected to fairly strong mycenaean influence, especially along the littoral. the greek and french have begun at pella, dium, thessalonica and philippi the exploration of the remains of the succeeding hellenic and roman periods. at thessalonica it has been shown that the arch of galerius was originally double and built in connection with the round domed building later converted into the church of st. george. at philippi the shrines of silvanus and of the egyptian gods have been identified, and illustrate the variety of cults practised in a city of greek macedonia in roman times. aegean islands——in the aegean is. much work has been done. a sign of the times is the beginning of operations in samothrace by a czechoslovak expedition. the greeks have started the ex- ploration of mitylene and chios. the french have been at work in thasos since 1910 though with several intervals due to the war. the city walls, which have been almost completely traced, have several gates marked by the presence of interesting reliefs of the early 5th century b.c. many other sculptures have been found, including an archaic apollo kriophoros over 10 ft. high and the remains of a group of statues representing dionysus with com- edy, tragedy and other figures. the foundations of a temple nearly as large as the parthenon have been cleared, the market place and surrounding buildings explored and the theatre care- fully studied. the crop of inscriptions has been large and apart from the art treasures found it is to be hoped that the correlation of the results will provide us with new material for the history of greek culture in the thracian archipelago. in samos the ger- mans have completed the excavation of the temple of hera. this was a very large temple with a double colonnade all round and had 24 columns on the long sides with eight at one end and nine at the other. the existing ruins are those of a temple which was begun in the first half of the 5th century b.c., but was never finished. to a considerable extent it imitated a still earlier build- ing which was destroyed by the persians when they raided samos about 517 b.c. after the death of polycrates. near the altar a statue base with the name of cicero has been found and others erected in honour of the julio-claudian imperial family for their help to the temple after it had suffered in the piratical war of the time. the dodecanese—the italians have begun a survey of the dodecanese and a museum has been established in rhodes. excavations have taken place at several sites, mostly in rhodes, where perhaps the most interesting results have been obtained at ialysus. here many more tombs were opened in the cemetery whence came the mycenaean vases now in the british museum. in cyprus a swedish expedition has done valuable work. hith- erto most of the evidence for the early history of the island was provided by tombs, too often carelessly excavated. the swedes have been scientifically investigating the stratification of early inhabited sites and have determined a chronological sequence by which the-previously excavated tombs can be classified. thus a satisfactory basis is obtained for the classification of the earlier civilisation of the island, which shows, with native elements, connections with syria, egypt, mycenae and, if the signs are rightly interpreted, with cilicia. the character of the mycenaean pottery mentioned from cyprus, rhodes and macedonia re- flects the culture of mycenae and the mainland rather than of crete. the great expansion of the aegean civilisation would thus have taken place after the fall of knossos, when mycenae was the centre of power. (ay jn be ww.) archaeology x. western asia! palestine. —in palestine the most important discoveries of the years 1910-25 have been madein the american excavations at bel- san, the site of the ancient bethshean or bethshan. ‘the work has been carried on for the university museum, philadelphia, by mr. clarence s. fisher, assisted by various helpers, and is now being continued by mr. a. rowe, an australian archaeologist.! beth- shan was an important place as commanding the fords of the jordan eastward from galilee into syria south of lake tiberias. in very early times a route ran past it from the vale of es- draelon, which the road from egypt through philistia reached at megiddo, across the jordan and so northward past the hauran to the district of damascus. it was occupied by the invading scyths in the 7th century b.c., and from them derived its classical name skythopolis. seven centuries earlier, under the xviti.- xix. dynasties of egypt, it was an important egyptian for- tress, with which the egyptians held central palestine before the philistine invasion, and after that event ended the egyptian con- trol, it was one of the chief fortresses of the philistines till their defeat by the israelites. the hope that important discoveries of philistine remains would be made during the excavations has not been fulfilled. in- stead, however, very important discoveries of the egyptian period have been made, including two stelae of seti i. and one of rameses ii., and a locally-made statue of rameses iii., the art of which is very curious. one of the two stelae of seti i. has been said to mention the tuirsha (mediterranean sea-rovers who invaded and took service in palestine in the 14th and 13th centuries b.c.) and the ‘aperiu or ‘apuri, a people who have often, and probably rightly, been identified with the ‘ibhrim or he- brews. the statement that semitic prisoners are mentioned also on the stela of rameses it. as working on buildings in the city of rameses (pelusium) in the delta, which has naturally been taken as confirmation of the biblical tradition of the hebrews working under the egyptian taskmasters at ‘“‘ pithom and rameses ” is now known to be erroneous.? were it correct, it need not have been supposed therefore that his son meneptah was the pharaoh of the exodus, as has often been thought. the exodus probably took place much earlier than his time, if, as was supposed by josephus, it is identical with the expulsion of the hyksos. in that case iahmase or amasis i. will have been the pharaoh of the exodus. there may have been, however, a ramesside oppression, the tradition of which has been trars- ferred to the period before the exodus, whereas it really refers to three centuries later,? so that rameses ij. may have been the pharaoh of an oppression, though the pharaoh of the exodus lived long before then. but no confirmation of this view can cia derived from the stelae of bethshan. another important excavation in palestine has been hit of ophel, the site of the most ancient jerusalem, for the palestine exploration fund, carried out by prof. r. a. s. macalister, assisted and succeeded by the rev. j. garrow duncan.‘ not much that is interesting in the way of antiquities has been dis- covered, but the architectural and topographical finds have been notable, including the jebusite wall with its additions of sol- omonic and nehemian times, and what prof. macalister con- siders to be the remains of the millo bastion, with the breach made by david when he stormed the city. the oldest jerusalem probably did not occupy any part of the present city. it lay on the tongue-like hill spur of ophel between the tyropoeion valley and the vale of hinnom, overlooking siloam and the virgin’s well immediately south of the haram or sacred enclosure of the moslem mosques which occupy the site of the temple of zion. the hill has now no buildings, but a house here and there on it. it was here that the ancient city of urusalim stood which is mentioned in the tell el-amarna letters of the 14th century b.c. a tiny place it must have been, according to modern ideas; but very ancient cities occupied very small sites with extraordinarily narrow streets and closely packed houses, as we see from the re- mains of the contemporary and earlier towns of gournia and 1the figures appearing throughout the text of thig section, western: asia,”’ refer to the bibliography at the end of the section. archaeology pseira in crete, where the streets often hardly allowed of two persons passing one another. the palestine exploration fund's work lies astride the shoulder of the hill towards the northern end or root. at its southern end or butt, m. raymond weill has carried out excavations for baron edmond de rothschild, which have yielded results of interest,5 such as the greek inscription recording the building of the synagogue of theodotos, besides some archaeological evidence with regard to the walls, water- supply, necropoles, etc., of the most ancient jerusalem on ophel, and a good deal with regard to the antiquity of the quarry- men of roman times, who probably destroyed tombs and other evidence as to the earliest epoch which we would give our ears to possess now. other explorations at jerusalem have been essayed by mr. nathan slousch. petra and transjordan.—in the south petra has been investi- gated again by sir alexander kennedy,* and mr. st. j. philby has noted archaeological remains in transjordan, where the ro- man ruins at ‘amman, which had been reported to be in some danger of vandalic interference, are now more carefully super- vised. further north dr. hrozn¥, of vienna, has been digging near mzerib,’ at sheikh sa’ud, where he discovered near the inscribed monolith of rameses ii. an interesting canaanite in- scription dating before 1000 b.c., as well as buildings of the hittite period. in spite of the fact that angora had given him full permission to do so, he was not permitted by the local turk- ish authority to excavate at kiil tepe, near kaisariyeh, the spot whence have come the ‘‘ cappodocian ” tablets of early semitic immigrants into anatolia that are in our museums. in the north the most important excavations have been those of m. montet at jebeil,’ the site of the ancient byblos or gebal, on the phoeni- cian coast. it has of late years become increasingly evident that byblos had a specially close connection with egypt. the well-known legend about the stranding of the body of osiris at byblos and the journey of isis to collect his scattered members in a box or coffin has always shown that the foreign town of byblos had very early a special connection with egyptian myth and legend. and in ancient texts it is always mentioned as if it has some special importance for egypt. m. montet has now shown by his excavations that not only was byblos quite egyptianised as early as the time of the xii. dynasty (c. 2000 b.c.), but that even so early as the time of the iii -iv. dynasties 1,000 years before, in the time of king sneferu, it possessed a purely egyptian temple. we are at once reminded of the record that sneferu sent ships to the phoenician coast to bring back the great beams of pine and cedar that he needed for his buildings. in fact much earlier than his time in all probability wood was brought by sea from the lebanon to egypt, and the legendary connection of osiris with byblos, the enclosure of his body in a wooden coffin there, and the fact that his emblem, the ded or tat {usually called “‘ the emblem of stability ’’), is nothing but a conventional representation of a coniferous tree with horizon- tal branches,’ probably refer to the fact that the egyptians very early obtained from byblos the wood for the making of the coffins of the dead. byblos was a holy place in connection with khentamenti and osiris, the gods of the dead (afterwards united), and before the time of sneferu became practically an egyptian colony, as we see from m. montet’s results. from them too we see the effect of the egyptian connection on the local culture, especially under the xii. dynasty, when the dead phoenician princes were buried in sarcophagi of half-egyptian form, with many of the ordinary egyptian accompaniments of the dead at the time, in the shape of stone vases, etc., imported from egypt. we see too how it was that egyptian influence was always so strong in phoenicia, from the earliest to the latest times; how it was that under the xviii. dynasty the conquering pharaohs so easily established their rule there after the expulsion of the hyksos, and that the native princes continued faithful to egypt, even when deserted by the pacificist king akhenaten and aban- doned to the attacks of the amorites and hittites; how it was that under the xxvi. dynasty egypt could always find some support against babylon in phoenicia; and how it was that even to the end phoenician art always exhibited a strong egyptian isi impress, stronger than that of the rival art of mesopotamia. a very important discovery made by m. montet is that of an aramaic or rather phoenician inscription of the time of rameses ii. (c. 1250 b.c.), the epitaph of a local prince, ahiram, of that time. this shows that the phoenician or aramaic alphabet al- ready existed as early as the 13th century b.c., whereas previous- ly it had not been supposed that it dated very much earlier than the oth to which the famous inscription of the moabite stone belongs.!° in the north m. contenau has continued his excava- tion at sidon." other articles on syrian and palestinian archaeol- ogy which need not be specified here have appeared in syria and in the quarterly statement of the palestine exploration fund, such as the exploration of tell nebi minduh (kadesh on the orontes) by m. pezard (syria, 1922), for instance, as well as articles on philistine pottery by saussey, and so on. an important find was made in the beirut museum by mr. c. l. woolley in 1921 of sub-mycenaean pottery that had been found in burials in north syria.” it can hardly be doubted that these are remains of the philistine invading horde that made its way about 1200 b.c. from southeast asia minor through ana- tolia, overthrowing the hittites, so that ‘‘ no land stood before them,” into central syria (amor), where the horde abode for some time, before continuing its advance through palestine to the borders of egypt. there it was defeated by rameses iii., after- wards settling down in the shephelah as the historic people of the philistines, to whom we must ascribe the sub-mycenaean, ceramic from various excavations in palestine. they themselves, though not properly speaking minoan or mycenaean aegeans had been very closely affected by mycenaean culture, as were no doubt all other ‘‘ peoples of the sea.” speculations as to the influence of minoan culture on that of phoenicia, such as those of woolley, who would ascribe the phoenician seafaring possibly to the influence of aegean dynasts in the phoenician cities," are hardly borne out by the facts, as we have no proof of any such foreign princes having ever existed, and in the amarna letters all the names of phoenician princes are semitic. still less probable is the fantastic hypothesis of autran,' who would establish minoan culture on the phoenician coast, a theory for which there is no archaeological warrant whatever, as woolley himself shows. | anatolia.—in anatolia the revived turkish regime has not been favourable to archacological exploration until very re- cently, when the veteran prof. ramsay and certain american scholars have once more got to work on the antiquities of the classical period. hrozny was not allowed to dig at kiil tepe, as has been mentioned above. as regards the earlier period, work has been confined to the further elucidation of the hittite docu- ments found at boghaz-kyei, work which has been carried out chiefly by drs. hrozny¥, forrer and sommer. forrer' has identi- fied eight different languages as spoken in bronze-age anatolia, of which the royal or official hattic or hittite (‘‘ kanisian ’’) of the boghaz ky6i tablets is, he agrees with hrozny, indo- european: while ‘ protohattic,” the original language of the hittites, is asianic, and non-aryan, as are also other asia minor languages. ‘“ luvian,” according to forrer, was a more distant relation of the original speech of the “‘ wiros ” (as dr. peter giles and others call the original indo-europeans) than “ kanis- . ian ” hittite, and has occasional resemblances to greek, which in the case of greek are to be assigned to the aryan greeks bor- rowing from their “ luvian ” predecessors in greece. for for- rer, apparently, the aegeans, and so probably the minoan cretans, talked luvian. (here is an opening for would-be de- cipherers of the minoan script.) but whether this be so or not, the only epigraphic relics that wepossess of eteokretan appear to be entirely non-aryan, like “protohattic ” or lycian. forrer has followed up his discovery of these different tongues in cuneiform, a discovery which is be- yond cavil by a supposed discovery to which serious objections may provisionally be taken.!® he thinks he has found in hittite documents actual mention of achaian princes of the 14th and 13th centuries b.c., and these specifically the andreus and ete- okles mentioned by pausanias as early rulers of the boeotian 182 orchomenos and (no less) the famous atreus of mycenae. no- body doubts, of course, nowadays that the heroic princes of greek legend had their originals in fact, and atreus may very well have been an historic personage. but when we find him and others discovered so “ pat” in hittite documents we may well pause. it is like discovering a mention of king arthur in a saxon chronicle, and about as probable. the ultimate authority for the identifications rests on the correctness of dr. forrer’s identi- fications of place-names. now the a/faiawa which he so con- fidently identifies as achaia is identified by prof. garstang, a rival identifier of hittite place-names, as the classical anchiale, the ingird of the assyrians, in cilicia.1”7 and so on. we are not on firm ground yet. as for the names themselves, anfaravas might do quite well for andreus—it is just how a cyprian would have translated ‘avopeus into his syllabic script—but though attarissivas is an interesting equivalent for atreus (= a-tresyas, ‘““untrembling ’’?) it has yet to be shown to be a probable one philologically: it is by no means certain that atreus does= ta-tresyas, and mean “ untrembling.” tavagalavas = eteokles (‘ereoxxens) is open to grave suspicion. however, in the cuneiform equivalents of greek names, in the list of cypriote princes who submitted to sargon of assyria in 673 b.c., eteandros (‘erefavdpos) is reproduced as tituwandar. the digamma is given its full force. we should have expected to have seen eteokles reproduced as “ ituvukalavas.”’ where is the initial? there are archaeological difficulties in the way of acceptance of the theory too. forrer does not take sufh- cient account of them, and until further discovery has confirmed his identifications it would be as well to be chary of accepting them at their face value. dr. kretschmer has identified alaksh- andu, another prince mentioned in these tablets as king of uilusa, as an alexandros, of the pamphylian coast, who, since there were kidtxes in the troad as well as in cilicia, was the original of alexandros of ilios, otherwise paris himself!!® his memory had merely migrated from pamphylia to the troad. all this seems rather wild. uilusa has also been identified with talysos in rhodes by prof. garstang.'® dr. forrer will implicitly have none of all this: for him uilusa was elaioussa in cilicia and alakshandu was a cilician. it must be said against dr. kretsch- mer’s view that we should expect to find alexandros trans- literated in cuneiform by alakshandar, not alakshandu, as eteandros was by ituwandar, and as in fact the name of alex- ander the great was actually transliterated into cuneiform in the 4th century b.c. the p was an indispensable element in the word. generally speaking, all these attempts of identifications of names,2 whether of persons or places, in the hittite tablets, do not yet seem to have yielded much positive knowledge.” but that is not to say that they will not do so in the future. we cannot make more than a passing reference here to the very interesting discovery at es-salahiye (bithnanaia) on the euphrates, in what is now french mandated territory, by british officers in 1920 of frescoes of late-roman time which have been published by prof. j. h. breasted and m. franz cumont,” as they are later in date than most of the archaeological cliscoveries with which we deal. mesopotamia.—in mesopotamia, active archacological work is in progress. the pre-war work of the germans at qala ‘a shargat (asshur) and babylon has not been resumed, but that of the french (de genouillac) at tell oheimir, the site of the ancient kish, has been taken up by a joint expedition of the uni- versity of oxford and the ficld museum, chicago, largely financed by a british maecenas, mr. weld, and directed by prof. stephen langdon, with the assistance of mr. philip mackay in the field. very interesting results have been obtained in the first two years’ investigation of this vast site, including one of the oldest monuments of babylonian writing, a stone tablet with incised inscriptions in linear hieroglyphics, the original signs from which later on the cuneiform script was developed. this can hardly date any later than 3500 b.c., and is probably older. fragments of figures of men in mother-of-pearl inlay were found, that are also among the most ancient relics of sumerian art, and probably belong to the same period. they are of extremely archaeology curious type and archaic aspect, giving the impression of being distinctly older than the oldest relics of historic art from ur and lagash. the first volume recording this work has already been published by prof. langdon. at kish, however, hardly any relics of older prehistoric age have as yet been discovered than have come to light at tell el ‘obeid and abu shahrein, and to a less extent at ur. these relics in the shape of painted pottery and flint implements, etc., were first found by mr. campbell thompson at abu shahrein (the ancient eridu)tm and by mr. h. r. hall at tell el ‘obeid and ur,** both excavating for the british museum in r918-9. in 1922-3 this work was taken up again by a joint expedition of the british museum and the university museum, philadelphia, under the direction of mr. c. l. woolley, accom- panied by the late mr. f. g. newton as architect, mr. sidney smith of the british museum and mr. a. w. laurence in the first year, in 1923-4 by mr. f. g. newton and by mr. c. j. gadd of the british museum and mr. fitzgerald; and in 1924-5 by the rev. l. legrain and mr. linnell.2* continuing the work begun by mr. hall at ur, mr. woolley has there discovered and planned with the help of mr. newton a most interesting series of temple- buildings and has traced the temenos-wall of the temple of the moon-god. the ziggurat or temple-tower has also been cleared by him and planned by mr. newton. he has also completed the work begun by mr. hall at tell el ‘obeid, and has found there more relics of the sculpture and toreutic art.of the early sumerian period, first discovered by hall. the copper lion’s head (see fig. ro on plate) is now published for the first time. the newly found antiquities include an inscribed tablet of the very early king a-annipadda, of the i. dynasty of ur, who is to be dated about 3200 b.c., shortly before the time of ur-nina of lagash, whose sculptured tablets, etc., were formerly the most ancient known relics of sumerian art. a very fine example of the same art of copper plating over a bitumen or clay ore, or an dme of wood covered with bitumen or clay, as exemplified in mr. hall’s lions, is the bull discovered by mr. woolley (see fig. 11 on plate) in the british museum. mr. woolley has discovered and explored the prehistoric necropolis from which came the painted pottery and stone implements found on the surface by hall, and so has added to our knowledge of this earlier culture, which was probably sumerian, and is certainly now to be dated well before 3500 b.c. it was apparently chalcolithic in character, and so the introduction of metal into babylonia is probably to be placed before 4000 b.c., perhaps roughly contemporaneously with its introduction into egypt in the pre-dynastic period, which also was largely chalcolithic. the question whether egypt or babylonia was first in the field with copper is still unsolved, but the possibility that both countries received it from the north at about the same time seems increasingly probable. the prehistoric sumerian pottery is paralleled by a somewhat similar ware found at samarra, north of baghdad, by sarre and ilerzfeld,27 before the war, and by the identical ware discovered by pezard at bandar bushir.?8 all these wares present analogies to those found by the french expedition of de morgan some years ago at susa and at tepe musyan in persia, as also to that found by pumpelly at anau in turkistan. and further connec- tions eastward with the neolithic ware from muhammedabad tn eastern persia have been adumbrated,?® while wares have been discovered in china that have been compared with the meso- potamian and with that of tripolje in bosnia.*° whether this is going too far or not remains to be seen. the whole question of the interrelationships of these primitive wares of asia is treated by mr. h. frankfort, in an occasional paper published by the anthropological institute of great britain, no. 6.3". mr. frank- fort finds that the babylonian pottery is most closely connected with the oldest ware of susa i., which probably dates from c. 4000 b.c. or perhaps somewhat later. the late m. de morgan also contributed an article on the neolithic age in the near east to syria® before his regretted death. connections with india—a very interesting parallel with sumerian art has recently been discovered by sir john marshall in excavations at mohenjo daro in sindh and at harappa in the arc hakology plate iv. fic. 9. figure of priest or official; early sumerian: c. 3200 b.c. from tell el ‘obeid. fic. 10. lion’s head, of bitumen covered with copper. from tell el ‘obeid. fic. 11. copper bull; early sumerian: c. 3200 b.c. from tell el ‘obeid. fic. 12. steatite seals from harappa, punjab (british museum). (fig. 9 and fig. ro. brit. mus. excavations, roro. fig. 11. joint excavations of brit. mus. & univ. of pa. mus., philadelphia.) archaeology punjab, in the shape of seals (see fig. 12 on plate) with intagli of bulls in, as prof. sayce and messrs. sidney smith and gadd have pointed out, distinctly sumerian style, and with signs somewhat resembling the oldest forms of sumerian writing.* they cer- tainly seem to show some art-connection between babylonia and india in the early third millennium b.c., but whether they are to be taken as confirmation of the hypothesis of racial connection between sumerians and dravidians, bringing the sumerians from india, put forward by hall in 1913," or are rather to be taken as proof of connection the other way, the indians having borrowed elements of art from babylonia, remains to be seen. the connection is renclered the more certain by the discovery at kish in 1925 of a seal identical in character with those of mohenjo daro and harappa, *a find of phenomenal importance. (see sec- tion xiii. inp1s.) since then two other seals of the same type from babylonia have been identified; one is in the louvre. an impression of a similar seal has recently been published by pere scheil.*% in 1923 two distinguished french assyriologists, m. thureau- dangin and the rev. pere dhorme, carrie:! out excavations for a short time in the tell of asharah on the euphrates, which yielded interesting results.*e recent publications.—one of the most important recent pub- lications of cuneiform inscriptions has been that by mr. c. j. gadd, of the british museum, of a tablet containing babylonian annals relating to the period of the final attack on nineveh by the medes and babylonians, which fixes the date of the fall of nineveh as 612 b.c., whereas hitherto 606 has generally been re- garded as the date.**? there is no doubt however now that 612 is the correct year. many new and unexpected details of the final war are given, showing that for a year or two alter the catas- trophe an assyrian king named ashur-uballit maintained him- self at harran, and that the egyptians, then ruled by psam- metichus i., so far from being inimical to assyria, as had previ- ously been supposed, in reality supported her, and that in 616 psammetichus had sent an army to mesopotamia to her help.*8 pharaoh necho also apparently marched to carchemish in order to help ashur-uballit in the first place, but after the fall of harran attempted to hold assyria’s western provinces as his own share of the spoil, till he was defeated and expelled by nabe- polassar.3° mr. sidney smith has pursued his publication of the cappadocian tablets in the british museum, and has published new material dating from of the time of the persians and the diadochi.” chronology —a great deal has been written on babylonian chronology in the light of new discoveries of king-lists by le- grain, gadd, leroy waterman, langdon, weidner. schroeder, lehmann-haupt, albright, del negro, schnabel, fotheringham and e. meyer; but certainty cannot be said to have been reached in the matter except the fact of the uselessness of the lists (as in egypt) for definite chronological purposes. the volumes of the cambridge ancient history hitherto published have contained interesting contributions by prof. s. langdon and dr. r. c. thompson on early babylonian history, and a new american history of assyria has been published by prof. a. t. olmstead,” with the help of new material deciphered from ancient assyrian letters by dr. leroy waterman. m. delaporte has brought out an english edition of his book on mesopotamia in the “‘ evolu- tion de ’humanite ” series,“ and dr. meissner an illustrated work in two volumes on “‘ babylonien und assyrien”’ in the a z- lurgeschichtliche bibliotek.“ finally sir ernest budge has lately published a new edition of his bubylonitan life and iistory,® which contains summaries of the most recent discoveries and a work largely devoted to making clear the overwhelmingly british character of assyriological science which it has maintained since the days of rawlinson and hincks, entitled the rise and progress of assyriology.*® in western persia the french mission has continued its work at susa, and some recent results have been published by m. mecquenem in the revue assyriologique.“? a word of homage is due to the memory of the great french archaeologist, m. clermont-ganneau, who passed away, full of years and honours, 183 | in 1923, of m. jacques de morgan and of mr. f. g. newton, the architect who assisted mr. woolley at ur, and with the plans and restoration of the temple-tower.*® references.—(1) the afuseum journal, phila., xiv. (march and dec. 1923). (2) gardiner, in jour. egy. arch., july 1924. (3) hall, in peake, the people and the book. (4) palestine expl. fund, quarterly statement 1924-5. (5) weill, za cite de david (paris, 1920); fitzgerald, p.e.p.qo.s., p. 8 ef seg. (jan. 1921, oct. 1922), (6) geographical journal (april 1924); petra, its history and monu- menis (1925). (7) the times (april 29 1925). (8) virolleaud, syria (1922), p. 273 ff.; les travaux arch eologiques en syrie (french official publication), 1923; vincent, rev, bibl. (1925), p. 161 ff. (9) new- berry, british association, presidential address (liverpool, 1923). (10) dussaud, syrza, 1924, ii.; hl. bauer, orientalistische literatur- zeitung, 1925, pp. 129 ft.; cook, p.£.7.q0.s., oct. 1925. (11) syria, 1923-4. (12) la phenicie et les peuples egeens; syria, 1921. (13) “asia minor, syria and the aegean,’ liverpool annals of arch. and anth., etc., ix. (march 1922). (14) phenictens; paris (1920). (15) mitth., deutsche orient-gesellschaft, no. 61 (dec. 1921). (16) ibid., no. 63 (1924), ‘‘ vorhomerische griechen in den keilschrifttexten von boghazkei.” (17) l. a. mayer and j. garstang, ‘“ index of hittite names,” brit. scheol at jerusalem, suppl. papers, i. (1923). (18) “ alaksandus konig von vilusa,” glotta (1924), p. 205 ff. (19) liverpool annals, x. (may 1923). (20) as also that of getze, klein- asten zur itethiterzett (1924). (21) see hall, in jour. egy. arch., xl. (april 1925). (22) syria, 1922; travaux archeologiques en syrie, 1923. (23) kish, 1. (1924). cf. gencuillac, premieres recherches @ kish (1924). (24) archaeologia, ixx. (1919-20). (25) prec. soc. antig. (dec. 1919); jour. egy. arch., viii., ix. (1922-3); jour. cent. asiatic soc., 1922; jour. r. asiat. soc., centenary vol. (1924); man (jan. 1925). (26) the antiquaries’ journal (oct. 1923; oct. 1924; oct. 1925); jour. cent. as. soc. (1923, 1924). (27) sarre, in der islam (july 1914), p. 190, ff.; hall, jour. r. asiatic soc., centenary vol. (1924); p. 112 ff., xiv., xv.; frankfort, studies in early pottery of the near east, iv., p. 60 ff.; jour. anthrop. inst. occa- references sce hall, :d7d. (6th ed.), pp. 590, 593-4, 595-6. e. meyer has recently published a new brochure,on the subject, die ditere chronologie babyloniens, assvriens u. agyptens (1925). (42) new york (1923). (43) (1925). (44) heidelberg (1920-5). (45) london (1925). (46) london (1925). (47) rev. d’assyr. (1922); ‘fouilles de suse.”’ (48) for an appreciation of the late f. g. newton see the jour. egy. arch. (1925), p. 70 ff. (h. rr. h.) xi. central asia in eastern iran, 7.e., soghdiana, bactria (including gandhara, ot the northwest corner of the punjab), in chorasmia, merev and scistan, lie the keys to the problems of early iranian culture and its influence on the culture of india and china. again, southern siberia, in its gurghans or tumuli, preserves antiquitics, which will, undoubtedly, reveal some day the still obscure relations be- tween its nomad “‘ scythian ” inhabitants, the pontus and china. but excepting the work done in gandh§ara, the only scientific excavations on a larger scale have been made in easter or chinese turkistan, a bowl-shaped depression hemmed in on all sides except the east by enormous mountain-chains with difficult passes, and in the east approached through the gobi desert. the only safe trade routes between china and the hellenistic orient passed through the rich oases along the northern and the south- ern margin of the bowl. by them the silks of china reached the west and the products of the hellenistic orient, of iran, of india and the buddhist religion, the most powerful propagator of indian religious thought and of modified hellenistic art, reached china and the far east. . these routes were of the highest importance to china, and whenever a vigorous dynasty ruled that country, they were regularly protected by military garrisons. but, while the eastern iranian sites contain relics possibly dating back to early iranian history, the ruined cities and 184 monasteries of eastern turkistan (and of gandhara, which is cul- turally indissolubly connected with eastern turkistan) offer only remains of the period between the last century before christ, in the west, and the roth to 11th centuries of our era. however, the archaeological work done in these comparatively late sites, by russian, english, german, french and japanese explorers, has proved that the ultimate basis of buddhist art in china, as in all other eastern buddhist lands, is the hellenistic antique as developed in gandhara. the tokharians.—the name eastern turkistan does not apply to this area in the early period, for until the uighur turks began their conquest, from the northeast, in the 8th century, the many oasis-states were occupied by iranians (sacae and soghdians) in the west, southwest and north, and by indians in the extreme southwest. from the oasis of kucha in the north, to that of turfan in the northeast, the ruling race appears to have been a tribe speaking a language of the european (centum) group. they are called tokharians in the middle turkish texts dug out from temple ruins near turfan, and the energetic heads, on the wall- paintings from these temples, of blue-eyed, red-haired men with european features, differing entirely in everything but dress from pictures of iranian or eastern asiatic donors, may well be por- traits of men of this remarkable race. mss. discoveries.—the numerous mss. finds are written on wood, leather, palm-leaf, birch-bark and paper in tokharian (till then unknown), the lost languages of the sacae and sogh- dians, in sanscrit, pchlevi and at least two iranian dialects, middle-turkish in two dialects, tangutan, tibetan, syriac, a few lines of greek, in chinese and mongol, with yet unde- ciphered mss. fragments of the lost language of the hephthalites or white huns, and small fragments in two other unknown al- phabets. all this literature is strictly religious, excepting frag- ments of a middle-turkish translation of the fables of aesopus and remains of two mss. of the legend of barlaam and josaphat, also in turkish, found in the turfan oasis, close to the borders of china proper. the religions represented are buddhism, christianity, zoro- astrianism (one fragmentary leaf) and manichaeism, which, in- troduced by way of china and accepted by the uighur kings in the 8th century, is represented by many mss., sometimes beauti- fully illuminated, in the soghdian, middle-persian and middle- turkish languages. these remains are written in no fewer than 24 scripts. islam is not associated with this culture. when this religion began to encroach upon it in the roth century, the de- cline of the mainly buddhist states of east turkistan had begun. art problems.—in sculpture and painting the basis of all this art is the hellenistic antique, as developed in gandhara and in bactria under indian and iranian influences. the buddhist re- ligion, and with it the modified graeco-buddhist art of gand- hara, entered central-asia by the royal road through the the khyber pass and bactria, through udyana and, later by the trade-routes through kashmir. architecture—the architecture is purely ecclesiastical— domestic buildings probably did not differ materially from simi- lar erections in the present day. iranian or indian models are strictly followed. all traces of chinese influence are absent and, of antique elements, only the beautiful caisson ceilings occur occasionally. two groups are found, (a) rock-cut temples and cells, (0) temples, st##ipas, and monasteries built with sun-dried bricks (adoee). cave temples.—the cave-temple settlements follow bactrian rather than indian prototypes in their general plan. they are mostly crowded together, often in hundreds, on the perpendicu- lar faces of steep cliffs, in glens of difficult access, near running water and in wild and romantic scenery. the cells of the monks are simple, small, vaulted rooms, with a fire-place, and often a bench cut out of the stone. the walls are plain white-washed, without any ornament. there are very few such cells in even ex- tensive temple groups. settlements.—the cave-buildings in the older settlements were connected by extensive stone-cut galleries, provided with few windows for the admission of air. light in the temples and cells archatology must have been mainly artificial, as proved by great masses of remains of wicker-lanterns. the commonest type of cave-temple is of indian origin. it consists of a square, vaulted anteroom, opening on a cella of the same description. the back-wall of the cella has a recess, in which the cult-statue was placed. to the right and left of the statue, two short, low, vaulted corridors were cut into the rock opening into a third corridor, at right angles to them, and parallel to the back- wall of the cella. the square or rectangular block of stone thus resulting often contained, in a hidden receptacle, relics, manuscripts, coins and other valuables. these receptacles had always been opened and despoiled. this block stands for the st#pa. the corridors were used for processional circumambulation. on the walls of the cella were painted the effigies of the donors, the life-story of the buddha in a number of pictures separated by decorative borders, or rows of paintings representing certain buddhist legends. the vaulted roof is decorated with tiers of conventionalised representations of mountain landscapes, each containing some birth-story (jafaka). the middle line between the two topmost tiers contained representations of flights of ducks, constellations, the sun and the moon, wind goddesses and the effigies of the sun- and moon-gods in their chariots, most of these representations following hellenistic prototypes. in later temples (after 700 a.d.) the mountains are replaced by rows of buddhas. iranian types——two other common types are iranian. the first consists of a square room covered by a cupola rising from profiled mouldings at the upper edge of the walls. the second is similar but covered by a lantern roof, such as exists to this day in wooden houses from armenia through bactria to kashmir and western tibet, as described by moorcroft. in later cave- temples further east (turfan), this roof was often painted only on the vaulted temple roof. these two iranian types are used by the chinese and koreans as models in their cave-temples (e.g., tunhwang). another type is a long, narrow, tun-vaulted apart- ment, with, or without, a socle for the cult-figure. brick tempics——the temples built with sun-dried bricks are erected on the same lines as the cave-temples. the “ lantern- roof,’”’ however, never occurs in these buildings, as this construc- tion is impossible with bricks, but the middle of the ceiling vault in the eastern oases (7th—oth centuries) often bore a painted rep- resentation of such a roof. these painted lantern-roofs were com- monly used to decorate ceilings in chinese cave-temples. the stitpa.—the sttipa is either (1) a (massive) building of pyramidal shape, plain on the outside, with a receptacle for relics, coins, mss., etc., or (2) a dome-shaped erection on a quadrangular base, or (3) in the eastern oases, a pyramid with rows of niches for buddha-statues, or (4) as a remarkable quad- rangular building in several tiers, diminishing in size upwards, like a gigantic staircase. a number of large, vaulted niches for buddha-statues are carved on the four faces of cach tier. these erections are often of great size, one face having as much as 20 metres length. another rarer indian type, of much smaller size generally, is a beautifully proportioned building of polygonal cross-section. af onasterics.—the monastery is usually a square or rectangle surrounded by a strong wall with towers; with one or more temples and rows of cells arranged along the inner course of the walls, built of sunburnt bricks of most excellent quality, evident- ly made on the spot in the required shape and size. patntings.—in most temples the walls and vaulted ceilings of the rooms were richly decorated with mural paintings in tempera- colours. the colours vary in the different settlements, the most ancient ones being distinguished by a lavish use of true ultra- marine. in some temples the floor was of stucco, often with most artistic paintings in af fresco. the walls were found in all stages of preparation. some were 1m. trebeck, travels in the himalayan provinces, etc. (london, 1841, vol. 2, 390) who found it in cave-temples at bamian; “ the roof was carved so as to represent tiers of beams crossing each other at angles and diminishing their distance as they ascended, until they left an octangular space of about 20 inches only, imitating the roof of a log-house in tibet and kashmir.” archaeology simply roughened, awaiting the application of a layer of smoothed stamped clay, in others this finish had been applied, after which the smooth surface was covered with a very thin layer of stucco. on this smoothened surface the painters drew a “ net ” of rec- tangles, one within the other, into which the patterns for the pic- tures were fitted. designs.—these patterns were larger or smaller pieces of paper, on which the artist drew his pictures with india ink. the lines were then perforated, the pattern fixed to the wall and beat- en with a bag containing powdered charcoal. the contours thus obtained were then traced in india ink and the colours filled in. sometimes, in young settlements, an ancient pattern may have been used, so that critical analysis of style, in paintings and still more in sculpture, is not a safe guide to the age of the work. art influence and sources—-all paintings are intensely in- fluenced by late-antique schools of painting, originating in gand- hara, the punjab and bactria. according to the province whence the painters came, or drew their inspiration, the paintings of turkistan show hellenistic elements modified in an indian, or in an iranian sense. purely antique and purely sassanian ele- ments also occur, especially in friezes. chinese elements are wanting absolutely in the older, western oases. but china accepted the syncretistic art, painting and sculpture produced in these regions, and, misunderstanding and modifying the forms received from the west in a chinese sense, created the splendid art of thang times on the basis of modified hellenistic buddhist art. after buddhism declined in india, china became the leading buddhist power, and this new syncretistic chinese art gained in- fluence only in the eastern settlements (turfan), and never farther west than the oasis of kutcha. main styles—five principal well-marked styles of painting, were first observed by a. griinwedel. (1) several styles, directly containing late antique elements, such as are found in the gand- hara-sculptures; are united under the name gandhara. in cer- tain temples antique elements preponderate, while others show these elements modified in iranian or indian sense (presumably sth-6th century a.p.). (2) the style of the “ knights with the long swords ” (tokharians), is presumably a local continuation of style no. 1 (probably 6th-7th century a.p.). (3) the older turkish style, has a pronounced syncretistic character; the forms of style 1 and 2 are incorporated, but chinese elements begin to occur. the decorative borders of the wall-paintings and the ceilings show a remarkable and charming flower-ornamenta- tion. the costume of the donors differs completely from that of the donors in the older styles. the inscriptions are in chinese and central-asian brahmi (presumably 7th-oth century a.d.). (4) the younger turkish style, more properly the uighur style, shows a further syncretistic development of style 3 in a chinese * sense—it is only found in the turfan oasis and is the final devel- opment of the older elements into chinese forms (8th—rith century a.d.). (5) the lamaistic style has evident relations to tibetan art. | sculpture —all sculpture in eastern turkistan derives from the late antique school of gandhara and pure hellenistic types appear even in late times in the eastern settlements, where the paintings had assumed an essentially chinese character. use of moulds.—the perseverance, in sculpture, of hellenistic forms is simply explained by the fact that, turkistan being a loess-country, without stone fit for the sculptor, the art-crafts- men were forced to use stucco-moulds, of which quantities were found, mostly for the production of half-relievo figures. the larger kinds were moulded in pieces and afterwards put to- gether, often very roughly, with straw-ropes, twigs, coarse pegs, etc. the statue was prepared in the rough, its surface was remod- elled, finished off with a fine layer of stucco and richly painted and gilded. in the older western oases the material for the statues was often stucco; in the later (eastern) settlements the common clay of the country, mixed with chopped straw, vegetable fibres and animal hair. in spite of the crudeness of this material, the effect resulting is frequently imposing. 185 the moulds were probably imported from gandhara and re- placed, when broken, by exact duplicates, produced, mechanical- ly, from their own former products. thus antique forms per- sisted long after paintings had begun to undergo eastern-asiatic modifications. when the sassanians cut the road to the west, no new western influences could penetrate, while communications with china continued to be easy and frequent. change of type—in consequence, the ideal type of beauty began to change and gradually the craftsmen deliberately changed their moulds to suit the fastern-asiatic type of beauty. the nose became shorter, the brows were made slanting, the eyes more prominent, etc., while the late antique hairdresses, utterly incomprehensible to the easterns, were changed accord- ing to their own notions and taste. thus the evolution of a late antique head can be followed, through many stages, until a typically chinese head results. bibliography.—sir a, stein, sand-buried ruins of khotan (1903): a. grtinwedel, bericht tiber archaeolog. arbeiten in idiquischari . . . (munich, 1906); sir a. stein, ancient khotan, vol. 1-2 (oxford, 1907); a. griinwedel, altbuddhistische kultstdtien in chinesisch- turkistan (1912); sir a. stein, ruzns of desert cathay, vol. 1-2 (1912); a. von le coq, choischo, kgl. preuss. turfan expedition (1913); s. von oldenburg, russkaya turkestanskayva ekspedictya (1914); p. pelliot, les grottes de touen-hauang, vol. t (igt4); a. foucher, the beginnings of buddhist art and other essays (1918); a. griinwedel, alt-kutscha (1920), text to be used with much cau- tion; sir a. stein, serindia, vol. 1-5 (oxford, 1921), ancient bud- dhist paintings from the caves of the thousand buddhas (1921); a. von le coq, die buddhistische spartantike in mittel-a sien, vol. i-5 (1922-5); sir t. arnold, survivals of sasanian and manichaean artin persian painting (oxford 1924); a. von le coq, bilderatlas eur kunst. und kulturgeschichte mittel-asiens (1925); see also p. pelliot, “‘ une bibliothtque medievale retrouvee au kan-sou,” bull. ecole frang. d’ extreme orient, vol. 8 (1908); ‘‘ rapport sur sa mission au turkestan chinois 1906~-9,"" comptes-rendus acad. des inser. et belles lettres (1910); “ trois ans en asie centrale,”’ bull. comite de l’asie francaise (jan. 1910); r. a. smith, ‘‘ the stone age in chinese turkestan,” afan, no. 52 (1911). (a. v. bec.) xii. persia pre-achaemenian period —rock-sculptures of remote antiq- uity have been discovered or more accurately studied. they prove that the influence of the higher developed civilisations of elam and babylonia stretched much farther into the interior than was supposed. a gold treasure discovered in the asterabad region (frontier of russian turkistan) is sumerian in character (3000-2500 b.c.); engraved shells of proto-elamite type are found at isfahan; and an elaborate early sumerian rock-sculpture was discovered near talaspid in fars. the conclusions drawn from those single objects are supported by the main archaeo- logical material: pottery. the rich harvest of proto-elamite pot- tery at susa belongs toc 3000b.c. very similar pottery has been found all over iran. at this remote period, relations with india are attested:— among the fresh discoveries of prehistoric remains at harappa and mohenjo daro are typical seals, which may all be derived from types preceding the later cylindrical shape and in common use in elam and sumer during the fourth millennium b.c. the second millennium marks a period of cultural depression in iran. painted pottery continued in the whole of iran down to the achaemenian and seleucid periods, i.¢., to the beginning of our era, and a great number of bronzes belong to a group known from asia minor, which cannot be dated exactly. a great change happened suddenly: a new population, the arians, who later founded the median and the achacmenian empires, settled in iran. in harmony with the historical indications in the assyrian annals, we find the first monuments of this population in north- west iran, around the lake urmia and hamadan-fkbatana, a region belonging at that time to the khaldian or urartaean em- pire of van. there remains a group of large tombs, cut into rock, in the shape of the median house which survives in west iran to the present day. all the tombs are found in ancient media, and architectural features and religious emblems prove them to be pre-achaemenian, hence median. but whether the inhabitants were already zoroastrians or followers of a pre-zoroastrian faith, remains unanswered. 186 achaemenian period.—the discovery of another royal tomb in khak-i-rustam, mamassani region in fars, connects the median tombs with those of the achaemenians at persepolis and naqsh-i- rustam. it must be attributed to a predecessor of cyrus, one of the kings of anshan, his ancestors. it has columns with proto- ionic capitals. hence, achaemenian architecture derives its origin from the median type, of which the rock-cut tombs are the only remains as yet discovered. the art of arian iran was at first created in northwest persia, influenced by the art of the khaldian or urartaean empire of van, itself depending upon the older, hittite, art of asia minor. from media this art spread into south iran. rock-cutting freestone masonry, wooden col- umns and a highly developed metallurgy are its characteristics. the similarity to the carly ionic architecture of the west coast of asia minor is explained, not by greek co-operation, but by the fact that both are the extreme branches of a style of architecture that once spread over asia minor, armenia and west iran. on the other hand, during the whole reign of the achaemenids, three provinces of india, called hindu, gandhara and thatagu, formed integral parts of their empire. the first surviving monuments of india, although post-achaemenian, show evidence of iranian influence in architecture and sculp- ture—columns, capitals, ornaments. the plan of the palace of pataliputra is believed to be made in imitation of persepolis. the transition to rock-sculpture, freestone masonry, stone sculpture from older woodwork, is due to immediate iranian influence. china adopted the same methods, as proved by the oldest chinese monuments discovered in szechwan. post-achaemenian period —the least known period of iranian history is the parthian, which is of special importance for the development of the zoroastrian religion and the national epics. the most promising sites are a greek temple (of dionysos?) at khurheh in mahallat, the capital hecatompylos near damghan, and the huge temple of anihit at kangavar. during the arsacid period, the great empire of the saka or indo-scythians, extend- ing from the modern province of seistan in persia to muttra and bombay in india, was connected, more or less loosely, with iran. among its rulers, known from their coins, appear some members of the stiren family, one of the highest feudal houses of parthia. when the arsacid dynasty was replaced by the sasanians, the reconquest or the extension of their rule over those eastern parts of iran was among their first accomplishments. according to pahlavi inscriptions and bactrian coins, from 230-350 a.d., ancient soghd and bactria, t.e., samarqand and balkh, were ruled by sasanian prince-governors, and, in the same way, at least from 280-350 a.d., the entire former scythian empire was an integral part of their realm. these new facts, proved by inscriptions and coins, explain the iranian influence exercised during this period on the civilisation of india. brbltography.— sarre and f. herzfeld, zranische felsreliefs (1910); g. p. tate, seistan (calcutta, 1910-2); m. pezard, “ etude sur les intailles susiennes,’’ afem. de la deieg. en perse, 12 (paris, 1911); e. pottier, ‘‘ etude histor. et chronol. sur les vases peints de l’acro- pole de suse,” ibid., 3 (paris, 1912); b. v. farmakowsky ‘ arkhais- tichesky period rossii,” materialin po arkheologi: rossit, vol. 34 (1914); sir aurel stein, “ a third journey of exploratioa in central asia, 1913-6, geog. jour., vol. 48 (1916); l. delaporte, catalogue des cylindres du musee du louvre (1920 and 1923); f. uerzfeld, am tor von asien (1920); m. i. rostovtseff, ‘ the sumerian treasure of astrabad,” in jour. egypt. arch., 6, pp. 4-27 (1920); l. legrain, ‘‘ empreintes de cachets elamites,"’ mission en perse, mem. t. 16 (paris, 1921); m. i. rostovtseff, iranians and greeks in s. russia (oxford, 1922); v. segalen, a. g. de voisins, j. lartique, afzssion archeologique en chine (paris, 1923, 1924 ss); f. herzfeld, parkuli (1924); sir john marshall, “ first light on a long forgotten civili- sation,” i/l, london news (sept. 20 1924); f. d. j. parduck, sasanian coins (bombay, 1924); t. j. arne, ‘ painted stone age pottery from the province of honan,” palaeontol, sinica, fasc. 2 (peking, 1925). (e. ilk.*) xiii. india archaeological exploration was first started officially in north- ern inclia in 1862 and was strengthened by lord curzon, when viceroy. india was divided into circles, each with its own superintendent and staff. epigraphists were appointed, and, later, an archaeological chemist was added to the department. archaeology annual progress reports are published, and an imperial series of monographs and memoirs on particular subjects is maintained. epigraphical results are chietly published in the epigraphia indica, the epigraphia moslemica and the epigraphia birman- ica. in addition to the exploration of architectural monuments above ground, and the excavaticn of those below, a great deal of work has been accomplished in the conservation and repair of these. antiquarian museums have been established all over the country, and several of the native states have taken up archaeological work within their own areas. prehistoric antiquities —“ eoliths ” have been found in india which, as elsewhere, are provisionally accepted as artifacts. palaeolithic implements of the chellean type are widely spread in india. neolithic implements exhibit a remarkable variety and in general conform to similar objects from western asia and europe. the most noteworthy exception is the chisel- shaped, high shouldered celt found in burma, assam and chota nagpur, as in indo-china and the malay peninsula. pottery.—pottery, both plain and decorated, is found in association with neolithic sites. the plain forms are either rough, smooth, polished or painted while the decorated forms are im- pressed or moulded or, less commonly, incised. some of the geometrical painted designs are considered to recall the typical features of anau and elam pottery. in southern india incised designs and cognate marks have been described as owners’ marks, potters’ marks, hieroglyphics, some being regarded as resembling minoan script. cave drawings.—in caves in the offshoots of the vindhyas, associated with pygmy flints, are found rude drawings in ruddle or haematite, which have been ascribed to neolithic culture, though possibly the product of relatively recent inhabitants. at singanpur the cave paintings of hunting scenes, groups of figures, picture writing and drawings of animals, reptiles, ctc., have been thought to show the same methods as were used at cogul in spain—an aurignacian product. the argument is far from convincing and the theory of an australian connection cannot be regarded as proved. megaliths, etc —special problems are raised by the megalithic monuments found in many parts of india. examination of cairns in hyderabad state and southern india has yielded pottery of an interesting type: lapis lazuli beads which, being foreign to india, indicate commercial intercourse, possibly with kash- mir or persia; some gold, silver and copper and iron, due perhaps to an carly use of iron for local purposes. it is suggested that resemblances to egyptian material indicate contact with a common source. recent excavations.—the results of the survey of the rock-cut iemples of india carried out before lord curzon’s time have been published. much miscellaneous work has also been accomplished amongst the structural temples. ampler funds have enabled the - department to take up excavation work on a more extensive scale, and some of the more ancient sites, especially in the north of india, have been opened up. amongst these are the mounds covering the ruins of the old city of taxila in the punjab—a place mentioned by early greek and chinese historians as a great centre of trade and learning centuries before the christian era. much of the three sites that the city occupied as it passed successively under the domination of persia in the 5th century b.c., the greeks, the mauryas, the bactrian greeks, the scyth- ians in the rst century b.c. and the kushans, has been laid bare and has revealed much of its story. the walls of the houses, monasteries, chapels, stupas, and the palace of the kings have been unearthed. one of the sfwpas, containing a portion of the relics of the buddha, yielded with it a very interesting inscribed silver scroll. besides much semi-classical sculpture, the ruins have given up a great abundance of minor antiquities in pottery, stone, copper, bronze, silver and gold together with quantities of coins—the accumulation of centuries. prof. herzfeld has lately discovered inscriptions in persia which, he considers, go to prove that the punjab was under persian rule in the 3rd century a.d. in the sth century the white huns overran the country leaving ruin in their wake (see section xii. pers). archaeology buddhist relics —the great stupa built by the kushan king, kanishka, over a relic of the buddha, which had been mentioned by the chinese pilgrims, has been identified and opened. the mound lay at a short distance to the west of peshawar. it yielded the relics and the reliquary, the latter bearing the name and an effigy of the king. the stupa appears to have been the largest and most magnificent monument of its kind known in india. the recovered relics were presented, with great ceremony, to the burmese buddhists in rg10. other relics of the master, from the piprahwa st#pa, had been previously presented to the king of siam, and, later, others from taxila were conveyed to the buddhists of ceylon, who had in 1882 received those from the stupa opened up at supara (? ophir) near bombay. the maurya palaceat patna.—on thesiteof theold maurya cap- ital of pataliputra (patna) remains of the palace of the emperors have been brought to light, once a vast pillared hall of about the 3rd century b.c., containing eight rows of monolithic columns, of 10 columns each, of polished sandstone. it presents, in many respects, a marked likeness to the hall of a hundred columns at persepolis, indicating a close intercourse between [persia and india. the rest of the building, which appears to have been burnt, was probably of wood. from the remains of the old buddhist monasteries at nalanda, once famous as a buddhist seat of learning, four miles from rajagriha, a large number of antiquities was collected. greco-buddhist art.—greco-buddhist sculptures, of the best period of gandhara art, have been reclaimed at takht-i-bahi, and investigations have been carried out along the peshiwar- swat border. from sahri-bahlol excavation has yielded quanti- ties of sculptures in stone and stucco. at mathura (muttra) inscribed images of the emperor kanishka and other kushan princes have been found; and at isapur, near by, an inscribed sacrificial pillar whose inscription was considered the earliest in pure sanskrit then found. further excavations were carried out at kasia (kusinagara) the place where the buddha died. at basarh and bhita excavations were continued which produced great numbers of seals at the former place. buddhist afonuments —buddhism, following the valley of the indus, advanced through the punjab into sind leaving a trail of buddhist monuments in its wake. the remains of several stupas have been uncovered especially that at mirpur-khas which contained its relics. the great site of brahmanabad has been examined, and in the light of the recent sumerian-like finds at mohen-jo-dharo, it requires further and deeper excavation. in central india, extensive clearances were made around the great stupa at sanchi, and the fragments of the old railing which adorned the berm and the top being found, the latter was re- stored, together with the crowning umbrella, while the basements of monasteries and chapels were reclaimed from the debris and jungle. near by, at besnagar, the site of vidisa, a flourishing city when the greek kings were ruling at taxila, the base of a garuda pillar was cleared revealing an inscription recording its erection by a greek, heliodorus, an ambassador from the taxilan court. excavations were continued at sarnath, near benares, where objects of the gupta and mediaeval periods and kushan coins were recovered; other places visited and explored included sur- atgadh (bikaner), salihundam in south india, the jamalgarhi stupa, the caves of bagh with their interesting frescoes, maheth and saheth the site of sravasti, and many other spots in south india and burma. sumerian discovertes——the most startling and unexpected discovery made in the archaeological field is that of the presence, in the punjab and in sind, of objects which bear a striking like- ness to sumerian remains of 3000 b.c., and the character of the few letters found upon someof these distinctly points toacommon origin. in sir john marshall’s view “‘ this indus civilisation ex- tended over an immense area including sind, much of the punjab, baluchistan and probably rajputana and countries even further to the east. the existence of roomy and well-built houses and the relatively high degree of luxury as well as the character of many of the smaller antiquities (seals, gold jewellery, copper 187 vessels) betoken a social condition much in advance of what was then prevailing in mesopotamia or egypt.’’! kashmir.—remarkable buildings and richly moulded reliefs were discovered at harwan in kashmir by the state archaeo- logical dept. comprising the triple basement of a stupa; a set of chapels; two smaller st#pas, and a large apsidal temple, in the courtyard of which is a curious tile pavement, on which are kharoshthi numerals which indicate a date of 400 to 500 a.d. at the latest. amongst the moulded decorations occurs a repre- sentation of a cock fight which recalls to mind one of a bull fight in the oldest of the bhaja caves, surrounded with persepolitan details, ajanta cave paintings—the famous wall paintings at the ajanta caves, of about the 7th century a.d., which were in a very bad state, and were peeling from the walls in places, were taken in hand by an expert from italy, who has put them into a more permanent state of preservation. birpliograpiy.—corpus inseriptionum indicarum (1877, etc., new ed. of vol. 1, 1925}; inscriptions from the cave temples of western india (1881); i:ptgraphica carnatica. mysore (bangalore 1886-1905, and 1923, etc.); ‘south indian inscriptions,’’ arch. survey of india (1588-1920); e. j. rapson,ed., cambridge history of india, vol. 1, chap. 26, detailed bibliography (1922); see also: fe. hw. wunt, journal of royal asiatic institute (jan. to june 1924); f. j. richards, ibid., the indian antiquary (bombay); journal of the bengal asiatic society; journal of the royal asiatic society; journal of the bombay branch of the royal asiatic society, vol. 3, 4, 5 and 14; the indian antiquary, vol. 1, 2, 8, lo and 15. (h. co. indonesia sumatra.—sumatra still awaits investigation. it may be sur- mised that it escaped colonisation from india because the mari- time movements of that country from the east started from points in india and under conditions which made java rather than sumatra their main objective. the set of local currents and the weather conditions played a decisive part in determining the lines of early navigation, especially in this difficult region. java.—the settlement of indian colonists in java dates from the sth century a.d. and was mainly influenced by the south, whence radiated the main forces of colonisation, although in the 4th century b.c. commercial enterprise from bengal was active. no detailed description of the monuments at borobodur is neces- sary, but the presence of saivaite elements, as well as of bud- dhistic material, afford clues to the admixture of religious motives in the decoration of what is justly termed the ninth wonder of the world. modern analysis of the relicfs of the great temple is held to reveal ignorance of indian structure. the employment of javanese conventions indicates that the fundamental elements must be looked for in local architectural principles, the inspira- tion being afforded by hindu rulers and priests who were devoid of technical knowledge. java marks the limit of hindu influence which still indeed persists there. other islands.—1n the remainder of the islands which compose indonesia two strains of influence may be discerned—chinese and malay—which have both combined and also been in- fluenced by contact with islamic culture of arabian origin. in celebes stone age culture persisted till recent times; in borneo only the coastal fringe shows any traces of contact with superior cultures, the interior, which is largely unexplored, being occupied by peoples of a low stage of culture, including pygmy groups. in the philippines, however, three distinct zones of cultural settle- ments may be discerned, 7.e., the coastal, the plain and the moun- tainous, the rudest being that associated with the mountainous area. much that is essential in the culture of the sub-tropical areas is perishable in the humidity and temperature conditions which there prevail. it is possible, however, that in the future systematic investigation may disclose evidence of the extension, both of early chinese and early indian influence over a greater zone in indonesia than is at present suspected. brsliocrapphy.—sir c, eliot, hinduism and buddhism (1923); w. kaudern, ethnographical studies in celebes (1925); c. elose and w. mcdougall, the pagan tribes of borneo (1912), indian antiquary (dec. 1925). 1 tilustrated london news, feb, 27 1926, p. 346. 188 xiv. china and southeastern asia although the progress which has been made in the study of the prehistoric archaeology of the far east has been very great, it is not possible at present to put forward a sequence dating which can in any way compare with that of europe. the pre- cise significance of many of the finds is at present imperfectly understood, but material is being collected, which should in the near future enable the archaeologist to trace the prehistory of much of this vast area. palaeolithic remains.—up to the present no true palaeolithic implements have been discovered, either in china proper or in southeastern asia. matsumoto believes that a human sacrum found in the province of honan in central china must be con- sidered to belong to neanderthal man, but precise data are lack- ing and the definite association of the bone with those of elephants is uncertain; nor can the early implements from indo- china be considered definitely palacolithic because, although of rude form, they are associated with a modern fauna. numerous surface finds in china, which have sometimes been considered to be palaeolithic, are equally doubtful. north of the great wall m the region, however, where the hwang io penetrates gobi with a great northerly bend usually known as the “ ordos bend,” teilhard and licent found definite palaeolithic remains in at least five localities. the types from one site (ning hsia) in the northerly part of kansu, the province which separates mongolia from tibet, are said to be mousterian. the second site, a fluvia- tile deposit, at sjara osso gol, contemporary with the loess of central china, contained similar implements associated with quaternary deposits containing forms similar to elephas primi- genius and rhinoceros tichorhinus of europe. deposits at a third site in the same region contained implements which are probably older. implementiferous deposits were also found else- where in loess gravels and in the desert region close to the hwang ho itself. the sites extend over a long belt of country nearly 600 m. long enclosed by the great bend of the hwang ho. while most of the implements appear to be mousterian, some are closer to the aurignacian type, but all are small, possibly, as the explor- ers suggest, owing to paucity of material. the forms are not quite identical with those from europe, and until the gaps are filled, exact comparison is impossible. neolithic remains.—the neolithic deposits, essentially a vague term in this region, are widespread over the far east and at least two separate culture areas exist, though further investiga- tion may either link up the two or discover new areas. provi- sionally these may be termed the northern and southern areas. northern area.—the northern includes much of mongolia, northeastern china, manchuria and certain parts of japan. its relation to the siberian early cultures has not yet been fully explored. much of this area is extremely rich in remains. in certain regions on the mongolian plateau this culture has been established stratigraphically, and is nearly always found in a bed of black sands superimposed on the quaternary sands, which in mongolia replace the loess of the chinese plain. the neolithic succeeds the palaeolithic without any transition, as far as is known at present. one of the most important sites is at linn hsi north of sira mouren gol (116° east and 44° north). most of the implements discovered are somewhat rude and might at first sight be considered to be palaeolithic, but other delicate instruments occur, including triangular arrow-heads. they are associated with rude pottery, which is made without a wheel. the most important implements which have been found both on the plateau and within the wall at kalgan, north of peking, are comparatively fragile laurel-leaf-shaped implements slightly polished. both andersson and teilhard are unanimous in think- ing these implements to be ploughshares. their importance lies in the fact that similar implements are associated with the neo- lithic culture of north america, and there is every reason to associate the two. at present the authors of this culture are not clearly known. the kitchen middens of japan show a similar culture, which can there be divided into periods stratigraphi- cally. in japan human skeletons have been discovered in associ- ation with the pottery. the types are similar to those of the archaeology present day ainu (see racrs of mankind) but it is difficult to associate the two groups of peoples, as the ainu have no indige- nous pottery. numerous rude stone monuments have been found in manchuria and korea, which probably belong to this culture but they have not as yet been adequately studied. pottery.—the rude pottery of this culture survived through the succeeding periods, and indeed is in use to-day, which makes some of the dating difficult. it forms an integral part of the finds in the succeeding culture, which has been carefully studied by andersson in various parts of china, including the most westerly and the central provinces and manchuria. this culture is definitely of a chalcolithic type; with it are associated not only the coarse ware already noted but polished celts and fine painted ware, which can be divided into brick-red small, thin-walled monochrome vessels and others which are painted. whecl-made vessels occur, but most are hand-made. the polychrome vessels are mostly bowls and are often beautifully worked. this type of pottery belongs to the same class of painted ware which has been found at anau near ‘ashqabad in russian turkistan and tripolje and has a wide distribution in western asia (see sec- tion x, western asia, note 30). there are also some local forms, notably the tripod pot, which has developed into the di of ancient and modern china. this culture, with its close paral- icls with the west and indigenous forms, has a very wide distri- bution over northern china, and is associated with the bones of people who do not differ essentially from the modern chinese. no traces of metal have been discovered in spite of careful and extensive excavations, but apart from the introduction of metal and the substitution of metal for ceramic or lithic material, many of the forms associated with this culture survive in china to-day, with the exception of the remarkable polychrome ware. up to the present this culture does not appear to have been reported from japan. no exact dating can be given; probably in manchuria the culture was at its height about 1500 b.c., but as it extended over a vast area its floruit was probably very different in different localities. pig, the typical domestic animal of china since chi- nese culture began, was found in immense quantities, but in some places andersson found remains of recent animals now locally extinct. considerable surface changes have taken place in some sites since their deposition. in a loess country, however, denudation sometimes takes place at a rapid rate. southern area.—the southern extent of both this culture and the preceding one is not yet known, and the rude neolithic is not at present clearly established in central china. southeastern asia seems to constitute a separate archaeological province, sepa- rate certainly from the mediterranean region and on the whole from the countries to the immediate west. although the brothers sarasin seem to have linked up the archaeology of ceylon both with that of india and some parts of the malay archipelago, suggesting a culture which in europe would be considered late palaeolithic, elsewhere such evidence is lacking. in the malay peninsula numerous polished stone implements have been dis- covered and there is evidence to suggest that at least some were in use contemporaneously with metals, some authorities suggest- ing both bronze and iron. earlier or stratified deposits, which probably exist, remain as yet to be discovered. special attention has been directed to this region, owing to the discovery of pithe- canthropus erectus and other primitive skulls in java, but in spite of considerable researches in that island the history of palaeolithic culture in that region has yet to be written. indo-china.—indo-china has been more thoroughly explored. a careful examination of a number of caves has not led to the discovery of any ancient animal remains comparable cither to those of mongolia, india or europe. the fauna of the caves is essentially recent, terrestrial molluscs being especially promi- nent, all belonging to species which still survive in the same re- gion. the industry associated with the early caves is of rude technique, although pottery is found. the implements have not the finish which is characteristic of some of those belonging to the earlier neolithic of manchuria, and have been considered by some to be actually palaeolithic. the fauna, however, contra- archaeology dicts this and they must be definitely considered to be neolithic. certain cranial fragments have been discovered associated with the industry, and their reconstruction has revealed a type of man akin to the modern melanesians (see races of mankind). this industry closes very abruptly and there is no transitional period between this and the succeeding or “ classical neolithic ” period of indo-china. this culture has a wide distribution and extends as far as and probably beyond the southern frontiers of modern china and westwards into india. but its full extension has not yet been explored and it is not possible to express its exact limits. it is certainly a recent neolithic, but the attempts which have been made to date it, especially by estimating the effects of annual increase of fluviatile deposits, by which means a date several centuries anterior to our era has been arrived at, have not received any general acceptance. we have a well-marked culture which is characteristic of an archaeological province, which must be, in the present state of our knowledge, considered entirely separate from the other cul- tures so far considered. the technique shows a very considerable experience in the art of stone working, especially in the form of the axes which have a characteristic shape. they are rectangular in form and in many specimens are worked with a shoulder, the part farthest from the blade thus forming a tongue for hafting. the bracelets made of shell also show considerable skill in the handling of materials. the origin of this highly developed culture is at present un- known. recent workers are inclined to regard it as not being indigenous to the area in which it is at present known, but as being introduced suddenly by some great ethnic movement which drove out the former melanesian makers of the rude earlier neolithic culture. the local transition is too great, as at present explored, to permit any suggestion of the peaceful penetration of an alien culture, but further excavations in neighbouring re- gions may throw light on the transition. it does not seem pos- sible at present to link up the various neolithic periods of south- eastern asia with those of the northern part of the continent, but it would appear that there must be a line of contact between the chalcolithic of northern and central china and the neolithic of indo-china somewhere in southern china. sites have, how- ever, at present not been reported. (see mongolia.) bibl1ograpity.—p. teilhard de chardin, l’anthropologie, vol. 33 (1923); and e. licent, zd., vol. 25 (1925), (china and indo-china); r. torii, jour. coll. sct. tokyo imp. uniz., vol. 36 (1914), cmon- golia and manchuria); h. matsumoto, amer. anthropologist, vol. 23 (1921); k. hamada and h. hasebe, rep. slrchaeological research, department of literature. kyoto imperial university, japan (1920); j. g. andersson, palaeontologia sinica, series d (1923 onwards); hl. bryn, yoer (1922); v. christian, anthropos (1921-2); and mitth. anikrop. ges. wien (1923); l. h. d. buxton, afan (1925), (chalcolithic in china); id., the peoples of asia (1925); m. boule, les hommes fossiles (1923), (anthropology of early man in the far east; english trans. by j. e. ritchie and j. ritchie, 1923). (l. h. d. b.) xv. oceania and easter island introduction and general.—in the latter part of the 18th cen- tury permanent contact with european settlers was established and induced a rapid transition from the stone to the steel age. previously writing was unknown in the area, if we except the pictographic “ script,” as yet imperfectly explained, of easter l., and in spite of the astonishingly high development of oral tradi- tion in polynesia and of the occasional accounts of earlicr euro- pean navigators from the 16th century onward, the pre-european period must be regarded as, in the main, prehistoric. imperfection of record. — although it is improbable that any of the more important monuments have entirely escaped obser- vation and record, the greater part of the area has never been properly surveyed in an archaeological sense, and the published records available for many islands are meagre and of too unequal value to allow of any final correlation. the only islands of which detailed surveys have been published are easter, the australs, the marquesas, hawaii (some islands), the carolines (ponape and kusaie) and, in part, new zealand and the chathams. surveys of tonga, rapa-iti and some smaller islands (fanning, 189 malden, christmas, etc.) are now (1926) in preparation by the bishop museum, honolulu. : absence of palaeolithic culture —owing to the character of the climate, and the complete absence of pottery in polynesia, the materials for archaeological study are practically limited to stone tools and monuments. no evidence of a palaeolithic culture has been found in any part of oceania. the prevailing tools are every- where axes or adzes of stone (occasionally also shell), polished wholly or in part, although flaked obsidian was also used in certain islands where it occurred (e.g., easter, new zealand, new britain), and roughly flaked quarrying tools bearing a superficial resemblance to palacolithic hand-axes are found in easter island. judged by its tools, the prehistoric culture of the area belongs entirely to the neolithic period. divisions.—the ethnographical division into melanesia and polynesia holds good, in the main, for archacology. in the former region adzes are of the “ celt ” type and rounded or sublenticular in section; in the latter they are predominantly straight-edged and angular in section, and further subdivided into a tanged and tangless type, characteristic of east and west polynesia respec- tively. the distribution of monuments ts in substantial agree- ment with that of the tools, and the elaborate structures of ma- sonry characteristic of polynesia scarcely occur west of fiji, where rude heterogencous megaliths are the rule. exceptions in the solomon and banks is. maybe regarded as relics of poly- nesian migrations eastwards, or as due to later reflex movements. absence of stratified sites ——no stratified sites showing culture sequence, except in a minor degree in new zealand, have been found. the habit of making permanent funerary offerings seems to have been little developed, and grave-goods, where discovered, do not differ markedly from artifacts of recent date. ‘only in parts of melanesia has the occurrence of deposits distinct in character from the products of the historic inhabitants been observed. polynesia in polynesia there is little evidence of a succession of cultures; monuments and implements represent at most an earher and higher phase of the culture that continued into historic times. exceptions do occur, however; adzes of distinctively melanesian — type, found in tahiti and easter j.,,and the carvings of bird- headed men in the latter, suggest the possibility of a pre-poly- nesian occupation of parts of eastern oceania by the negroid race. the presence of a strong negroid strain in the inhabitants of eastern polynesia is doubtful evidence in the same direction, since it may quite probably be due to racial intermixture during the polynesian migrations through melanesia and not to fusion in the islands in which it is found. eastern polynesia.—in all the island groups east of tonga and samoa, without a single important exception, occur the re- mains, now more or less ruined, of megalithic structures, the sacred places or marae of the polynesians. these consist typically of paved rectangular enclosures, surrounded by stone walls, and containing one or more rectangular stone platforms, sometimes, as in tahiti, of stepped pyramidal form. ‘these elements were variously combined and differ in details of construction, contour and size. thus in the marquesas the walls are low or absent, in the australs the platforms are generally lacking, while in tahiti and hawaii all features are generally present. the platforms were faced with large boulders or hewn blocks of stone or coral, some- times weighing many tons, and often neatly fitted in regular courses, although mortar was never employed. the core con- sisted of earth or rubble, and sometimes contained burial pits or vaults. platforms served also as substructures for sacred houses of perishable material, for the exposure of the dead, as sacrificial altars, etc. many of them were originally surmounted by large figures of wood or stone in conventionalised human form. the stone figures, some still z# sit#z, are found in hawaii (necker), easter [., pitcairn, tahiti, the australs (raivavai) and in the marquesas, where they exactly resemble those carved in wood. in the marquesas, platforms, which always had vertical sides, were also much used for secular purposes, both in public assembly 190 places (tohua) as seats for the spectators of dances, and as founda- tions for the ordinary dwelling-houses. the extreme develop- ment of terraces and platforms in the latter islands is undoubt- edly due to the scarcity of level ground in the steep and narrow valleys, and to the abundance of suitable boulders and easily worked volcanic stone. the largest recorded platform, that of oborea, in tahiti, now almost destroyed, measured go x 24 yd. at the base, and rose in to or 11 steps to a height of about 50 ft.; but in general these structures did not exceed 12 ft. in height. the antiquity of particular structures cannot be determined from internal evidence, but they were presumably built by ancestors of the historical polynesians, who on traditional evi- dence did not reach the area earlier than the 7th century a.d. the fact that they occur in similar form in all groups, including tahiti and hawaii, which remained without intercommunication after the great voyages of the 13th and 14th centuries, as well as on intermediate islands, afterwards uninhabited, like malden and fanning, shows that the type must have been fully developed by the time of these voyages. many were still in use when dis- covered, and some were even constructed in the historic period. easter istand.—in easter i., where large trees were absent, stone construction attained its maximum development. the coast 1s almost surrounded by stone terraces (aku), associated with burial vaults, the largest being some 300 ft. long and 15 ft. high; on these platforms, and scattered about the island, stood hundreds of monolithic statues, now overthrown, ranging from 6 to upwards of 30 ft. in height, and crowned originally with “hats ” of red tuff. some of these were still standing and ap- parently worshipped when discovered in 1722. stone houses with partially corbelled roofs are found here only in oceania, and the numerous carvings of bird-headed men on rocks and statues are unique in polynesia. the maraes and stone figures of pitcairn, uninhabited when found, bear some resemblance to those of easter island. pitcairn i. has traces of a former polynesian settlement tn maraes and figures somewhat re- sembling those of easter island. large stone axes of exceptional type have been dug up in the soil. other small islands, found uninhabited, but bearing evidence of former polynesian settle- ment, include palmerston, flint, malden, christmas, fanning, necker (hawaii). samoa and tonga.—in samoa and tonga typical walled maraes are not found, but the occurrence of stone temple and burtal platforms in the former, and sepulchral mounds contain- ing stone cists in the latter have been recorded. in the mountain- ous interior of upolu (samoa) is a group of upright basalt slabs on a paved floor (o le fale-o-le-fe ’e), evidently the supports of a former house or temple, while in savaii there are remains of roads and raised causeways elaborately engineered, but long disused and partly destroyed by an overflow of lava. the most striking examples of true megaliths are the two trilithons on tongatabu (tonga), 15 and 30 ft. high respectively, the lintel stone being mortised into the two uprights in one case, and surmounted by a stone bowl in the other. a tradition ascribes the erection of the former to a chief of the 14th century in con- nection with a kava feast. equally remarkable are the terraced “tombs of the kings ” (angi), which are faced with hewn coral blocks measuring up to 22 ft. in length. stone fortifications and petroglyphs —stone fortifications occur on many islands, and reach their highest development in the terraced entrenchments and solid stone towers on the mountains of rapaiti. of the petroglyphs, representing conventional hu- man and animal figures, concentric circles, etc., which are found abundantly in hawaii and the marquesas, some by their situa- tion seem to have had religious significance, while others are ‘“ travellers’ marks ”’; but many are of recent date. new zealand.—the final settlement of new zealand by poly- nesian immigrants from rarotonga in the 14th century was pre- ceded by an earlier branch of the same race, possibly also by people of melanesian affinities. archaeology throws little light on this question. the earthwork and stone fortifications belong for the most part to maori culture, as do probably the pit dwell- ings and terraces of the pelorus and auckland districts and the archaeology artificial caves and figures carved in the soft tuff of rotorua. excavations in otago have shown that the culture of the early moa hunters, which includes flake implements of quartzite and obsidian and rock paintings, did not differ essentially from that of the historical maori. curious figures incised in a sandstone pit in auckland and rock-carvings in the kaingaroa plains repre- senting canoes of maori type are among the more interesting recent discoveries. the stone implements of the extinct moriori resemble maori types, with the exception of tanged obsidian blades; tree-carvings and much weathered bird figures incised on cliffs have been reported. micronesia the most important monuments of micronesia are found in the caroline is., where both on ponape and kusaie extensive groups of buildings intersected by canals were constructed on artificially enlarged reefs protected by sea walls. they take the form of rectangular paved courtyards, frequently in contiguous clusters, surrounded by massive walls, constructed by laying long columnar blocks of basalt lengthwise and crosswise in alter- nate layers. these walls rise in places to a height of more than 20 {t., but were not roofed. the enclosures formerly contained houses of perishable material, traces of which remain; also plat- forms, terraced or pyramidal, in which were sepulchral vaults roofed with coral or basalt slabs. the most striking and best preserved of these structures is the royal cemetery of nan tauach at matolenim (ponape), which stands in a double enclosure and contains four burial chambers. enclosed burial platforms of a somewhat similar type occur farther west in yap and the bunaj islands. they have certain points in common with the marae of polynesia, to which they are possibly related. although the date at which these ‘‘ sacred cities ” of the carolines were begun is not clear, they were still inhabited at the time of their discovery, and the tradition of how they were constructed by means of inclined planes of tree trunks survives. the stone pounders, and shell and other objects found in the tombs, do not suggest a high antiquity. in the marianne is. occur groups of conical pillars, built of cemented coral slabs, and surmounted by hemispherical capitals. these are always arranged in two parallel rows, and presumably served as house supports; a burial has, however, been reported in one of the capitals. the largest, in tinian, are 15 ft. in height with capitals six or seven ft. in diameter. melanesia in various parts of melanesia are found relics of a prehistoric culture or cultures, which it is as yet impossible to date or cor- relate satisfactorily. an important region covers the east end of new guinea, new britain and the adjacent archipelago, where the remains found include ornamented pottery (somewhat sim- ilar to that of prehistoric japan), engraved shells, obsidian im- plements and stone pestles and mortars, some of which occur at a considerable depth in river gravels and all of which are quite distinct from the products of recent inhabitants. in the same re- gion, but within a more limited area, are low stone circles, lines and heaps of stones, now used as squatting places and, in part at least, of recent origin. rock paintings and engravings are numer- ous in the district behind port moresby, some of them coated with a film of calctum carbonate, indicating a certain antiquity. megaliths are widely distributed and irrigation terraces are found throughout melanesia. in the solomon is. (bougainville and san cristoval) upright stones occur singly and in groups; in san cristoval some villages are bordered with stone walls or platforms, and numerous stone-faced and earth mounds—con- taining shafts leading to burial chambers, and sometimes sur- mounted by stone statues, small dolmens, or upright stones— are still in use. they may be related to polynesian burial plat- forms. their form and the mortuary customs associated with them have led to a comparison with early egyptian mastabas; but the supposed resemblance of the pig-tail figures to egyptian royal statues seems too remote to justify the emphasis laid upon it. in the new hebrides the antiquities include menhirs, stone sacrificial ‘‘ tables” or dolmens, walls and high platforms, and archaeology an obsolete type of pottery. there is an exceptional develop- ment of stone walls and buildings in the banks is., but some of these are of recent construction. in new caledonia stone statues (in caves in lifu) and a few “‘ dolmens or trilithons ”’ have been reported. petroglyphs are common to all these groups, and par- ticularly numerous in new caledonia, where they take the form of human and animal figures, spirals and other patterns. some of the better structures may be attributed to reflex polynesian in- fluence which has affected many of these islands in comparatively recent times; the xanga of fiji so closely resemble polynesian marae as to leave no doubt of their common origin. migrations—negrito and negroid races were undoubtedly the first to arrive in the pacific and occupy the melanesian area, and may possibly have spread as far as easter island. oral traditions, supported by botanical and linguistic evidence, indicate that the ancestors of the mixed polynesian race set out from the asiatic continent (probably india) in the latter part of the rst millenium b.c., and after a period of settlement in the indonesian archipelago proceeded in at least two main streams of migration by way of melanesia or micronesia to fiji, which they reached in about the sth century a.d. thence eastern polynesia and new zealand were settled in successive voyages during the 7th to 14th centuries. hawaii seems to have been reached first by a direct migration from indonesia, and subse- quently by a branch of the main wave from southeastern polyne- sia; this conclusion is supported by archaeological study which recognises two distinct types of keiau (marae), the later of which corresponds with the taendi purgu type. hypotheses—the hypothesis that oceania served as a high- way for the diffusion of an “archaic civilisation,” originating in egypt in the 3rd millenium b.c., and including the practices of sun worship, mummification and the building of megalithic struc- tures; and that the stone monuments of oceania are attribut- able to the bearers of this culture complex, has been a subject of considerable controversy. if tradition is right in asserting that polynesian migrations did not reach the eastern pacific before the 6th or 7th centuries a.d., and if, as appears probable, these people were the builders of the monuments in that area, it is apparent that they cannot have reached america in time to introduce civilisation to that continent. on the other hand, since they were in contact with asia till a late period, they can hardly have escaped the influence of old-world culture or have failed to carry some of its elements with them into the pacific. the absence of pottery has been used by others as an argument for the very early isolation of the polynesians; but this art might easily have been lost as a result of prolonged wanderings among coral islands, where the material with which to practice it was not available. the view that oceania was peopled by migration from america finds little support at the present time. brptrograrny.—w. ellis, polynesian researches (1832-4); f. w. christian, the caroline islands (1899); r. parkinson, dretssig jahre in der stidsee (1907); g. thilenius, ergebnisse der stidsee-expedition, vol. 2, b. 4 “ kusae "’ (1908-10); w. h. r. rivers, the history of melanesian society (1914); s. routledge, the mystery of easter island (1919); s. p. smith, hawaiki, polynesian traditions (auck- land, n. z., 1921); w. j. perry, the children of the sun, with extensive bibliography (1923); f. speiser, fiknographische materialien aus den neuen ifebriden (1923); c. e. fox, the threshold of the pacific, solomons (1924); see also j. s. kubary, ‘* die ruinen auf der insel ponape,’ jour. mus. godeffroy, vol. 3, part 6 and 8 (hamburg, 1873, etc.); iniernationales archiv fiir ethnographie, vol. 2, “ fiji” (1889), vol. 10, “‘ tahiti ” (1897); journal of the polynesian society, new zealand, vol. 1-6 (1892-7), 12 (1903), 15-20 (1906-11), 30-34 (1921-5); journal (royal) anthropological institute, vol. 28 “ponape ” (1898), 30 “ pitcairn” (1900), 32 '' tonga” (1902), 42 and 49 “ new guinea ” (1912 and 1919), 50 “‘ easter ” (1920), 51 “ tahiti, australs ” (1921); afan, ‘ new guinea " (1904, 1908, 1915, 1922-4), ‘' new caledonia "’ (1916); anthropos ‘‘ new britain,” vol. 4-6 (1909-11), 9-11 (1914-6); g. fowke, “ hlawaii,” bureau of american hihnology, bull. 76 (1921-2); bishop museum, honolulu, publications, bull. 12, k. p. emory, ‘‘ lanai ”’ (1924); bull. 23, r. linton, ‘ marquesas " (1925). (eh. j. br.) xvi. north america pueblo area —the greatest activity in archaeological research in northern america has been in arizona, new mexico, colorado, iqi utah and nevada—the territory of the ancient pueblos—partly because its ceramic remains afford an exceptional basis for de- termining the succession of cultures. the excavations by a. v. kidder of phillips academy at pecos, by neil m. judd of the national geographic society, at pueblo bonito and pueblo del arroyo, and by f. w. hodge, of the museum of the american indian, heye foundation, at hawikuh, each of whom has de- voted six years to these researches in new mexico, had for their chief purpose a determination by stratigraphic studies of the sequences of the pottery types found at those sites. | other studies of a generally similar nature were conducted by n. c. nelson for the american museum of natural history in ruins of the tewa, tano and keres indians of the rio grande drainage in new mexico, especially in galisteo valley, which have been productive of much information on the stages of pottery development from the earliest period until the pueblo rebellion of 1680; and by earl h. morris during several seasons at the great ruin near aztec, new mexico, the site of which has been pur- chased and presented to the government asa national monument. during three years in cafion del muerto, arizona, morris re- covered a remarkable series of sandals and other textiles. there has been work by erich schmidt at an ancient pueblo site near miami, southern arizona; by fewkes in various important pueblo culture centres, such as the mesa verde national park and the hovenweep region of colorado, the mimbres valley of new mexico, the navaho national monument and the black falls ruins in arizona. excavations by e. l. hewett of the school of american re- search at chettro kettle in chaco cafion and elsewhere in new mexico; by hodge and lothrop at kechipauan, near zuhi in the same state; by j. a. jeancon and f. h. h. roberts in southern colorado; by jeancon in taos valley and the ancient tewa country of northern new mexico; by wesley bradfield of the school of american research near the santa rita mines in southern new mexico; by the cosgroves for two years in mimbres valley for the peabody museum of harvard university; the joint researches conducted by the bureau of american ethnology and the school of american research, under hodge and hewett respectively, in the rito de los frijoles, the pajarito park, and the jemez valley, new mexico (the south- west museum of los angeles joining in the jemez work a year later), and the discoveries by dr. wilson for the commercial museum of philadelphia in tewa ruins of the pajarito have all added to the sum of knowledge respecting this important archae- ological field, while the systematic work by kidder and guernsey for phillips academy and the peabody museum of harvard university, respectively, in caves, cliff-dwellings and other habi- tation sites and burial places, during several seasons, have resulted in defining the four earliest periods of southwestern culture. byron cummings of the university of utah and the university of arizona, judd of the national museum, and j. l. nusbaum of the museum of the american indian, have worked at the arch- aeology of northern arizona and southern utah. walter hough of the national museum has explored pit-dwellings near luna, new mexico. of a more or less kindred character were the ob- servations on ancient remains near flagstaff and in the grand cafion, arizona, by s. a. barrett and g. a. west of the mil- waukee public museum. the reputed finding in the grand cafion of ancient pictographs representing mammoths, seriously exploited by a local museum in california, has not been ac- cepted. in 1924-6 m. r. harrington, for the museum of the american indian, conducted excavations at a series of early pueblo ruins known as pueblo grande de nevada, in south- eastern nevada, of great archaeological importance because the remains pertain to the most westerly extension of the pueblo culture area yet discovered. southern states—perhaps less spectacular in results. but of equal importance, have been the excavations conducted in the southern states by several institutions, and notably by mir. clarence b. moore, whose researches in conjunction with the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia have been char- acterised as the most important of their kind ever undertaken by 192 private means within the united states. mr. moore devoted each field season during many years to the excavation of hun- dreds of mounds along the streams and the florida coast, the re- sults of his observations being published as the units of work were finished. the bureau of american ethnology also explored mounds in alabama and tennessee and at weeden i. near st. petersburg, florida, where culture stratification was observed by fewkes. a season was spent in a study of the historic nacoochee mound of the cherokee by heye, hodge and pepper, in georgia, in 1915, under the joint auspices of the bureau of american ethnology and the museum of the american indian. of great importance to the elucidation of the culture history of the cherokee are the results of excavations by m. r. harrington in tennessee for the museum of the american indian, which have been published, as likewise has his memoir on some important caddo sites in arkansas, explored under the same auspices. of special interest to archaeologists, by reason of its great size, is the etowah mound in georgia, the systematic excavation of which, commenced by moorehead for phillips academy, promises note- worthy results. the same institution has explored mounds also in mississippi with a view to determining relations. since its establishment in 1909, the alabama anthropological society has located more than 200 aboriginal sites within the state and has explored about a fourth of these. on the alabama and coosa rivers evidences of an advanced culture, identical with that revealed by moore at moundville, have been uncovered, and certain artifacts suggest mexican influence in this area. of more or less related interest, by reason of cultural contact with the adjacent mainland in prehistoric times, are the researches carried on in the west indies by fewkes for the bureau of ameri- can ethnology and the museum of the american indian, by de booy and huckerby for the latter museum, and especially by m. r. harrington for the same institution in cuba, with results of outstanding importance. until 1918 texas had been almost neglected as a field of archaeological research, but the bureau of american ethnology and the university of texas, represented by j. e. pearce, have done much to elucidate the problems of the early inhabitants of that state. everywhere over the limestone region are found numerous and extensive kitchen middens which show evidence of a hunter culture only. in the timbered region of eastern texas are evidences of an early mound-builder culture and of the relatively settled village culture of the historic period. along the streams of central texas are many old camp sites which reveal evidences of a culture superior to that of the kitchen middens. in the trans-pecos region a low form of pueblo culture has been revealed, with evidences of cave life here and there, and in the panhandle traces of a crude form of stone buildings have been found by moorehead, who regards them of pueblo origin. cave work.—special efforts have long been made to trace the remains of very early man in the united states; and although various reports of such occurrence in association with fossil re- mains have been made from time to time, no indubitable evidence had, up to 1926, been adduced. with a view to obtaining scientific data on the subject, much cave work has been done, notably in the ozark mountains of arkansas-missouri, by the bureau of american ethnology, by nelson for the american museum of natural history, and by m. r. harrington for the museum of the american indian, and also by nelson in kentucky caves. loud, of the university of california, and harrington have also conducted important excavations in an anciently inhabited cave near lovelock, nevada. but in none of these investigations has anything been found to indicate the former presence of people not readily identifiable as american indians. the delaware val- ley near trenton, new jersey, has long been the scene of re- searches looking to the establishment of evidence of early man in the vicinity, the latest studies there being those of leslie spier and alanson skinner for the american museum of natural history, who found a pre-pottery argillite culture underlying the later culture of the historic delaware indians, and demonstrated that arrowheads and natural pebbles were impartially deposited in sand by a stream which was probably not much later than the glacial retreat. anthropologists demand incontrovertible evi- archaeology dence of the existence of very early man in america, however, and holmes and hrdlicka of the national museum have been es- pecially active in combating all suggestions of such, based on casual or superficial observation or on fortuitous associations. mound region.—the peabody museum of harvard univer- sity in 1g11 finished the exploration of the extensive aboriginal cemetery at madisonville, ohio, and a new survey of the grea’ serpent mound in that state was made. in co-operation with the university of illinois, moorehead of phillips academy con- ducted investigations of the cahokia mound group in jiinai., the largest in the united states, whose larger earthworks are now preserved as a state park. for twenty-five years the ohio state archaeological and historical society, under w. c. mills, has conducted intensive excavations throughout the state, special attention being devoted since tg10 to the harness mound, the seip group and tremper mound in the lower scioto valley, all belonging to the hopewell culture; the feurt mounds and village- sites of the fort ancient culture; the westenhaven mound, prob- ably of early hopewell culture; the mound city group, and the celebrated hopewell group, which in 1925 revealed, among other remarkable objects, artificial copper noses on two skeletons and a necklace of 320 pearls. various sites in butler county and along the scioto were investigated, and flint ridge, the source of mate- rial for making arrow- and spear-points and knives, was examined. the milwaukee public museum has been remarkably active in archaeological work in wisconsin under the guidance of s. a. barrett. the kratz creek mound group in marquette county was investigated and 53 mounds opened, with important results; the extensive old site at aztalan was uncovered, revealing in- fluence from the coast of the gulf of mexico; and mound groups in shawano, oconto, green, lake and marquette counties, and at shorewood, a milwaukee suburb, were likewise explored. investigations of old kansa and other sites in nebraska, and still other sites in lowa, were carried on by the peabody museum of harvard university. in south dakota, w. w. stirling, for the national museum, explored four of ten village sites on the missouri river, three of which were arikara and one the historic village visited by lewis and clark in 1804. the wisconsin archae- ological society has located, since 1911, nearly 5,000 mounds in 21 counties, in addition 10 large numbers of village, camp and workshop sites, planting grounds, cemeteries, flint and pipestone quarries, lead diggings, sacred springs, petroglyphs, etc., and a number of single mounds, mound groups, burial places and other aboriginal remains have been explored. additional mounds and mound groups have been preserved for public use and marked with tablets at various places, and a large part of the ancient indian enclosure of aztalan has been acquired by the society and is now the aztalan mound park under state control. pacific coust.—the efforts of the university of california have been devoted mainly to the archaeology of its own state. a be- ginning has been made on the systematic recording of the local- ised private collections and on the methodical comparison of all this material by areas. actual excavating has been done in strategic points in the upper san joaquin valley, on san fran- cisco bay, in the stockton-lodi region and on humboldt bay. looking toward the establishment of connections, excavation has also been conducted in the willamette valley at albany, and on the columbia river, principally at sauvies i. and the dalles, in oregon, and in western nevada; and reconnaissance trips have been made into the imperial valley, california, and into lower california. excavation of a site at santa barbara by j. p. harrington for the bureau of american ethnology and the museum of the american indian revealed typical chumash artifacts, together with skeletal remains which at first were thought to be of extreme age, but more deliberate scientific study shows them to have no features not characteristic of late pacific coast indians. new york and new england.—on behalf of the new york state museum, arthur c. parker investigated many sites. one of the late historical period at port jervis revealed character- istic articles of european provenience. a pre-colonial site at richmond mills, ontario county, examined with the co-operation archaeology of the l. h. morgan chapter of the state archaeological soci- ety, proved to be seneca. a site of similar culture near factory hollow, in the same county, probably had been occupied by the richmond mills people in early colonial times. a pre-colonial site near the outlet of owasco lake had belonged to an algonkian tribe. a site in brant, on the cattaraugus reservation, had been occupied by the seneca at the beginning of the colonial pcriod. other sites investigated were the seneca village of gannagaro, near the town of victor, which was destroyed by the french in 1687, an algonkian fishing village at green point near catskill, a site near vine valley, on canandaigua lake, with remains simi- lar to the ohio mound region, a quarry site and workshop south of coxsackie, covering a hill a mile long, an algonkian site near four mile point, on hudson river, which exhibited contact with new england. several years were devoted to an archaeological survey of the state and the charting of sites, and much light has been shed on the chronological sequence of the early aboriginal occupancy. in 1925 the rochester municipal museum, under mr. parker’s direction, conducted an expedition on lamoka lake, schuyler county, where an early, pre-pottery algonkian fishing village site was uncovered. considerable activity was mani- fested by the museum of the american indian in archacological researches especially in and about new york city—at throgs neck, clason point and inwood (where skinner conducted im- portant excavations), on long island and staten island, and at croton point, as well as at several up-state localities, notably on frontenac island, in cayuga lake, where d. a. cadzow uncov- ered a prehistoric algonkian site. in new england, phillips academy, under moorehead, con- ducted many expeditions during 12 seasons, mapping upward of 1,000 shell-heaps and village sites and go cemeteries. about 50 sites were explored. reports on the archaeology of maine and other areas were published, and a correlation of cultures by means of a study of type specimens is in progress. the peabody museum of harvard university has surveyed an interesting old earthwork in the sudbury valley, massachusetts, an indian burial-place was explored at dartmouth in the same state, and excavation has been conducted at old sites in charles river valley and on martha’s vineyard. the peabody museum of natural history in yale university has done considerable field-work in connecticut, under the immediate direction of g. g. maccurdy, and in 1928 carroll g. alton, assistant, dugout a camp-site on thames river near norwich, which dates from the early contact with whites. canada.—although the exigencies of the world war retarded progress in archaeological research, the victoria memorial museum at ottawa has done much in field reconnaissance and in recording and publishing results since rg11. following the first extensive exploration, conducted in 1912 at an [roquoian site near roebuck, ontario, by w. j. wintemberg, archaeological reconnaissances have been made in manitoba by w. b. nicker- son; in ontario by wintemberg; in nova scotia, new brunswick, alberta, saskatchewan, british columbia (including queen charlotte is.) by harlan i. smith, and on barter l, alaska, by d. jenness. 31bliograpity.—annual reports and bulletins of the bureau of american ethnology, washington; annual reports of the smithso- nian institution (including the united states national muscum), \washington: (1) indian notes, (2) indian notes and monographs, (3) contributions, (4) leaflets, of the museum of the american incdlian. heye foundation, new york: (1) anthropological papers, (2) natural history, of the american museum of natural ilistory, new york; american anthropologist, lancaster, pa., and menasha, wis.; reports of the peabody museum of american archacology and ethnology, cambridge, mass.; certain mounds and village sites in ohio, ohio archaeological and historical society, columbus; publications of the dept. of archaeology, philips academy, :an- dover, mass., especially a. v. kidder, an introduction te the study of southwestern archaeology (with bibliography, new haven, 1924); wisconsin archaeologist, madison, wis.; papers of the school of american research and el palacio, santa fe, new mexico; bulletins of the new york state museum, albany; proceedings of the inter- national congress of americanists; bulletins and year book of the public museum of the city of milwaukee; university of california publications in american archaeology and ethnology, berkeley; 193 researches and transactions, new york state archaeological assn., rochester; colorado magazine, state historical and natural history society, denver; arrow points, alabama anthropological assn., montgomery; art and archaeology, washington. (f. ho.) xvii. mexico and central america important advances have been made in our knowledge of the archacology of mexico and the adjacent central america since toro as the result of first, the discovery of a stratification of archaeological remains in the valley of mexico; second, the decipherment of dates inscribed on mayan monuments in yu- caitan and adjacent parts of mexico, guatemala and nonduras, and the reduction of these dates into days of the gregorian calendar and years of the christian era; third, reclassifications in language introducing new data on the origin of various tribes; fourth, demonstrations in the ficld of technology and art estab- lishing time levels in industry and disclosing the extent of ancient commerce; filth, reinterpretations in myths and legends now believed to deal in part with historical characters. the facts presented in the explanations of tyler and lehmann must now be posed in historical succession covering 5,000 or 6,000 years. stratification of remains.—the stratification was first ob- served at atzcapotzalco, near mexico city, in r9ro, and later was investigated by the [international school of archacology at col- huacan and near-by sites. in the top soil were found objects of aztec manufacture, and under these, to the depth of several feet, were the much finer products of the toltecs. finally in a deep stratum of water-worn gravels were found little clay fig- urines of men and women, made in a peculiar style, together with pottery strikingly different in shape and design from that of the upper layers. similar figurines were also found on the tops of denuded hills about lake tezcuco and were recognised as belonging to an archaeological type called tarascan, which has been re-named archaic. the discovery yielded three major horizons: archaic, toltec (with obvious affiliations to the mayan of the central american lowlands), znd finally aztec or chichimec, corresponding to the civilisation found by cortes. the archaic remains belonged to a village-dwelling population acquainted with agriculture and weaving as well as with pottery-making, and it therefore became necessary to postulate a still earlier culture of pre-agricultural type, that of the first immigrants into the new world. these are believed to have entered america via the siberia-alaska bridge in lower neolithic times. remains of these first nomads are rare in mexico and central america, but are found elsewhere. archaic culture the archaic culture was the outgrowth of the domestication of maize, beans, squashes and other plants indigenous to the arid lands of the american tropics. the little figurines of men and women have been interpreted as expressions of a primitive religion in which the little men stood for success in war and the chase and the much more common statuettes of women were fetishes of the fertility of mother earth. these little figurines can be traced through slight variations in style from mexico into colombia, thence eastward across venezucla as well as south- ward to peru. archaic art underlies the higher expressions af civilisation in all tropical america, and the plants domesticated at this time furnish the economic explanation of growth in pop- ulation and increasing complexity of social organisation. the ultimate economic values of this nuclear civilisation of ancient america are incalculably vast. the archaic culture lasted for several thousand years, the indications of age being, first, the thickness of deposits; second, the high degree of domestication in plants, which are carried further from their wild state than the domesticated plants of the old world. some botanists have insisted that american agricul- ture is older than that of asia, but the archaeological evidences hardly support this conclusion. the first independent domestt- cation of plants may be on nearly the same historical plane in the two hemispheres. new indications of age for the archaic t see archaeology (5.677) and mexico (18.329). 194 culture are found in sites near mexico city, where ancient lava flows have covered villages of this period. mayan cilronology the mayas (see 17.931) may have established themselves in the wet lowlands of eastern central america as early as 1000 b.c. the archaeological evidence indicates, however, that their beginnings were in the piedmontal zone adjacent to the dry re- gion of the archaic civilisation. in this zone transitional types of pottery are found which are lacking in the heart of the mayan territory. the early mayas modified the important food plants of the archaic civilisation till these plants would grow under conditions of heavy rainfall, and they succeeded in domesticat- ing a number of new plants, such as cacao. the sources of mayan history are several brief chronicles pre- served in spanish writing by educated indians together with abundant inscriptions on early monuments. the chronicles reach back to 176 a.d. in a count of time periods called katuns, which are really periods of 7,200 days, corresponding to the basic value of the fourth position in the place-value notation of num- bers used by the mayas. this numerical system is vigesimal instead of decimal except that in the third place we find 360 in- stead of 400 and the katun is 20 times 360. on the ancient monu- ments the dates are the number of days from a beginning day, and the terminal days of katuns are emphasised. the german school of americanist science led by seler paid marked attention to aztec sources and interpreted mayan ar- chaeology in the light of their mexican studies. the american school undertook the study of mayan sources on their own mer- its under the leadership of brinton, goodman, bowditch and thomas. in r910 morley suggested a correlation of the katuns of the chronicles with the katuns of the ancient inscriptions on the evidence of an inscription at chichen itza. at the same time spinden showed that when monuments at copan were arranged in stylistic order, the dates fell in similar order, indi- cating that these dates probably declared the chronological posi- tions. the early correlation of the katuns proved to be slightly in error since the katuns had been counted as current rather than elapsed units of time. nevertheless, the arrangement made possible relative accuracy in chronology, while the demonstra- tion of artistic sequence permitted the placing of many abbrevi- ated dates. early attempts at correlating the mayan calendar with euro- pean time counts failed to pass all tests. in 1919 spinden pub- lished a day-for-day correlation of mexican and mayan chro- nology with that of europe, and in 1924 presented astronomical proof of the correctness of the arrangement and showed that many mayan calculations deal with fixed points of the tropical year such as the solstices and equinoxes and especially with two arbitrary stations in a farmer’s year of the ancient mayas, namely, april 9 and sept. 2, reached by sunset readings along an astronomical base line at copan. this base line consists of two monuments set up on opposite sides of the valley and about four miles apart. an observer standing at the eastern monu- ment secs the sun go down directly behind the western one on the two dates given above, which are also recorded on several monuments in the ancient city. it appears that an astronomical congress was held in copan to decide formally upon these sta- tions. references to this congress are found in the mayan chron- icles as well as in traditions of the mexicans. an unknown scientist, possibly deified as the god called itz- amna, seems to have invented the mayan calendar after making a daily record of observations beginning on aug. 6 613 b.c. this date is the real zero of mayan history, although the perfected mayan calendar was not inaugurated till 580 b.c. (according to inscriptions at palenque and copan) when the new year’s day of the mayan civil year stood exactly at the winter solstice. the unknown scientist reduced a calendar of moons to a calendar of numbers. a 365-day year was constructed of 18 months of 20 days each plus 5 days. the days were counted in numerical suc- cession from a mundane era reached by counting seven baktuns, or units of the fifth numerical position, back into the past from archaeology aug. 6 613 b.c. in this manner the epoch of the mundane era was established on oct. 14 3373 b.c. the writing out of the number of days in the mayan calendar involved place-value numeration 1,000 years before this impor- tant arithmetical device was known to the old world and the mayan eral count of days preceded by 300 years the first eral count of years in the old world (the era of the seleucidae, oct. 1 312 b.c.). the unknown mayan scientist likewise invented a system of designating the days by a permutation of 13 numbers and 20 names, making a round of 260 days called the tzolkin. when this permutation of days is combined with the 365 posi- tions in the year the result is 52 365=18,980 days, called the calendar round. the mundane era is zero, 4 ahau 8 cumhu, but the zero is written 13—-0-0-o-0, as we transcribe mayan numbers in this case and the historical era is 7-0-o-o-0, ro ahau 18 zac. the 4 ahau and 10 ahau are designations of days in the permu- tation and they are declared to occupy, respectively, the 8th place in the month cumhu and the 18th place in the month zac. the mayas had a system of hieroglyphs with pictographic, ideo- graphic and phonetic elements by which days, months and many other things could be recorded. for numerals they generally used bars and dots, with the dot counting as one and the bar as five. numbers with bar-and-dot numerals in several places were commonly written in columns with the lowest place-value at the bettom. the decipherment of mayan dates discloses a remarkable astronomical science. this ancient people had obtained by ob- servation practically the modern values for the length of the tropical year, for intervals between possible eclipses and for the average periods of revolutions of several planets. they accom- plished these results because they did not invalidate their calen- dar by making leap-year corrections, but permitted the months to revolve slowly around the natural year. the proper correc- tions were accurately known but were not interpolated. the etymologies of month names and the symbolism of month hiero- glyphs are in agreement with the seasons when we put the first day of the month pop at the winter solstice, a condition which obtained about 580 b.c. at almost the same time the venus calendar started flush with the actual heliacal risings or first appearances of the planet as morning star. the mayas observed that in every period of 8 calendar years there were 5 appearances of venus as morning star, at intervals which averaged 584 days. when the 260-day tzolkin was brought into the reckoning, a grand venus permutation of 37,960 days, or 104 calendar years, was obtained. during this time the actual positions of venus moved a little more than 5 days out of agreement with the mayan civil calendar and about 30 days out of agreement with the sea- sons. the mayas observed the calendarial positions of venus and they also observed the actual positions. moreover, they held as sacred to venus certain special days in the tropical year, one being april 12, which could be occupied by heliacal rising of venus once in 243 or 25t years. on stela c at copan, this prin- cipal date is the actual one of venus’ emergence out of the sun- light, and there is a marvellous calculation covering 4,617 years which involves the moon as well as venus. the first mayan monuments with contemporary dates fall about 100 b.c. the most brilliant period of the first empire began about 400 a.d., and ended suddenly shortly after 600 a.d. at this time all the great cities, such as copan, tikal and pal- enque, were abandoned to the enveloping forest. thesudden break- down has been variously attributed to yellow fever, civil war, social decay, exhaustion of the soil and even climatic change. the mayas, greatly reduced, moved into the region back of campeche. several fine buildings and a few dates are known from this inter- mediate period. the second empire began with the re-estab- lishment of chichen itza about 960 a.p. there was a brilliant renaissance in which uxmal, izamal, kabah and labna flour- ished. then a large part of northern yucatan was subdued by the toltecs from the highlands of mexico. dates are now known for some of the finest buildings of the second empire. a second abandonment of stone-built cities took place about 100 years before the coming of the spaniards. american archaeology puate v. : aka ae o¢ *2829.9.9,4 00g .*.9 8. oc koo00gr00 on ery @.9.5 0 0% nl losi | >> 4 4’ (ab ’ es . .*.%,¢,%,9, a 8 “ ‘> ? " >. > ot %, oooo | ododoo a ee's 6 “aden ; + ry 9 se ae ee * ; 4 ve oooo aa pco 8 4, 9 ne alah aly as a"@ » (© “wide world.” lic. 1. eastern building of the nunnery, uxmal, yucatan. fic. 2. stela a, copan, honduras. fic. 3. the great turtle sculpture, ouirigua, guatemala. f1g.4. altar with inscription, copan, honduras. f1g.5. mayan inscription at quirigua, guatemala, in which the upper line is an introduction to two horizontal columns of faces of gods, with a final date corresponding to june 12 496 a.b. archalology the tolteccs the toltecs (see 26.1062) were one of several nations outside the mayan area who enjoyed thefruitsof the first empire. others were the chorotegas to the south in honduras, nicaragua and costa rica, and the ulmecs, zapotecs, mixtecs and totonecs to the west and northwest in mexico. the height of individualised culture for these secondary civilisations was between rooo and 1200 a.d. at the end they were mostly consolidated into the extensive but short-lived toltec empire under huetzin, ihuiti- mal and quetzalcoatl. the original capital of the toltecs was tula, doubtless to be identified with tcotihuacan. from here they extended their rule toward the northwest as far as the pres- ent states of zacatecas and durango and toward the southeast as far as salvador and perhaps nicaragua. they became a power in northern yucatan with chichen itza, mayapan and uxmal as the chief cities under their control. little is known about the first two rulers mentioned above. shuitimal was also called totepeuh, and is mentioned under both names in guatemalan chronicles. the third was the great quet- zalcoatl, also called topiltzin, ‘‘ our prince.” in the mayan chronicles quetzalcoatl appears as kukulcan, ‘ plumed ser- pent ’’; and as hunac ceel, “‘ great fear.” quetzalcoatl is one of the great characters of history, a compound of warrior, priest, administrator and scientist. he seems to have received his early training in yucatan, endearing himself to the mayas by several scientific achievements, of which three can be recovered. he founded the toltec era which served for later mexican chronology and which began with a day called 1 tecpatl, or flint, in the first position of the mexican month toxcatl. this was aug. 6 168 a.d., in exact correspondence with the first historical day of the mayas, but 1,781 years later. he also established the era of the sacred fire on the day 7 acatlin the year 2 acatl in coincidence with the sacred fire ceremony of the mayas. the zero day of this era was feb. 16 1196 a.d. finally, quetzalcoatl was made god of the morning star because he predicted the appearance of venus as morning star in the year 1 acatl when it rose on april 12 1208 a.d., in conformity with a famous date for this planet treated in old mayan books and on monuments at copan. as regards his political activities we know that quetzalcoatl put down a rebellion of the mayas in 1191, subduing chichen itza and making it the toltec capital of yucatan. he created orders of nobility and elaborated the coronation ceremony used in later times by most mexican and central american nations. quet- zalcoatl introduced into mexico a mild religious cult of the mayas without human sacrifice but with fasting and penance, in which the worship centred around a serpentine deity connected with the annual rains. in later times quetzalcoatl was identified with the mexican counterpart of this serpentine deity as ehecatl, ** god of the storm winds.” the new religion of quetzalcoatl brought on civil war among the toltecs, which ultimately de- stroyed their power about 1220, although some of the arts and ceremonies were maintained at cholula, colhuacan and atzcapotzalco. the ace of metals the establishment of mayan and toltec chronology fixes, within relatively narrow limits, the beginning of the metal age in central america and mexico. no specimen of metal, not even a copper stain, was observed during excavations at copan, qui- rigua and other mayan cities of the first empire. las quebradas in guatemala was actually built upon a placer mine, yet in the sluicing operations which have almost destroyed the site, no specimen of worked gold has been found. nor are any ornaments of metal, such as gorgets and bells, pictured on the early monu- ments. we therefore conclude that the metal age did not begin till after 600 a.d., yet by 1200 a.d. metal work was highly de- veloped in gold, silver, copper and various alloys. many speci- mens found at chichen itza in northern yucatan are of costa rican and colombian origin, and the technique of metal-working is the same from southern colombia to central mexico. the art was apparently introduced from south america about 1000 a.d., and underwent a rapid growth in the 500 years before the spanish 1903 conquest. recent analyses have shown that the mexicans were not ignorant of bronze and that they made many alloys, some containing lead. they were acquainted with the lost wax process of hollow casting and with a false filigree really moulded from a model of wax wire. recent publications by saville and rivet cover mexican gold work, and the former has published papers on wood carving and turquoise mosaic work, the latter probably a toltec invention. the fine ceramics of mexico and central america deserve greater attention for beauty of shape, design and colour. one kind of pottery is semi-glazed due to a suffusion of lead flux. another kind resembles cloisonne but is made with heavy pigments rather than enamel. also there is fresco pottery, moulded and carved pottery, and still another kind in which the designs are put on by a negative wax process resembling that of javanese batiks. the chichimecan period —the chichimecan period begins with the abandonment of the toltec cities about 1220 a.d. and extends to the spanish conquest. the chichimecs were tribes of rather low culture, speaking dialects of the mexican language. during the civil wars that marked the end of the toltec empire the chichimecs pressed into the valley of mexico and established themselves in small groups among the toltec survivors. after- wards the chichimecs boasted that they had begun their career of empire as pure nomads, but these claims need not be taken too seriously. the best document dealing with this period, the codex xolotl, makes xolot!, the founder of the dynasty of tezcuco, enter the abandoned territory around teotihuacan in 1224. he is pictured as a mountain brigand collecting tribute from farmers. the acolhuas, as xolotl’s chichimecs were called, became sedentary under techotlala, who founded texcuco about the same time that the aztecs, another division of chichimecs, founded tenoch- titlan. his son, ixtlilxochitl, was murdered by the famous tyrant tezozomoc of atzcapotzalco, but nezahualcoyotl re- covered the power in 1431. regnal years of the dynasty of tezcuco follow:— xolotl . 1225-1284 ixtlilxochitl . 1409-1418 nopal . 1284-1315 interregnum . 1418-1431 tlotzin . . 1315-1324 nezahualcoyotl . 1431-1472 quinatzin . 1324-1357 nezahualpilli 2 1472-1515 techotlala . 1357-1409 cacama . i515-1520 the aztecs have an unbelievable tale of a peregrination with many stops. it begins at the toltec era, on the year 1 tecpatl, corresponding to 1168. in 1325 the aztecs reached the shores of lake tezcuco, where they hved undisturbed until 1351, when they were defeated in a sanguinary battle among the reeds by the combined forces of colhucan, xaltocan and altzcapotzalco. they then became vassals of cozcoz of colhuacan and in 1364 moved to several small islands to construct tenochtitlan as their capital. after the accession of acamapichtli in 1376 the history of the aztecs is one of conquest upon conquest and of horrible excesses in human sacrifice. yet montezuma held in 1519 only a small part of the territory that quetzalcoatl had controlled in 1200 nor had the chichimecan arts yet reached the high stand- ard set by the toltecs. linguistic reclassifications.—the science of linguistics may give the historian his oldest facts because the demonstration of kindred speech in sundered tribes is proof presumptive of ancient contact. vhe number of distinct stocks of language in the new world has been greatly reduced in recent years (see puilology). the sho- shoni and pima languages are connected with the nahuan or mex- ican languages. this stock stretches from idaho to costa rica and embraces tribes that by test of culture run from lowly nomadic to highly civilised—witness the ‘‘ digger ” indians of nevada and the aztecs of mexico. the drift has plainly been toward the south, yet it is strongly indicated that some tribes of this group have been in mexico for several thousand years. the otomi languages in central mexico are joined with the chiapanecan group, mostly located in nicaragua and costa rica, indicating a southern movement of the latter, but there is evidence that the otomi moved northward instead. the incursion of wild south 196 american tribes into the isthmus of panama exerted a pressure which depopulated most of the chorotegan culture area. lehmann also joined the subtiaba language of nicaragua with the yopi of southern mexico. the yopi, like the otomi, were much given to the terrible cult of xife, god of the flayed, which likewise flour- ished in nicaragua. the subtiaba have been put into the hokan stock, which mostly comprises the very primitive tribes of cali- fornia and northern mexico, while some north american indian languages are possibly connected with the languages of eastern asia. such linguistic affiliations obviously go back long before the dawn of history. | the arguments against influences of the old world upon the new in the matter of high civilisation are very strong. the economic bases in domesticated plants are distinct, the new world makes no use of the wheel at all and the really wonder- ful scientific achievements of the mayas find no counterpart in the eastern hemisphere. brstrocrariy.— c. p. bowditch, the numeration calendar sys- tems and astrononucal knowledge of the afayas (cambrilge, mass., 1910); b. de sahagun, plates from the sahagun mlss, (museo na- cional mexico 1913); t. a. joyce, mexican archaeology (1914); s. g. morley, u.s. bureau of american ethnology, bull. 57 ‘‘ maya hiero- glyphs” (1915); e. seler, gesammelte abhandlungen, vol. 4 and 5 (1915-23); t. a. joyce, central and west indian archaeology (1916); w. lehmann, zentral amerika, teil 1,, 2 vol. (1920); s. g. morley, the inscriptions at copan, carnegie inst. of washington, pub. 219 (1920); m. gamio and others, la poblacion de valle de teotihuacan (mexico 1922), also infroduction, synthesis and conclusion of the work in english (1922); g. b. gordon, examples of maya pottery in the aiusenm, etc. (1925). see also works by h. j. spinden (vol. 6, 1913; vol. 6, no. 4, 1924); c. e. guthe (vol. 7, no. 2, 1921); a. m tozzer (vol. 9, 1921); r. ef. willson (vol. 6, no. 3, 1924), in papers of peabody afuseum, harvard, mass. (h. j. spinden’s “ maya art ” contains bibliography); a. m. tozzer (vol. 5, nos. 1-3, i911-3) in memoirs of peabody museum; and m. h. saville, publications of afuseum of american indian, heye foundation, new york city (1920, 1922, 1925). (ih. sp.*) avi. south america the archaeology of the great continent of south america is, as yet, imperfectly known, and great areas still remain to be investigated. it follows that the northwestern part of the coun- try must have been the first region settled, and the archaeology of colombia and ecuador, in the mountain region and the coast, appears to indicate two perhaps independent movements of people from middle america, profoundly influenced by the widely different environment. it is highly probable that the vast region of brazil and eastern argentina was not occupied for so long a time as the pacilic coast and the inter-andean valleys; indeed, it is reasonable to conjecture that the southern brazilian area and portions of argentina were the latest parts of the continent to be perma- nently settled, if it is considered that the logical route of early migration southward from central america was probably along the pacific coast, or through the andean valleys, or both. there seems to have been, at the time of the earliest aboriginal invasion of south america, a movement castward from panama, along the northern coast of the continent, through colombia, venezucla and the guianas, which reached the mouth of the amazon and ascended that stream; and there may also have been a contem- poraneous filtration of people southward by way of the numerous waterways which drain into the caribbean sea. ‘this movement of people would naturally have taken a much longer time, con- sidering the physical difficulties of the route, than by the less obstructed highway on the pacific side of the continent. considerable archaeological work has been carried on in ecua- dor, peru and argentina; to a lesser degree in colombia and chile, while the rest of the continent still remains almost virgin field for the investigator. specifically, the great republic of brazil, somewhat larger in area than the united states, exclusive of alaska, is as yet almost terra incognita, so far as its antiquities are concerned. ecuador.—our knowledge of the archaeology of ecuador has been greatly advanced by the researches of saville, jijon y cama- no, rivet and uhle, and it is now possible to determine some- thing of the ancient culture of this part of south america. in archaeology this country there are three great zones, not climatic but cultural, for every variety of climate prevails. these culture zones are those of (1) the inter-andean valleys, (2) the pacific coast and (3) the oriente of the amazon basin. the antiquities from the pacific coast indicate the former existence of two cultures differ- ing widely from those represented by the artifacts from the high- lands, where at least three major cultures may be distinguished, especially in the types of pottery found in the andean valleys. the northern coast culture merges into the culture of the south colombian coast region, and throughout the ecuadorian coast there are distinct traces of influence exerted from central america, chiefly from the field of mayan culture (see section avii.) some of the human effigy vessels and figures are un- questionably of central american style, and might have been made within the area of mayan culture. in the countless human heads and faces of pottery are found all styles of treatment, from the archaic of mexico to the most advanced and accurate modelling. many of the pieces are so closely allied to mayan artifacts as to be almost indistinguishable. at the same time, these coast cultures possessed individual characteristics indi- cating an intense local development. in the interior of ecuador investigations in the province of chimborazo have revealed stratified culture sequence (not as yet discovered on the coast), where six epochs appear to be pres- ent, before the comparatively late invasion of the inca north- ward from peru. much remains to be done in this important field; most of the region of colombia, especially where the conti- nent approaches the isthmus of panama, still awaits exami- nation. peru.—on the coast of peru, are conditions not found else- where in ancient america. the entire stretch of coast, except for the narrow strips watered by streams, is a parched and rainless region, where there are numberless ancient cemeteries. in these are preserved, to a degree not found in any other part of the western hemisphere, everything that was buried in the graves hollowed in the nitrous sands. owing to these unusual natural conditions little relating to the material culture of the ancient inhabitants of the peruvian coast has been lost, and we possess greater knowledge of their arts and crafts than of any other aboriginal american people. the inca, or more properly the quichua, were not the originators of the complex of cultures, nor did they form the mass of the coast population. they came down from the mountains in comparatively recent times, and were the heirs of at least four cultures, or succeeding epochs or periods of civilisation, which had developed in sequence on the coast and in the great andean valleys. although the inca dominated the region along the coast when the spaniards arrived, they had made little impress on the arts and crafts of the coast people. that man has existed for a considerable period on the peruvian coast has been demonstrated amply by the archaeological researches of uhle, in the chincha valley, at ica, pachacamac, ancon, moche and other places, and we now know with a degree of cer- tainty something of the character of the different pre-inca culture epochs. ouipus.— unlike the great nahuan and mayan civilisations of middle america, the civilised people of south america never developed a system of hieroglyphic “‘ writing,’”’ but they invented a device of an exceedingly ingenious nature for recording numeri- cal records. the quipu or knot record was a simple but clever primitive method of tying knots on a string. locke has estab- lished the numerical value of the knots on the pendent strands of the quipu. a number was arranged in decimal notation, with the units or ones at the lower end of the strand. the tens were tied above the ones, and the highest order appears nearest the main or parent strand. the number in each order above the ones is usually a group of single knots, not exceeding nine, while the ones, or lowest order, is represented by a long knot. when the items listed were in groups it was customary to group the strands on the main strand, and frequently a top strand served to sum up the numbers in the pendent strands to which it was attached. a colour scheme was in use with certain colours for the different kinds of things recorded. nordenskidld has now followed up archaeology this discovery by calculations based on a number of quipus, and indicates that many of them appear to have been of a calen- darial nature in connection with calculations concerning the length of the year based on observations of both solar and lunar vears, for astrological and divinatory purposes. if the studies of nordenskidld are proved to be sound, it will be possible to place the ancient peruvians on the same intellectual plane as the ancient mayans of yucatan and central america. ‘chile—to the south of peru, it has been established that in northern chile, there were in carly times several cultures chrono- logically considered, the so-called atacameno standing out as the leading people of this part of south america. this culture flourished in the desert of atacama, reaching from the chilean coast eastward to high altitudes, and into northwestern argen- tina and southern bolivia. it appears to have been related to the diaguite or calchaqui culture of argentina. late researches in the coastal area have revealed undoubted stratified deposits which have attracted the attention of students, and promise ultimately to yield much information pertaining to the early history of this interesting region. argentina.—knowledge of the archaeology of argentina is confined chiefly to its northwestern provinces. here the climatic conditions are similar to those of the desert regions of peru and chile; hence perishable materials have been preserved to a re- markable degree. the country has been extensively explored in recent years by argentine archaeologists, whose researches have revealed certain striking similarities in types of artifacts with those of southwestern united states. there seems to have been more than one culture in this great region, but the most generally recognised has been called calchaqui, now more usually known as diaguite. of the language and affiliations.of the diaguite people nothing is known, but there is evidence of an invasion from the andean region of peru and bolivia that profoundly influenced this culture, probably in relatively modern times. (matt. sx) aix. air survey long before aeroplanes were invented it was confidently hoped that vertical photographs would some day be taken, and it was felt certain that, if so, they would greatly assist archacology. maj. elsdale was the pioneer of air-photography in the british army. between about 1880 and 1887 he carried out many ex- periments from free balloons; but ballooning was not much in favour then and, although some progress was made, he received little or no official support in his experiments during several years immediately preceding the war, mr. ijenry s. wellcome successfully used large box-kites, with spe- clally devised automatic control cameras, for photographing his archaeological sites and excavations in the upper nile regions of the anglo-egyptian sudan. during the war, when aeroplane photographs first became common, it was expected that archaeological features would be observed; but in the british sector in france none were seen. the photographs were often taken at a great height, over coun- try which is archaeologically barren, or which was too rankly overgrown to show results. only on other fronts was time found for archaeology in the air. colonel beazeley observed and photo- graphed in ‘iraq in 1917, cities whose ruins were unintelligible on the ground. on an air-photograph these ruins were seen as an orderly arrangement of streets and houses. this definitely proved that air-photography could add to knowledge, and that it would be an invaluable aid to excavation. to col. beazeley, therefore, 1s due the credit for the first actual application of aeroplane photography to archaeology. the birth of the new study in england, however, dates from 1922 when air comm. clark hall observed certain curious marks on r.a.f. air-photos taken in hampshire. with him must be mentioned flight-lieut. haslam, who took a number of photo- graphs near winchester showing what turned out to be prehistoric felds. air comm. clark hall showed these photographs to dr. williams-freeman and mr. o. g. s. crawford, archaeology officer of the ordnance survey, who saw that their expectations were fulfilled, and even surpassed, by what was revealed. it was 197 possible from these photographs to make a map of the prehistoric field-system near winchester. popular interest was first aroused by mr. o. g. s. crawford’s discovery and publication of negatives showing, for the first time, the complete course of the stonehenge avenue (eastern branch). the photographs were taken im the dry year of 1921 by the old sarum squadron; but their archaeological importance was not recognised until two years later, in 1923. the most important archaeological air-photographs obtained are those taken during 1924 by mr. o. g. s. crawford and mr. alexander keiller. an aeroplane was specially hired, and about 300 photographs of archaeological sites were taken. outside england little has been done except in ‘iraq, palestine and egypt. in palestine many sites have been photographed by the royal air force, at the suggestion of the dept. of an- tiquities. a photograph of masada on the dead sea is to be de- scribed and published shortly in the journal of roman studies. in egypt valuable archaeological results were secured as a by- product of the grd nile aerial survey (1922). oblique photo- graphs have been taken of numantia in spain but obliques are always inferior in archaeological value to verticals. it is usually imagined that the camera, when fixed in an aeroplane, records marks on the ground which are invisible to the eye of an observer. that is not so. the observer can see these marks more plainly than the camera records them, for he sees them in colour. the most remarkable discoveries that have been made are due to plants, which are sensitive to slight differences of soil and moisture. for example, if a ditch has been dug on a chalk down and the down has afterwards been ploughed flat and sown with corn, for ever afterwards the subsoil filling (or silt) of that ditch differs from the adjacent never-disturbed soil. nothing can ever restore chalk once dug to its former state. archaeologists have long know this, for one of the principal needs in excavation is to distinguish between dis- turbed and undisturbed soil. but one cannot dig up a whole field or several fields to find a ditch which, after all, may not exist. here it is that a vertical view helps; for the effect of this moister and more fertile silt upon a crop of corn is to promote its growth and deepen its colour. thus from above one sees, and can photograph, a belt of darker green corn following the line of the vanished ditch. these lines are sometimes visible on the ground, from across a valley, or even at closer quarters. sometimes (as in parts of the stonehenge avenue) they are quite invisible. but always, when more than a single ditch 1s concerned, the distant view is necessary to convert chaos into order, the reason for this necessity can best be explained by means of a comparison. if one looks through a magnifying-glass at a half-tone illustration made through a coarse screen, it ceases to be seen as a picture and becomes a meaningless maze of blurred dots. jf one holds it some distance off and looks at it with the naked eye it becomes a picture again. ‘the observer on the ground is like the user of the magnifying-glass; the observer (or camera) in the air resembles him who looks at the picture from a distance. (see surveying) the majority of prehistoric sites, and many later ones, were a maze of ditches and pits, dug for drainage, storage, habitation, defence or boundary purposes. many still exist on the downs, undisturbed and turf covered; many more have been flattened by cultivation. all of the latter can be re-discovered by air-photog- raphy, provided only that the arable has not been allowed to revert to grass. even then traces of the ditches are sometimes visible, especially on poor soils and in dry summers, by a belt of darker green. air observation, however, is most fruitful when young crops are growing; then discovery is easy and rapid, and every flight is productive. such sites may afterwards be seen to ~ exist by an observer on the ground; but few of them could ever have been discovered except from the air. chalk is not the only soil that produces these streak-sites; they have been observed on oolitic limestone near bath and plateau gravel near exbury. other factors enable air-photography to record ancient sites. prehistoric cultivation-banks are revealed because they either throw slight shadows or because when ploughed they appear as belts of lighter soil, from the chalk grains mixed with them (see plate). from photographs the prehistoric field-system of a district can be accurately mapped. again, rabbits work in the looser silt of filled-up ditches (as well as in the soil of the lynchets), and if there are many rabbits a white line, or row of white patches, is visible from the air. daisies and poppies grow from choice above these ditches, and barrows and hill-top camps have thus been revealed by white and scarlet circles. 198 lastly, the low shadows at sunrise and sunset etch the slopes of low banks in deep black. that is the time to photograph lynchets. on a june morning before breakfast the greater part of salisbury plain is seen 10 be covered with the banks of abandoned celtic fields; but afterwards they “ fade into the common light of day.” the great ramparts of hill-top camps throw a shadow even at mid-day, but are best photographed when the sun is low, for then not only do the ramparts stand out best, but also the banks and pits of the habitations within. hambledon [ill, dorset, england (see fig. 1 on plate), one of the finest hill-top camps, on an isolated hill about 300 ft. above the sur- rounding country. ‘the entrance of the camp is protected by a hook- like prolongation of an‘outer rampart; from it led a pathway within the camp, passing between oblong and circular pits, the site of huts. those, especially in the middle portion of the camp, are very clearly seen, ancl beside them is a long barrow, far older of course than the camp, which was probably made in the early iron age. across the narrow ridge connecting the hill of the camp with the next hill, was built a formidable double scarp-to-scarp rampart; and beyond this can be seen the faint outline of a probably older camp (only partially included). the hill must have been permanently inhabited. note. a scattered flock of sheep in the inner portion of the camp will give some idea of the scale of the photograph. oakley down, dorset, eengland (see fig. 2 on plate), between salis- bury and blandford, on chalk soil, now covered with turf. the principal features are: (1)the raised causeway of the roman road running cliagonally across the picture, (2) a group of round barrows, or burial mounds of the early bronze age, older than the roman road, through two disk-barrows on either side of it, (3) a network of celtic fields, particularly noticeable in one corner of the photograph. in the valley below is the remains of a contemporary pond (very large, but now dry), and there are signs of celtic ploughing on both sides of the roman road. bibliography.—lieut.-col. g. a. beazeley, ‘‘ air photography in archaeology,”’ geographical jaurnal one thid., “ surveys in mesopotamia during the war,’ geog. jour. (1920); t. wiegand, wissenschaftt. weriffentl. d. deutsch-hiirkischen denkmalschutz-kom- mandos, heft 1, sinat (1920); j. h. breasted, pxdlication of the oriental institute of the university of chicago (1922); articles by o. g. s. crawford in the observer (july and sept. 1923), results of special survey by mr. keiller, and o. g. s. crawford (aug. 1924); articles by o. (gs. s. crawford in the christran science monitor (dec. 1923); l. franz, wiener prahistorische zeitschrift, a review of air survey and archaeology giving the results of german and american work quoted (1923); r. a. maclean, “ the aeroplane and archaeology,” amer. jour. ef arch. (1923); vertical air photo- graphs reproduced in zilustrated london news, ponipeit (june 1923 and feb. 1924) ur (july 1923); see also antiquartes’ journal (1923); stonehenge avenue (aug. 1923); o. g. s. crawford, agr survey and archaeology ordnance survey professional papers new sertes (1924) reprinted with numerous additions to text and with many new plates and maps, from geographical journal (may 1923); w. andra, air photographs of assur taken during the war by germans; report given to wiener anthropologische gesellschaft (1924). (0.6, s203) archangel (see 2.356), capital of the province of archangel in the russian socialist federal soviet republic. in 1925 its population was about 35,000. it is governed by executive committees elected by the local congress of soviets. the principal industry is sawmilling. the population practically doubled between 1914 and 1916. warehouses and other buildings, an electric light and power plant, and a tramway in the main street were built. on the side of the river, where the railway station stands, some miles of wooden houses sprang up. to cope with increased traffic a start was made in 1916 with the conversion to broad gauge and the double tracking of the railway to vologda, this work being com- pleted in 1919. the railway terminus was enlarged and the road to leningrad was remade to carry a military motor service. two of the largest ice-breakers, in addition to the one already in use, and several big floating docks were installed in the port, and numerous jetties and quays were built. but facilities for the handling of guns, munitions, etc., remained inadequate; and added to this difficulty was the fact that after the closing of the baltic and black sea harbours, archangel was the only available russian port served by a railway, and was therefore called upon to handle the whole of the wheat exports. continuous dredging has to be carried on during the summer in the harbour, which is accessible for vessels drawing up to 21 ft., but only those of under 20 ft. draught can cross the bar and shoal in one tide. archangel—archery history.—aiter german mine-layers had visited archangel in 1915, a unit of six british trawlers was sent, but till ror7 they engaged only in mine-sweeping and escort work. a difficult problem arose after the russian collapse in 1917, when vast quantities of stores and coal were lying in the port. subse- quently british and french cruisers were sent to hold the coast, and when the germans were in finland in may 1918 troops were sent; these occupied archangel with little opposition on aug. 2 1918, and advanced up the railway in conjunction with a flotilla on the dvina. in the same year n. tschaikovsky, a socialist who had been exiled in england, overthrew the rule of the soviet commissars and set up a provisional northern government in archangel and murmansk with himself as president. the town councils and courts of law were re-established, and in september a conference of northern co-operative associations was held to consider the economic organisation of thedistrict. tschaikovsky’s party joined the british in operations against the bolsheviks, and the campaign was carried on after the world war, the evac- uation of archangel not being completed till sept. 1919, when the city was again in bolshevik hands. archer, william (1856-1924), british critic (see 2.362), became dramatic critic of the tribune in 1906 and afterwards of the nation and the stay. in 1921 his play the green goddess was produced in the united states and subsequently in london with great success. in 1923 he published the old drama and the new. an acute, rather than a sympathetic critic, he, never- theless, must be applauded as not least amid the influences determining the renaissance of the british drama. he died dec. 27 1924. archery (see 2.362), a pastime which has recently enjoyed a considerable increase in popularity. at the beginning of r9o14 there were in great britain no less than 75 recognised archery societies and, though the standard of shooting, as compared with that of the period 1855-80, had, no doubt, deteriorated, yet slowly but surely interest in the sport was reviving. then came the world war and archery in com- mon with other sport was dropped or at most indulged in merely to keep the clubs going and afford the war workers some tem- porary relaxation. the royal toxophilite society, the leading society in the kingdom, held no meetings from 1915 until 1910, and all the public meetings were abandoned. when the war came to an end, great efforts were made by archers all over the kingdom to revive the sport; new clubs were formed, old clubs were revived and, on the whole, it may be said that there are now more votaries of archery, especially among ladies, than for many years past. toward the close of the war, the royal toxophilite society had been forced to relinquish its ground in regent’s park, london, and to accept for a time the hospitality of the honourable artillery company in finsbury, while endeavouring to obtain a fresh ground in london. after two years, new headquarters were found in the neighbourhood of hyde park, the ground was laid out and a small clubhouse obtained near it. the society was reorganised, ladies being, for the first ttme, admitted as members. in 1925 the bowyers’ company once more offered two gold medals for competition among the best shots in the kingdom, on the society’s ground. in this year were revived the various championship meetings, namely the grand national, the grand western, the grand northern, the southern counties, the leamington and midland archery meeting and the hereford round meeting. archery in the united states-—-no international meetings have yet been held, though archery has made considerable head- way in the united states, as is proved by a comparison of the scores made in the american and english championships in 1924. the american champion of that year, 8. jiles, made 889 on the double york round as against 880 made by the english champion, w. a. inderwick; while the lady champion of america, miss d. d. smith, made 575 on the double national round as against 580 made by the english champion, mrs. shillito. a comparison of some of the best scores, mace since 1895, re- veals the fact that while h. a. ford’s 1,251 for the double york round is unapproached, yet scores of over 1,000 have been made a r (. h a i o ll o gy plate vi. . | lun ° a al | photographs illustrating the value of aerial photography in archaeological research fic. 1. a fine example of a hill-top camp at hambledon hill, england. fie. 2. burial mounds and roman road at oakley down, england. architecture by f. a. govett (1,004), c. e. nesham (1,027) and h. p. nesham (1,067), the last-named in 1912, while in 1913 c. k. philips made 982. on the single york round an examination of club records shows that some remarkably fine scores have been made since rgro, notably 114 hits totalling 592 by c. k. philips in oct. 1913; 112 hits totalling 574 by h. p. nesham in nov. 1912; and too hits totalling 524 by spencer madan in oct. 1912, besides many other scores of 500 and over. in 1925 the highest recorded club score for the single york round was 497 by e. h. nelson. | (iecit. be") architecture (sec 2.369).—to review the progress of archi- tecture during the period 1910-26 in the world at large, and more particularly in america, great britain and the european con- tinent, we should first understand the intluences—social, political, industrial and educational—which lie at the root of an unprece- dented construction development during this period. strictly speaking, architecture is concerned only with those buildings which embody elements of beauty, or which at least vary from strict utilitarian necessities for the sake of better appearance. undoubtedly the outstanding feature of the period under review has been a growing interest in, and enthusiasm for, the archi- tectural improvement and embellishment of all types of build- ings. we are, as a rule, no longer contented with purely utili- tarian solutions of our problems. we demand improvement in the appearance of our surroundings, whether it be our homes, our workshops or our playhouses. i. introduction sixteen years may seem a very short time for a distinct change or even for any new tendency to develop in the field of archi- tecture. if it took a century to modily a style in the past, how then can a decade and a half manifest any important change? the answer is simply that architectural forms change in direct ratio to the rapidity of building construction and building dem- olition. in the past, building was a slow, leisurely proceeding, expensive in terms of human energy; to-day power machinery furnishes most of the energy; consequently, changes in style, which are nothing more or less than period changes in the life of the people, occur more rapidly. a building which formerly would have taken five years to complete, can to-day be built in one year or perhaps less. , we can safely assume that five times the amount of building is now being done, and that therefore styles will change five times as rapidly, provided, of course, that there is a sustained demand for such quantities of building. in america this demand is enor- mous; old buildings give way to new, new buildings seem to rise almost over night; and in europe, where the tendency is to retain and use what it already has, there is to be noted a marked tendency in the same direction, as, for example, the passing of regent street and the kingsway development in london and the continental cutting of boulevards in paris and in rome. since a nation writes its history in buildings and gives expression to its natural love of beauty through architecture, anything which so enormously increases both the size and the number of buildings must be accounted a potent factor in architectural development of all kinds. influence of the world war.—this demand for rapid building construction ts largely the result of the influences of the world war. for a period of nearly five years, there was a complete cessation of building operations except for war purposes. the natural reaction was to make up for time lost. france has the tremendous task of reconstructing its devastated areas. in eng- land the housing situation is an all-absorbing problem. in amer- ica, with its almost unlimited resources and wealth, bettcr hous- ing 18 a crying need, greater factories are required to supply the materials and the furnishings for these houses, and more business buildings are needed in which to conduct the commerce and trade resulting from renewed and augmented activity. such frenzied building activity has not always followed war. but the world war was singular in this respect: it entailed vast re-organisations of labour for the intensive production of war materials. the result was that labour in construction fields 199 demanded and received wages out of all proportion to the scale formerly paid, and far above the rates paid to workers in other fields. ‘these conditions in turn resulted in an expanding scale of living to which this large portion of the population would have attained under normal peace conditions only after a long period of years. the increased housing demand was a natural corollary of increased wages. the masses, more affluent than ever before, insisted on larger and better homes, more elaborate and expensive furnishings. rush to the citics.—a further cause of building activity is the concentration of population in and near the larger cities. the world war is not alone responsible for this. since about 1885 the rapidly increasing development of machinery has completely changed social relationships. men and women who are no longer needed on the farms to produce food for the world have flocked to the cities to produce manufactured articles. the production and use of more and more articles, both necessities and luxuries, require more buildings to make them in, more buildings to sell them from, more buildings in which to transact the business arising from their manufacture and sale, and more homes to house the workers. in the words of a recent writer, “ production has played many parts in history; it has taken various forms. the form which it takes in this, the machine age, is strange and new. ‘ consumption ’is anew necessity, a new science. through the centuries, the problem has been, how to produce enough of the things men wanted; the problem now is to make men want and use more things.” with the concentration of population have come the corporation, the trust and the super-trust. great buildings, great at icast in bulk and cost, are required to house vast numbers of workers. formerly a municipal or other govern- ment was the only agency which could build large structures; to-day private enterprises, through control of capital in large amounts, builds on a greater scale and more expensively than any government will or can build. this evident and rapid change influences every walk of life and thereby affects every building, no matter what its function. (see urbanisation.) divisions of tie subject at first glance, a division of our subject by countries would seem to be a natural one: american architecture, british archi- tecture, french, japanese, etc. it is a method frequently em- ployed in architectural surveys, but all parts of the world have been brought so closely together, and each nation’s knowledge of every other nation’s activities is so complete and immediate, that such division would result in unnecessary duplication. one could hardly, for example, describe the modern architecture of japan and not explain the british and american intluence. means of communication have so reduced time and distance that national styles are no longer mutually exclusive. the pos- sibility that any nation in the future will develop a purely indig- enous architecture is remote, for it would mean that the physical, material and spiritual status of its people had not been touched by modern inventions. we shall therefore discuss our subject, not by geographical boundaries, but according to those influences, industrial, commercial, social, educational, pclitical and _ reli- gious, which are the basic causes of all building development, and common to all nations. we have placed them in the order of their importance, considered in terms of capital investment and number of people involved. if computed in terms of human happiness and well-being, then possibly the order should be reversed. ii. industrial architecture under this classification we include all buildings in which commodities are made and stored, from the reception of the raw material to the production of the finished article. this field, while not usually discussed in a review of architecture, has now peculiar significance, because the present period of civilisation is normally neither an age of war nor an age of art, but a scien- tific and industrial age. industrial plants, through combination and absorption, have grown far beyond the wildest imaginings of the eighties of the last century. such growth is an accepted 200 condition of our time, and the architect has a definite part in it. his problems in this field are large problems. to be sure, he is given little opportunity for the elaboration of detail, but he has great opportunity for interesting arrangements and impressive masses. only in the zoth century have such problems as stcel plants, mining hoists, automobile works, etc., been considered in any sense architectural. generally handled by engineers with prac- tical considerations only in view, the architect had no essential part, but was called in, if at all, to add a bit of “‘ dressing ” toa predetermined structure. to-day, however, the large corpora- tions have come to realise more and more that beauty in its broadest sense is a commercial asset. importance of the architect:—the architect, by training and experience, has a more comprehensive sense of arrangement than the engineer or the contractor. a prominent builder in the indus- trial freld says: ‘‘ there is not much doubt that the very finest industrial buildings which have been built in the years between 191g and 1925, the finest in general effectiveness as well as in appearance, have been produced under the direction of archi- tects. a certain distinctive appearance, a certain completeness of design, a more perfect interior arrangement and a general suitability seem more likely to prevail when the largest indus- trial buildings are handled through an architect’s office than when an architect is not in the picture.” the architect is con- sulted to advantage from the outset of the problem; choice of site, plan arrangement, types of construction, fire prevention, natural lighting, welfare provisions, plumbing, heating and ventilation, and artificial illumination are all matters of consid- eration in the design of any building. reinforced concrete, a form of construction in increasing use, is peculiarly adapted to industrial plants. in the earlier examples it was used in imitation of other and more customary building materials, with forms of ornamentation such as cornices, archi- traves, arches, etc., borrowed from older buildings of the masonry type. later examples show a great improvement in this respect; the concrete is used with the greatest simplicity of form, and all extraneous embellishment omitted. effects are secured by care- fully studied proportion and massing. (see ferro concrete.) the city factory —the factory in cities is beginning to take on city dress. the open labour market commonly causes a large industrial plant, especially in such work as garment-making, to build in the heart of a city. such a plant should not be a blot among fine buildings, but should be in harmony with its sur- roundings. (see factory drsicn.) the plan problem is as varied as the nature of the work carried on, but industrial plants may be divided into three types, de- pending on the different kinds of enclosed spaces: (1) plants of large area, of only one floor, top lighted; (2) plants of large spaces for great machines, travelling cranes, etc., in conjunction with smaller spaces of the ordinary type; (3) plants of ordinary spaces, many storeyed and dependent on light from the sides. the first type furnishes simply a problem of building over large areas and with “ saw tooth ” skylight construction; the second involves engineering for broad spaces, but both clerestory and top lighting are possible; the third type does not difler from the ordinary many-storeyed building built for commercial work. hi. commercial architecture commercial architecture includes all buildings in which the purchase, sale, exchange and transport of commodities is carried on, and in which the financing of business enterprises 1s negott- ated. it covers a wide field. with industrial architecture, to which it is closely allied, it constitutes by far the most important architectural development since 1900, not alone as measured in terms of quantity, but in terms of actual progress as well. the necessities of industry and commerce have developed a striking and significantly new architecture, highly expressive of our own age. the whole trend in the commercial field is toward larger and larger units—larger office buildings, larger department stores, jarger banks, larger railway stations. the increase in the height and mass of commercial buildings architecture (and we shall see later whercin this applies to hotels and apart- ment houses as well) is perhaps the most phenomenal feature of this development. many misapprehensions exist as to its cause. one of the most persistent is the belief that in new york, where the so-called sky-seraper has received its chief development, the long, narrow shape of the island forced growth upward. this is far from the truth. there is still plenty of room for lateral expan- sion on manhattan island. the tall buildings form a narrow ridge through the center, following the general course of broad- way. should all the buildings on the island proper be reduced to an average height, they would probably not exceed seven or eight storeys. this contention is proved by the rapid appearance of groups of tall buildings in many other citics where the special topographical conditions of new york do not exist. the truth is that increased concentration makes for increased efficiency in commercial operations. it is probable that the tall building originated in the desire of real-estate owners to exploit small and heavily-taxed property holdings. increased revenue could be obtained from a small area of land by building upward. the sky-scraper has proved invaluable to efficiency in business, for, in the final analysis, all important business affairs are nego- tiated through personal contact, in spite of telephone, telegraph and other substitutive means of communication. office plaunning.—since the office building of the sky-scraper type is the most distinctive example of commercial architecture, let us consider it in detail. the usual procedure in most plan studies is to start with the ground floor and build up. but in planning office buildings (and this applies to hotels as well) the architect reverses this process and plans from the top down. that is to say, he develops a typical upper-tloor plan first, be- cause the major income is derived from these typical floors, and if some sacrifice is 1o be made, it can better be made on the ground floor than on the office floors. a typical office unit is first deter- mined upon, a series of such units is arranged along both sides of a corridor, and then the line of vertical circulation (lifts or elevators) is fixed at a central point on this corridor so that no tenant is obliged to walk more than 100 ft. from his office door to an elevator. utility spaces—toilets, cleaners’ closets, vent shafts, flues, etc-—are then added and the plan is completed. authorities differ as to what constitutes the ideal office unit; they agree, however, that it is better to have less space (less capital investment) permanently rented at a high figure than much space partially rented at a low figure. lighting is the im- portant factor here. the depth, 7.c., distance from windows to corridor, of a well-lighted office is never more than twice the clear ceiling height. twenty feet is better than twenty-five. the width of the unit varies with the distance between stecl columns, which economical engineering consideration places at not less than 15 or more than 22 feet. the diagram shows a typical office unit with internal divisions, each of which can be subdivided into smaller rooms in a single large office unit. although a 4-ft. cor- ridor might serve all practical purposes, the width should in- crease with the length for the sake of beauty of proportion. corridors should also increase in size as they approach the clevators. the building lot at the architect’s disposal determines, of course, the arrangement of offices. the plot plan diagram given herewith shows possible dispositions on three standard lots. it will be noted that ‘ dark ” spots, such as always occur where a wing joins the main buildings, are used as far as possible jor the necessary utilities, such as elevators, stairways and smoke towers. toilets can be artificially ventilated and lighted, but it seems better to place them on small back courts, which furnish inferior office space at best, thereby retaining some degree of natural light and full natural ventilation. the british building laws require outside toilets, always; that is, they must always have outside windows, no matter how much artificial ventilation may be provided. staircases and elevators —\{n american office buildings, stair- ways are little more than fire-escapes. as the law requires them to be entirely enclosed with fire-resisting walls and doors, they are never conspicuous and are rarely visible. in england, architecture (industrial and commercial) ee we j a weve ee wrt nes fic. 1. army supply base, brooklyn, n. y., cass gilbert, architect. a simple but effective use of concrete. fic. 2. cahokia power station, hlinois, u. s. a.. moran, russell and crowell, architects. study in mass, using great stacks as dominant feature. fic. 3. bunte bros. factory, chicago, illinois, u. s. a.. schmidt, garden & martin, architects. effective use of brick and stone simply treated but with interest at final points. fic. 4. r. r. donnelley & sons co. printing plant, chicago, howard shaw, architect. practical conditions solved for mass interest and yet delicate detail. fic. 5. fletcher bldg., n. y. city, helmle & corbett, architects. city factory in concrete, using the structural recessing of wall as it rises, as basis of architectural treatment fic. 6. shoe factory, norwich, england, a. t. scott & sons, architects. a good example of pleasing masses simply treated. fic. 7. dirigible hangar. orly (s. et o.). france. freyssinet, engineer. rein- forced concrete in pure harmony of form and function. fic. 8. railway station, helsingfors, finland. eliel saarinen, architect. effective composition without use of conventional classic forms. fic. 9. wireless station, nauen, germany. h. malthesias, architect esting composition in brick depending solely on mass and proportions : fic. to. britannic house, london, sir edwin lutyens, architect. a variety of different openings charmingly harmonised by careful sense of scale. ; fic. 11. pennsylvania station, n. y. city, mckim, mead & white, archi- tects. classic architecture used most impressively. ; fic. 12. adelaide house, london, sir john burnet & partners, architects. extreme simplicity within a well defined frame. inter- prate ii. architecture (commercial) ee ee e a3 - ll” se ome > od - oe ee es ne ae “a oe =e * eens . wee > fa —— ard i hes ha ee hs _— orl. ee ee s se nai hn i et on wai 4 ae 7 * a thet as o= me - m . = :: ae es ate ms cet eee hs aa al se ee ee ee ee a ees a ows ib s if fi es es a er) as drs re . . ~ ce sot... i mew lsus os @ gi am a me, fic. 1. woolworth bldg., n. y. city, cass gilbert, architect. highest build- ing in the world (except eiffel tower). vertical composition on vertical mass. fic. 2. bush building. n. y. city, helmle & corbett, architects. building on a narrow lot, but architecturally treated on all sides. fic. 3. tribune tower, chicago. howells & hood. architects. height accen- tuated by flying buttresses carried above height restriction for usable floors. treated with respect for importance of location at end of kingsway. fig. 8. pennsylvania station interior, mckim, mead & white, architects. impressive space inspired by ancient roman baths. fic. 9. american radiator building. raymond hood, architect. an inter- esting experiment in black brick with gold trimmings. fic. 10. philadelphia savings fund, mellor, meigs & howe, architects. a fic. 4. telephone bldg., n.y. city, mckenzie, voorhees & gmelin, archi- tects. striking example of the effect of height restriction with tower. fic. 5. strand and wellington street, london, trehearne & norman, archi- tects. new simplicity in business building. fic. 6. standard oil building, n. y¥. city, carrere & hastings, shreve & lamb, architects. height restriction interpreted with classic feeling. fic. 7. bush house, london, helmle & corbett, architects. architecturally simple bank expressive of security and wealth. fic. 11. chile house, hamburg, f. hoger, architect. of questionable beauty. fic. 12. bon marche, paris. l. h. boileau, architect. interior of a large store with skylight court and balconies, example of modern french. fic. 13. general motors company, detroit, mich., albert kahn, architect. head office of a very modern trust. extreme modernism architecture where the height of buildings is limited to nine or at the most 10 storeys, there is one conspicuous open stairway and there are one or two sets of enclosed stairs. elevators are often the key to the plan scheme and are usually grouped together for greater service efficiency. even small buildings have at least two (because of possible breakdown), and if more are needed on account of greater floor area or greater number of storeys, they are so placed that a tenant waiting for a car may be able to step easily to the first one that tlashes a signal. a battery of six elevators, three facing three, is the ideal arrangement. eight, four facing four, are possible. more than eight in one battery is not practical, because in such case the passenger might not reach the car before it had passed. if more than one system is installed, the systems must be separated enough for each to serve effectively an entirely new area, and the plan problem simply repeats itself, z.e., two buildings side by side, but with connecting corridors. inasmuch as 100 ft. each way from the elevator line is the convenient limit one may go horizontally, 15 storeys is about the limit of effective service for a single battery. as the building with ground area for one group of elevators increases in height, it may require a battery of more than eight, in which case the problem becomes two buildings, one placed on top of the other, with the vertical circulation of the upper structure running through the lower as an “ express ” service. this general for- mula, however, is only partially applicable to buildings which diminish in floor area as they rise. lighting —window spacing and height is an important con- sideration. the usual bay between steel columns is from 15 to 20 feet. experience seems to dictate the use of two windows in this bay. one window to a bay gives too much wall space and too little light; three windows give too little wall space and too much light. an even field of equally spaced windows is more elastic for interior division into offices. the amount of natural light is not as important as the quality of light. windows lo- cated with regard to exterior architectural effect rather than to interior comfort and convenience sometimes extend nearly to the floor, while above is left a dark void of wall space and ceiling. many windows of average size are preferable to a few large open- ings, just as several well-distributed ceiling lights in a room give better illumination than one powerful centre light. too much glass surface causes economic waste and physical discomfort. no general principles can be formulated for the planning of ground floors, basements and sub-basements, because conditions vary widely according to the local problem. the number of floors below the street level depends upon the height, and to some extent the location, of the building. some very high build- ings have as many as five floors below the pavement. boilers and mechanical equipment are located on various of these lower floors according to the needs of the problem. zoning.—building regulations naturally have a direct effect on city architecture. early in the 18th century the building- height restriction in paris produced the mansard roof, which became such a fashion that it was widely adopted in cities and countries where no height limitation existed. similarly, the london building act gave that city a distinctive character which has been preserved even in newer districts. and now the recently enacted zoning laws in new york, although their pri- mary purpose is utilitarian, are creating a distinctly new style of architecture, one which bids fair not only to become a pattern throughout the united states, but also to influence european forms. the ordinary sky-scraper, which was simply an elongation of the five- or six-storey commercial building made possible by the lack of height limitation, was in no sense a new form. rather, it was a distortion of an old form. the new zoning law in new york does not prohibit the erection of sky-scrapers, but it con- siderably modifies their appearance. its chief aim is to relieve street congestion, for, other things being equal, it is obvious that such congestion is directly proportionate to the bulk of the buildings flanking the street. the paris law limits the straight vertical height to 20 metres; above that, additional storeys must 201 remain within the arc of a circle of fixed radius. the london regulations permit of 80 ft. vertical height and two supplemen- tary storeys which must remain behind a sloping line of 75 deg. from the horizontal. in new york the vertical height is now determined by the width of the street, but varies according to the “‘ zone ”’ or dis- trict in which the given property is situated. these districts are classified as follows: ‘“‘ one-time” districts ‘‘ one-and-one- half-time ” districts, “‘ two-time ”’ districts and ‘‘ two-and-one- half-time ” districts. that is to say, the straight vertical height may be equal to the width of the street in residence zones; it may be one-and-one-half times the width of the street in certain residence and business zones; twice the width in the principal business centres and two-and-one-half times in the wall street financial section. for the purpose of the law, no street is con- sidered less than so ft. or more than 100 ft. wide. additional storeys above the vertical height must remain back of a line drawn from the centre of the street through a point on the top front of the vertical height. the salient feature of new york is its towers, and it was con- sidered wise, in framing the new zoning law, to permit the erec- tion of a tower, which may rise to an indefinite height (limited only by structural possibilities and economic conditions), upon 25% of the total lot area. this has resulted in a very surprising and interesting form of architecture which is rapidly changing the aspect of the city, despite the fact that the law has been in force but seven years. in paris certain buildings of a monumental nature, either religious or governmental, may exceed the height limit. in london, towers purely for architectural embellishment but not for human occupancy, may pass the legal height. in new york, however, no restriction is made as to occupancy of the tower provided that the building remains within the given “‘ envelope.” furthermore, the so-called ‘‘ dormer” permit allows certain portions of the front of each building to rise slightly in excess of the maximum vertical height to give variety of outline. above this the buildings are usually stepped back, forming a pyramidal series of terraces which vie with the storeyed magnificence of the hanging gardens of babylon. the law has produced two other interesting results: first, the virtual elimination of interior light courts, these being cut in the sicle in order to preserve a base for the central tower; second, the tendency to assemble larger and larger plottage so that the 25° > tower will be large enough to warrant construction of a great number of tower storeys. bank buildings——the plan problem of banks and financial institutions has changed little except in the space involved. many mechanical improvements which affect lighting, ventila- tion and control have developed, and new inter-communicating devices to facilitate the rapid transaction of business are em- ployed. due in large part to exhaustive experiments made by the federal reserve banking system, established by act of dec. 23 1913, vault construction has made notable advances, certain types of vault being virtually impregnable to burglar and even mob attack. although these practical matters are part of the architect’s work, they do not materially affect the aesthetic problem. one tendency, however, which does concern the purely architectural aspect, may be noted. the main banking room, where the major part of the public transacts business, is becom- ing more and more the architectural feature of the interior. even the officers of the bank, from the president down, are quartered in this space, and the various partitions necessary to separate bank employees and public take the form of screens, counters, rails, etc., which thereby become a kind of furniture rather than an architectural separation. some of these great banking rooms are the most magnificent and richly treated spaces in modern architecture, comparable to the interior of govern- ment buildings, or even to palaces of the old world. stores.—following the trend of all commercial and industrial construction, stores are being concentrated in larger units. the small shop on the street level continues to exist, but it has pro- duced nothing particularly new in design. on the contrary, many of the most distinctive have attained refreshing charm 202 and simplicity by reverting to designs of a century ago. the great department store is the principal modern solution of the retailing problem. the building often covers an entire city block (sometimes even two), and is sometimes many storeys in height. by means of quantity purchase and elaborately devel- oped service and delivery systems, the department store supplies the public with every kind of commodity so competing with the speciality shops. in paris and berlin the centrally lighted ‘‘ well ” type of store, with its surrounding galleries, is still the rule and gives an im- pressive interior which is both airy and attractive. but in lon- don and new york every inch of floor-space is utilised, and artificial illumination takes the place of the natural light pro- ceeding from the skylight over the central well. in fact, ameri- can building laws in most cities do not permit the open well form of store because of fire hazard. in addition to the usual lifts, the movement of shoppers is facilitated by means of mechanical devices such as escalators and ramps and lifts. intercommuni- cating belt conveyers, etc., are usually installed to speed the movement of merchandise. transportation.—although architecture relating to transpor- tation is here listed in the commercial category, transportation affects every branch of human endeavour more or less directly and might well be discussed under any or all subdivisions of the subject. the railway terminus is the most important problem the architect has to deal with in this group, bridges and viaducts being considered still in the light of engineering problems not susceptible of architectural treatment. these mammoth stations are becoming an impressive feature of the modern city and offer fine opportunities for the display of architectural genius. there are two reasons for this: the ten- dency to combine the termini of several railways in a central or union depot, and the increasing realisation that railway stations are the real gateways to the modern city. first impressions are likely to be lasting ones, and no better point could be chosen at which to make an eflective display. even in many small towns and villages, stations are being erected in keeping with the local environment and designed with an eye to artistic fitness. generally speaking, two classes of people make use of a sta- tion; those travelling daily to adjacent suburbs, who know pre- cisely where and how to go, and desire to reach their trains with the least possible inconvenience; and strangers who must make inquiries at every turn. the architectural problem is therefore to provide an entrance of generous proportions leading directly to a central hall where information booths, booking-oftices, lug- gage-rooms, parcel deposits, news stands, etc., are convenient, and from which gates to trains, conspicuously marked, are readily accessible. furthermore the movement of trains, lug- gage and freight involves engineering complications of no mean order. these exacting requirements have been met with notable success in several imposing structures since rgro. the pennsyl- vania and grand central terminals in new york, the union station in washington, d.c., and the new union station in chicago are some of the most impressive examples (see rail- way stations). iv. social architecture under this heading we shall include all buildings for human residence, recreation, entertainment and health. not many gen- erations ago, all these activities were provided for in the home, where our forbears lived, entertained, played and cared for the sick and the infirm. to-day all these social activities are more highly specialised, and are more and more being taken care of in specially designed buildings. the theatre, picture house, public garden, amusement park, stadium, ball park, athletic field, etc., provide for recreation. the sick and dependent are ministered to in public and private hospitals, nursing homes, orphanages and homes for the aged, infirm, fecble-minded, etc. present-day dwellings are of five distinct classes: (1) the free- standing country home, which is becoming less usual; (2) the more compact city house, also fast disappearing; (3) the still more compact flat, or, as it is more usually termed in america, architecture apartment; (4) the apartment hotel, a development of quite re- cent years; and (5) the hotel itself. private dwellings.—before the world war, the building of country homes proceeded at a more or less normal pace. many fine examples of very elaborate and distinctive architecture appeared, with gardens, parks, terraces, fountains and informal and rustic settings. but since the war, the construction of homes by individual owners has diminished steadily. this has been due not only to the burdens laid upon wealth, but to the difficulty of obtaining competent domestic servants. the large house is peculiarly dependent on this class of worker. but, drawn away from their usual pursuits by the war, the servant class was at its close unwilling to return to domestic duties. ‘ven small dwellings, in which the housework was formerly done by members of the family, are now being brought into groups, and much of the domestic drudgery is provided for co-opera- tively. this tendency has been a fairly steady growth since 188s. the factory has usurped more and more of the work of the home: food is supplied in ready-cooked form; clothes are washed in quantity; heat and light are automatically provided. with less and less of this kind of work to do, the modern home-dweller finds that he or she wants none at all. the war also gave great impetus to housing schemes. press- ing necessity forced governments, both national and local, and corporations, both large and small, to provide habitations on an extensive scale. town-planners studied the problem, overcame the difficulties, and incidentally proved that better homes, with infinitely more healthful surroundings and better sanitary con- ditions, could be provided through paternalistic or benevolent direction than was possible through individual initiative. apariment house or fiat—together with these housing de- velopments, the modern apartment or flat building is the most striking feature of social architecture. apartments, especially in america, are not confined to cities and towns where the con- centration of population might furnish an excuse; they have an increasing vogue even in the small villages. the apartment building is simply a combination of compact homes one above the other. for many years paris used this type of dwelling extensively, and examples exist in many other large european cities. recent apartment houses, notably in america, exhibit many new and architecturally interesting features. the plan problem consists of making a series of com- pact home units, each comprising a living-room, dining-room, kitchen and one or more beclrooms and baths. these are the essentials, although a foyer or entrance hall, library and study may be added to the living-room; a breakfast-room, pantry and servants’ hall may be added to the kitchen and dining-room; and a nursery and servants’ rooms to the bedrooms. these, however, are merely supplementary to the basic unit. apartment buildings are of two distinct types: the walk-up and the elevator or lift type. any building over five or six storeys requires a lift, and to be of practical value the hit must always work. since no mechanical device is ever perfect, good planning practice requires that when lifts are installed there be a battery of at least two in order to ensure constant operation in case of a breakdown. it might seem that the lift would change the plan- ning problem only in so far as it made more storeys possible. of course when there are only one or two apartments to a floor, either the lift or the stairway occupies a central location, and the apartments are planned around this line of vertical circulation as a starting point. but as the number of apartments per floor in the walk-up type increases, additional separate lines of stair- ways must be added where needed. lifts, however, being per- pendicular shafts, are kept together, thereby forming a cen- tral distributing point on each floor to a much larger number of apartments. this requires special planning. in arrangement the apartment unit is not essentially different from the old-fashioned home, except that in the apartment, which is the outgrowth of a desire to reduce the cares of house- keeping, the several rooms must be placed with a view to con- venient intercommunication, and must be reduced in size to the minimum. the living-room or parlour is the largest room, and architecture (social) fic. 1. house, new canaan, conn., u. s. a., calvin kiessling, architect. wood architecture, early american colonial style. i'1g. 2. house. los angeles, calif.. harwood hewitt, mission style suitable to warm climate. ic. 3. garden, burdocks, gloucestershire, england, e. guy dawber, archi- tect. charming combination of formal and informal. fic. 4. flats, jackson heights, l. i., a. j. thomas, architect concentrated housing with generous garden space. fic. 5. great maythern, kent, sir edwin lutyens, architect. fine restoration. fic. 6. hortensia house, chelsea, london, percy tubbs, son & duncan, architects. ‘‘walk up” apartments simply treated. _ fic. 7. shelton hotel, n. y. city, arthur loomis harmon, architect. sky- scraper apartment hotel. architect. spanish example of plats iti. a faa 1 tt fic. 8. apartment house (wohnhausgruppe), karl ehn, architect. vienna. garden court view. fic. 9. apartment house. paris, sauvage & sarrazin, architects. ing use of recessed upper storeys. fic. 10. residence, leningrad, i. fomin, rh ay fig. theatre des champs elysees, paris, a. soden | eckahon of theatre facade. fic. 12. grant park stadium, chicago, holabird & roche, ample of impressive civic provision for outdoor entertainment. fic. 13. fifth avenue hospital, york & sawyer, architects. planned for maximum light and air. interest- classic influence. & g. perret, architects. architects. ex- a city hospital architecture (educational) plate iv. _ ull ll 1 i % : _ sul ~ ne 1 | :f | i if a { i = fic. 1. high school, rockville center, l. i., u. s. a., h. t. blanchard, archi- fic. 6. art gallery, zurich, switzerland, prof. karl moser, architect. modern architectural motifs interestingly used. tect. fairly typical of american schools. fic. 7. pavillon du collectionneur, paris, to25, exposition, pierre patout, fic. 2. high school, columbus, ohio, w. b. ittner, architect. impressive architect. extreme modern exposition architecture very well done. massing in classic manner. fic. 3. clare college, cambridge, eng., sir giles scott, architect. memorial fic. 8. american academy in rome, mckim, mead & white, architects. architecture in spirit of school building. important school of architecture and allied arts. fic. 4. projected building of the university of pittsburgh, klauder, architects. most modern combination of school and skyscraper. secured by mass, rather than detail. s. a., j. g. rogers, architect. fic. 1o. freer art gallery, washington, d. c., chas. a. platt, architect. interesting handling of walls with few openings. u.s. a., day and fic. 9. school building, hilversum, holland, dudok, architect. effects fic. 5. harkness hal!, yale university, u. example of old-world architecture brought to modern university. architecture opening off this, usually with wide doors which permit the occa- sional use of the two spaces as one, is the dining-room. adjacent to the dining-room are the pantry, if one is included in the plan, and the kitchen. bedrooms and baths are preferably arranged in a wing of the building, so that they may be separated to some extent from the other quarters. modern bathrooms are small and very compactly arranged, one to each bedroom when possible. service facilities for the kitchen are important. when the building does not exceed nine or ten floors, a hand-operated dumb-waiter is installed, running from the basement to each kitchen, by means of which the jan- itor of the building distributes food supplies to the various ten- ants. garbage is collected by the same device, although incin- erators are also widely employed. the flues of the incinerator open into all the kitchens, and garbage and waste are emptied directly into them and reduced to ashes, which can be removed from time to time at the base. this disposal system keeps the dumb-waiter car and shaft clean. a gas-stove, an all-metal kitchen cabinet, a combination porcelain sink and laundry tub, an ice-box, and in recent years an electric ice-machine are gen- erally installed when the building is erected. in america the use of an ice-box is almost universal, not only for cooling pur- poses during the summer heat, but because it helps to preserve food in a safe and sanitary condition throughout the year. the dining-room has one or more electric outlets convenient for toasters and electric grills on the dining-room table. the living- room often has a practicable fireplace, not for heating but as a social amenity. (see household appliances.) a central heating plant for each building or group of buildings provides the necessary warmth during the winter months, the system usually employed being steam with exposed radiators in all rooms. when the apartment building exceeds ten storeys, the hand-operated dumb-waiter is hardly practical. electrically driven ‘‘ fool-proof ” dumb-waiters are sometimes used, but the initial cost is large and the upkeep expensive. in the most mod- ern practice, an additional service lift is installed. this is pref- erably located near the kitchen wing, or at the rear of the apart- ment house, to bring in food supplies, to remove garbage and waste, and for the use of the servants. in the beginning, the particular appeal of the “ flat ”’ was the elimination of stairs. in the old-fashioned city house, built like a narrow slab in a block of similar houses, the overburdened housewife found the stairs very tiring, especially when it meant six or seven flights from basement to attic. this advantage in the flat, however, was largely offset by the difficulty of separating living from sleeping quarters. the so-called “‘ duplex ” apart- ment was the first solution of this annoying problem. here the entire apartment unit occupies two floors, the sleeping quarters above and the living-rooms below, with a small interior stair for communication. in the effort to reduce space, since part of the care of a home is its size, a low ceiling was adopted. the new york building law at present specifies a clear height of no less than eight feet; formerly it was nine. consequently builders anxious to get the maximum return from a given piece of property build to this minimum. the larger rooms, particularly the living-room, seemed proportionately low, and were consequently depressing. even the largest and most expensive apartments seldom exceeded 9} ft., on account of the great waste of cubic contents in the minor rooms. this has resulted in the evolution of still another type of apartment, in which, by a combination of alternating “ duplex ” and “‘ simplex ”’ floors, the living-rooms are given an extra ceiling height, bringing them back again to the proportions of the old-fashioned city home, two storeys of living-rooms being placed adjacent to three storeys of minor rooms. this arrange- ment has the double advantage of retaining something of the atmosphere of the old-fashioned home in at least one important room, and yet economising space, while providing the advantage of modern convenience in other parts of the apartment. apartment hotels —the apartment hotel, a type of building which is becoming more and more popular, is simply an apart- ment house in which the kitchens and the servants’ sections of 203 all the apartments are concentrated in one place and conducted under hotel management. meals are privately served in each apartment, as simply or as elaborately as desired, and maid service is furnished by the management. public dining-rooms are also provided. architecturally, the apartment hotel may be characterised as an apartment house without kitchens, or as a hotel made up of permanent private suites. hotels —in the hotel proper, improvement in mechanical arrangements is more manifest than any change in basic plan- ning principle. as in most other types of building, the tendency is toward increased size. a prominent hotel authority states that the heavy overhead expense of a modern hotel, giving as it does complete service of every kind, makes it difficult to operate successfully with less than 1,000 rooms. some recent examples in america exceed 2,000 rooms. this means large ground area or great height, or both. twenty storeys are now customary, and a 4o-storey hotel is projected for new york. the plan problem of an hotel starts with a typical bedroom floor which is repeated many times and is the basis of income for the hotel. steel skeleton construction, the accepted form of building in nearly all countries, makes possible a more economical bedroom floor arrangement than the older types of wall-bearing construc- tion, with which, of course, there was also a definite limit to the possible number of storeys. the lower floors, the least in demand as bedrooms (for the public seems to have lost its fear of fire in modern structures and prefers to be high for light, air and free- dom from noise), are used for the essential hotel offices, lounging spaces, parlours, dining-rooms, banquet-halls, restaurants, cafeterias, etc. specialised buildings —in the field of indoor entertainment, progress in theatre design is very marked, while the advent of the picture house adds a new problem. in the old theatres, stage and auditorium formed two nearly balancing elements. improved mechanical equipment has somewhat reduced the size of the stage, and the different seating arrangements of the auditorium have increased proportionately the ground area of this part. the cinema requires almost no stage, and in many cases the auditorium has been enlarged beyond the reach of the human voice. in both types the cross section shows the use of but one balcony, and shows no supporting posts to interrupt the view. architecturally most theatres of both types are problems in interior design. being commercial enterprises, and requiring no natural light, they occupy spaces away from the street and have at most only a small street frontage. of course the govern- ment-owned and municipal theatres are generally free standing, and have an architectural treatment in keeping with their location. for open-air’ entertainment, the most significant structure that has appeared is the great stadium, rivalling in size, and in some cases in architectural embellishment, the colosseums of old. these are of three general classes: those completely elliptical in form and built on banked-up earth; those built up from the level of the ground as was the colosseum of rome, but open at one end; and those built only at one side of the play-field. care of the sick has been given particular attention. the experience of the world war gave both medicine and surgery opportunities for study and experiment that brought about great strides in both these fields, and evolved many new fea- tures in hospital design. the temporary war hospitals showed new arrangements and new dispositions in all the various activi- ties in modern hospitals, and these new ideas became incorporated in the post-war permanent buildings. two types of plans may be noted—the open scheme with few storeys where ample space is available, and the compact many-storeyed type required in cities. the open plans show a more orderly arrangement of budding units, central administration, kitchen facilities and power plants; general orientation is a very important factor, and lines of communication unite the various elements in a direct and simple plan-scheme. v. educational architecture under this heading we shall include all buildings in which knowledge is imparted and acquired, either directly, by contact 204 between teacher and pupil, as in schools, colleges and universi- tics; or indirectly, as in museums, libraries and exposition build- ings. compulsory education, especially in the elementary branches, prevails in most civilised countries, and government- directed institutions are on the increase. schools are erected to fit many and diverse lines of study. the one-time high-school group that represented merely the finishing touches of an eng- lish education has become subdivided into many different forms. the modern development of education, that prepares the pupil for a later status in life, has resulted m vocational schools, in which the pupil may be trained in a vocation which his inclina- tion, guided by the influence of his teachers, leads him to select, and which launches him successfully upon a career. school architecture—the development of architecture in school building has been one of the most remarkable phases of architectural progress during the present century. (see epuca- tion.) the architect who specialises in schoolhouse construction not only must be a student of educational methods, but he must also know how to conserve the physical wellbeing of the pupil during school hours by surrounding him with every element of safety that will safeguard his health, his eyesight and his general physical condition. specialists in various lines of schoolhouse construction have developed these matters to a point of exact science: and in the plan of the building, the arrangement of the classroom, the width of the corridors, and the heating and ven- tilation systems, methods have been evolved that make the schoolhouse the most perfectly functioning building that we have at present developed. the tendency towards larger and larger units, which runs through commerce and industry, manifests itself again in educa- tional buildings. this is deplored by many educators on the ground that it standardises educational methods and robs the student of individual attention, but the fact remains that the large institution is the only adequate means of meeting the demand for instruction. there is, however, a definite limit to the number of students a single teacher can handle. much study and experiment on the part of experts in this field have evolved a classroom of fairly definite size and shape. the school plan revolves around this unit classroom, just as the plan of an office building is based upon the office unit. unilateral lighting is preferred when pos- sible. wide corridors adjoin all rooms, leading to the building exits, stairways, assembly hall, gymnasium and other special spaces. ceiling heights are ample for ventilation purposes, and when there is 15 fect or more from floor to floor above, stairways can be doubled, thus securing two separate stair exits in the space formerly occupied by one. universifics—the most interesting feature of the newer col- leges and universities is the comprehensive plan lay-out upon which they are being built, permitting of future expansion. the older universities of europe grew through the centuries by suc- cessive accretions, and they possess, of course, the charm and interest of historical background and precedent. certain modern universities, notably in america, have endeavoured to recapture this atmosphere by imitating the semi-monastic architecture of those older institutions—harkness memorial hall at yale and the graduate school at princeton, to mention only two. on the other hand, there is a growing tendency to accept frankly the changed conditions of the time and build in the modern idiom. the university of pittsburgh plans to build its halls of learning in the form of a modern 60-storey sky-scraper. libraries —libraries are keeping step with the general in- crease in public education. many large citics have a central building, extensive in scope and impressive in design, and one or more branches at convenient points in the populous districts. the general plan consists of a central public room, where books are loaned and returned, where card catalogues are convenient for consultation, and where information is given. together with the stock rooms, this forms the hub of the plan, around which are disposed other special spaces, such as children’s room, peri- odical rooms, reference rooms, special exhibits, etc., as the scope of the work demands. architecture afuseums.—public museums constantly take a more important place in modern life as a means of indirect education. the addi- tion of many commercial, industrial, mechanical, horticultural and other museums to the traditional art museum is proof of this. ifere the plan is comparatively simple, consisting of large well-lighted spaces through which visitors pass from room to room. good modern practice provides one entrance with con- trol, and a disposition of rooms which permits of any given space being temporarily closed for rearrangement or installation of exhibits without shutting off other rooms from public access. the growing tendency of the modern museum to combine educa- tional courses open to the public with its more traditional activ- ities frequently calls for the addition of lecture-rooms, reference- rooms and even auditoriums to the usual plan. expositions.—expositions are generally housed in temporary buildings constructed for the purpose. the plan problem is of especial interest to the architect, because it gives him an oppor- tunity to make experiments on a large scale which he might not care to risk in more permanent buildings designed for special purposes. the columbian exposition in chicago in 1893 changed the whole tendency of architecture in america, creating a veri- table renaissance of classic styles. ‘the paris exposition univer- selle in 1900 experimented with the flowing line and naturalistic ornament, but with no permanent effect upon architecture in general. the wembley exhibition near london revealed certain possibilities in the use of permanent concrete construction, but lost much effectiveness through lack of distinction in setting and approach. jhe french, on the other hand, made the most of their exposition des arts decoratifs in paris in 1925, and many of the temporary buildings displayed architectural forms of unusual interest: the straight line, the post and lintel, sculpture in low relief panels, strong contrasting colours; classical mould- ings, capitals and cornices were conspicuous by their absence. the influence of the paris exposition can be seen in certain com- mercial buildings in america, and will doubtless have a lasting effect, because the style so readily adapts itself to modern forms of machine-made construction. vi. state and city arcintecture when the war broke out many municipalities in england were erecting new and imposing buildings to house local administra- tions. state governments in the united states had undertaken new capitols; and new, modernised post-oflices, customs-houses, town-halls, etc., were partially built in many quarters. the war temporarily checked such activity, but much of the work has been completed since. the plan problem of modern administrative buildings 1s some- what similar to that of the commercial office building except for two special features. in the first place, the inclusion in the plan of certain large and specially designed rooms or spaces for the assembly of boards, councils, delegates or gatherings of repre- sentatives, which become the dominant features, surrounded by offices for government workers and permanent staffs; and sec- ondly, the more extravagant architectural treatment of both the exterior and the interior, with liberal provisions for landscaped settings, all very properly done to impress the community with the power and authority of the state. the architectural problem is new only in so far as the tendency for the state to assume ownership of certain public utilities has considerably increased the space needed for government work. the london county council hall, near the houses of parlia- ment, the fine building of the port of london authority, the town hall of stockholm and the state capitol of nebraska in the united states are conspicuous examples. the political changes resulting from the war will undoubtedly find expression in new governmental buildings in the countries most affected, although as yet nothing of note has appeared. vii. ecclesiastical architecture religious architecture, which includes all buildings erected for spiritual or commemorative purposes, appears to be in a transitional stage. in the endeavour to adapt itself to changing architecture (political) plate v. mk i at = 4 - pie abs, > :. tin iif. z| 7" a ts ae oe —, wee oat rm sssrssrsbsss = oi i) a (3) ia a , © ga a rt a 4 : —_ ~ a tote ey oa wt me dulierotenes 1 i 4 ne fic. 1. western tower, union building, pretoria, south africa, sir herbert fic. 5. county hall, london, ralph knott, architect. an imposing elevation baker, architect. an example of dignified government architecture. making the most of the frontage on the thames. fic. 2. new york municipal building, mckim, mead & white, architects. fic. 6. town hall, stockholm, sweden, r. ostberg, architect. interior: a city’s business office in a skyscraper. <a street passes through the central arch impressive scale and unusua! combination of old forms with new detail. of the monumental colonnade. fic. 7. town hall, stockholm, sweden, r. ostberg. architect. a new and fic. 3. port of london authority, sir herbert baker, architect. the northern variation on the theme of the doge’s palace and campanile at venice extreme of monumental character. fic. 8. nebraska state capitol, lincoln, nebraska, u. s. a., bertram g. fic. 4. bureau des postes, paris, le coeur. modern interior architecture of a goodhue, architect. a new and inspiring solution of the state government new kind. building. plate vi. architecture (religious) mcr et lys er vereen a > = 5 =~ em wm » i faevnam st) see eam 5) i _ r ‘ snes go rrr s iednnn votes coe ty ye nip ‘hs, v9, fic. 1. liverpool cathedral, england, sir giles scott. architect. a great build- fic. 6. chicago temple, holabird & roche, architects. another example of ing with all the inspiration of the middle ages and yet thoroughly modern. church and business. ric. 2. netre dame de rainey, perret, architect. concrete in its new form. fic. 7. cenotaph, whitehall. london. sir edwin lutyens, architect. most note the external wind braces on the spire. impressive of war memorials. photo. w. s. campbell, press studio, london. pic. 3. st. john the divine, n. y. city heins & lafarge, architects, r. a. fic. 8. washington masonic memorial, alexandria. va., u. s. a., helmle & cram succeeding. extremely reminiscent of the old world. corbett, architects. a tower in steps inspired by the ziggurat of old, in a care fic. 4. broadway temple, n. y. city, donn barber, architect. most striking fully landscaped setting example of the combination of church and business. fic. 9. war memorial, paisley, scotland, sir robert lorimer, architect. and fic. 5. lincoln memorial. washington, d. c., henry bacon, architect. mrs. meredith williams, sculptor. sculpture and architecture combined in a dig- most impressive example of classic dignity, in a perfect setting. nified ensemble. architecture conditions, the church finds itself faced on the one hand with the necessity of broadening its activities, and on the other with the problem of effecting a physical compromise with other forms of building. architecturally this involves two distinct problems: (1) enlarging or modifying the church to house new activities; (2) combining it with commercial structures, a course adopted to some extent in the united states. in the past, the church was a refuge for the poor and afflicted, a seat of learning and a centre of social life. one after another these functions began to be assumed by independent agencies. education, except in the spiritual sense, fell chiefly under secular supervision; separate institutions began to care for the sick and the poor; the increased number of social diversions weakened this phase of the church’s hold on the people. ‘there seems to be, however, a tendency to reassume some of these functions in the form of welfare work and community service. this has added to the necessary equipment of the church proper such spaces as small auditoriums, sunday-school rooms, gymnasia, committee- rooms, restaurants, etc. the modern church, excepting the ritualistic type, which has not materially changed in plan ar- rangement or source of design, tends more and more to assume the form of an auditorium in which the important consideration is to see and hear adequately. the enormous growth of large cities has left many churches stranded in business or financial sections, miles from their par- ishes, so that their very existence as buildings is jeopardised. in both london and new york there are many such churches which are preserved only for their architectural interest or his- toric associations. it 1s not mere speculation that, with a few exceptions, these will eventually have to give way. even in newly developed residential communities, the smaller church finds it difficult to retain a fixed or stable congregation. locali- ties are no longer local. the automobile, the railway, the tele- phone and the radio have all conspired to diffuse and diversify public attention. , new churches.—the most startling and essentially modern feature of religious architecture is the ‘ sky-scraper church.” in order to retain a position in the crowded, highly taxed busi- ness centres, certain churches in america have combined with office buildings. this enables them to carry on their social and community service without depending entirely on voluntary contributions for maintenance. the architectural problem here is a commercial sky-scraper with an auditorium on the ground floor; two buildings of quite different character are superimposed one on the other. churches, from the simple village type to the great cathedral, are being built, for instance the cathedral at washington, the great cathedral in liverpool and the cathedral of saint john the divine in new york. france tried a novel experiment in build- ing the church of notre dame at le raincy. this structure, built of reinforced concrete, is of rigidly simple modernistic de- sign but of dubious aesthetic value. vii. in memoriam architecture memorials, a form of architecture antedating any remaining evidence of permanent human habitation, have greatly increased in number and importance since the war. as a problem, memo- rials have a peculiar fascination for the architect, because they are usually untrammelled by the practical restrictions of ordi- nary buildings, and frequently offer the best opportunity for combination with the allied arts of sculpture and painting. the difficulties of the problem lie principally in this very lack of limitations, the freedom of choice making selection of the appro- priate mode of expression more difficult. war memorials, which abound in every country engaged in the conflict, frequently employ war implements and costumes as a basis of design. the most successful, however, stress ab- stract conceptions such as bravery rather than the paraphernalia of war. an indication of the universal trend toward democracy is apparent in numerous memorials to the unknown soldier. war memorials range from simple wall tablets to buildings of impressive proportions. the latter sometimes take the form of 205 memorial hospitals, soldiers’ homes, assembly halls, etc., in which case their inclusion under memorial architecture is merely nominal. public interest in war memorials brought about a> recrudescence of other commemorative monuments. the lin- coln memorial in washington, d.c., is one of the most impres- sive ever erected to one man. the george washington masonic national memorial at alexandria, va., overlooking the potomac river, is another example on an impressive scale. ix. conclusion several general matters bearing upon the development of architecture, which could not appropriately be considered in any of the foregoing categories, deserve discussion here. archi- tectural education, because of a change from the apprenticeship method to the school method, has made phenomenal progress. in france, of course, where the ecole des beaux arts has pro- vided systematic instruction for over two centuries, there has never becn a lack of trained men. even after america began to establish architectural courses (at first in connection with engi- neering schools), england still retained the apprenticeship sys- tem. but when students of both nations began to attend the beaux arts in paris the situation gradually changed. the united states is organised through the medium of the beaux arts insti- tute of design in one vast school of architecture, with a hundred or more teachers and over a thousand students. in england, the university of liverpool, the university of london and other well-established schools of architecture conduct their courses along lines similar to the beaux arts atelier system the essential features of this system are as follows: students work in groups, called afeliers or studios. the students of each group receive a programme of conditions for a building (or part of a building, depending upon their degree of advancement), and, after several hours of study, prepare an esgquisse (sketch) which combines in one drawing their general solution of the prob- lem. with this sketch as a basis, they proceed to develop a pro- jet, or plan, in complete detail. the work is carried on under the supervision of a pairon, who in most cases is a practising archi- tect as well as a teacher. discussion and mutual help among the students of each studio are invaluable factors in the progress of the student, the older pupils helping the younger with ideas and the technique of drafting, the younger helping the older with the mechanical work of repetition and details. of course no student’s work is complete until he has had ample office practice. the great advantage of the afelzcr method lies in the acquisition of broad ideas of plan-compesition and design at a time of life when the imaginative faculties are susceptible of development and before the student has become hedged in and cramped by the endless details of actual practice. the effect of this system upon the design of modern buildings is marked. formerly a single genius, such as wren or the brothers adam in england, or richardson or mckim in america, could change the style of architecture of an entire nation, for it has always been true in the arts that the quantity producer, provided his work had quality as well, exerted the greatest influ- ence upon other workers in the same field. the ateliey method, by inculcating sound principles and directing thousands of stu- dents along definite lines, improves the standard of architecture the world over. no architect’s training is now considered com- plete until he has had a good school and college education, a sound cultural background, a complete university course in his particular subject, and travel and study abroad. familiarity with architectural forms in general, knowledge of modern engi- necring practice, and thorough sympathy with the practical building requirements of the time are the basic reasons why build- ings are constantly improving both in style and in quality of workmanship, and why architects as a professional group are less and less influenced by the genius of a single master, no matter how great his skill or how large the quantity of his work. russian architecture—the plan of this survey of world archi- tecture cannot be strictly followed in considering russian archi- tecture because of the fact that during the larger part of the pe- riod in question political conditions practically excluded russia 206 from participation in the common cultural life of the other nations. the years that immediately preceded the world war may, however, be discussed, as they formed the most creative period in all russian history. after the first abortive revolution of 1905 a great number of wealthy landowners began for safety’s sake to move to the cities, selling their estates and investing money in industrial and commercial enterprises. a revival of building activity in the cities followed, while the increasing influence of the nobility in russian city life left its mark on the style of the architecture, “‘ classicism,” which reminded the nobility of the period of its political and cultural domination. in both the chief cities of russia (st. petersburg and moscow) there were built palatial private residences, of 30 or 40 rooms each, artistically decorated in a “classical”? style. whole blocks were covered with newly built apartment houses, with spacious halls and picturesque interior courts decorated by fountains and statues. the years which immediately preceded the war were char- acterised by the last attempt of the nobility to affirm its pre- dominance as the governing class of russia. at the same time it was the period of an acute struggle between the nobility and the industrial class of russia, which at that moment had become already sufficiently strong and independent and, in its best and most progressive representatives, had attained a level of spiritual culture and artistic taste not inferior to that of the nobility. we witnessed, therefore, a similar revival of industnal buildings, on a very large scale, concrete and concrete-stcel being widely used. entire factory settlements were built anew, the largest of which are found in the rubber industry (the “ treugol- nik ”? co.—about 7,000,000 sq. ft.), textile industry, shipbuild- ing, railroad stations, warehouses, grain elevators and war industries. the years 1914-23 were a period of stagnation for russian architecture. only purely theoretical and experimental work was being done in the studios of architects, bringing about the forma- tion of two distinct artistic schools. one, represented mostly by the younger generation of revolutionary tendencies, is based on abstract philosophical theories, contrary to technical possi- bilities and the requirements of life itself. this is the so-called “ cubism.”? the other school, headed by architects of mature artistic judgment and large practical experience, remains true to classical principles, but tries to simplify the classical forms and to use construction as a decorative element. in 1923 an all- russian agricultural exposition building (more than 52,000,000 cu. ft.) was constructed in moscow by the architects shchussev and oltargevsky. in this undertaking both of the above-men- tioned schools were represented, as some parts of the building were constructed by architects of ‘‘ cubistic ” tendencies. bibliography.—the principal sources of information on modern architecture are the best architectural periodicals of the various countries: the architect; the american architect; the architectural forum; the architectural record (new york); the architectural re- view; the architects’ journal (london); moderne bauformen (stutt- gart); l’architecte (paris); and architetiura e arti de ca