ANTIMONY

normally, the world’s consumption of this metal is not large, and in pre-war years was almost en- tirely met by the production of a few countries, principally borneo, france, austria-hungary, asia minor and, since 1900, china. by the terms of the peace treaty of 1919, the larger part of the austro-hungarian ore-producing areas was included within the territory of czechoslovakia, which in 1921 attained an output of 1,573 tons. during the war, belligerent governments became large buyers of the metal for ammunition purposes, principally for the manufacture of shrapnel bullets. the greatest production was reached in 1916, since when there has been a steady decline. the following table compares the production of antimony ore in the principal countries during the years 1913, 1918 and 1923. | metric tons 1918 1923 british empire australia : : ; p 1,270 779 518 other parts. . ; : ; 26 55 sa other countries austria-hungary 1,878 i 78 france 4,472 1,650 543 italy 360 404 660 asia minor 240 400 400 china 13,032 | 18,112 | 16,383 mexico 3,269 482 brbliography.—a. w. g. wilson, mining of antimony ores in canada, mines branch, canada, summ. rept., no. 421 (1915); a. m. sen, notes on the occurrence of lead, zinc, and antimony ores in afysore, dept. mines & geol., mysore state (1917); a. gibb- maitland, zhe antimony deposits of western australia, mining handbook, geol. surv. (1919); w. versfeld, the base metal re- sources of the union of south africa, dept. mines and ind., union of south africa (1919). | antioch college.—<antioch college, an institution of higher education at yellow springs, ohio, is governed by a board of 20 trustees, the president of the college being ex officio president of the board. as reorganised in 1921, with arthur i. morgan as president, antioch entered upon a distinctive career that has attracted widespread attention both on the part of the general public and of educationalists. the enrolment is limited to about 600. the course for undergraduates commonly requires five or six years, and leads to the b. s. or a. b. degree. in choosing students, consideration is given to reports on required physical examinations, secondary school records, intelligence tests, life sketches by the applicants and reports of references. the traditional dominant purpose of the american college is the “stimulation and development of those gifts of intellect with which nature has endowed the student.” antioch has endeavoured to restate the proper purpose of the college. according to its philosophy, that purpose is nothing less than the integration of life and its symmetrical development. in america the college, including the technical school, is becoming recognised as the chief and almost the only ordered means for preparing intelligent young people for life. students should be concerned, not with scholarship or technical skill alone, but with learning what life means, and how to make the most of it. antioch holds that there is no single faculty, not even intelligence, which is the chief element of human excellence, or which chiefly needs systematic development. excellence lies in symmetry, in the development of every part of personality in proper relation and proportion to every other part. every element necessary to a well-proportioned life should have recognition in a college programme; ‘not simply those which traditionally have been associated with formal education. spe- cialisation must take its due place as a normal concern of edu- cation, but not as the chief concern. antioch undertakes to make an appraisal of personality and of life, and to determine 144 what programmes will best stimulate and develop all the gifts of personality, always being controlled by a sense of relative values. the work of the college falls under four main heads; required physical education, a required liberal curriculum, technical or professional training, and part-time practical economic work. physical education includes periodic physical examinations, necessary corrective exercises, athletics for everyone and a course in personal and social hygiene. required hberal studies aim to introduce students to all major ficlds of human interest, rather than to a few special interests, and to be the medium by which significant gains of human knowledge and outlook become the common property of educated men and women. these required courses include two years of iinglish and literature; five years of history, economics and government; one year each of mathe- matics, chemistry, physics, biology, earth science (a combination of physiography, geology and astronomy); psychology; and a study of scientific method. a year of philosophy is required; and a year of “‘ applied aesthetics,” this last an effort to stimulate a sense of beauty, and to direct its application to everyday affairs. ‘* personal finance ” teaches the rudiments of personal financial management. these subjects require about half the total classroom time for six years. elective courses provide advanced work for qualified students. ‘‘ autonomous courses,” similar to undergraduate semi- nars, are open to students of proved ability, who pursue ad- vanced work with minimum supervision. there are no required courses in religion. the temper of the institution as a whole retlects the controlling desire to understand the significance of life and to guide conduct by that understanding. free, critical inquiry is encouraged. all students must take the liberal courses. technical and professional courses prepare for business, engineering, scientific research, education, journalism and home and institutional management. they aim at mastery of funda- mental principles rather than specialised application. nearly all occupational programmes include courses in administration and management. the first two years are exploratory, the required liberal work dominating, while the students consider possible vocations. gradually the occupational lines are defined, first in general, and then in specific callings. to develop traits not easily reached by classroom iis such as initiative, self-reliance, responsibility, courage and adapta- bility, and to help practical adjustment to life, both men and women students spend half their time at college and half in practical economic occupations, in alternate five-week shifts. each working position 1s continuously filled, one student working while his or her alternate studies. these “co-operative ”’ students work over a radius of 1,000 m., with rso0 employers, in a wide variety of callings; the positions being chosen because of their educational value to the particular students. self-support is incidental, but the students to a large degree themselves meet college expenses. the work develops stamina, helps students recognise and prepare for appropriate callings, acquaints them with practical life, and helps them appreciate professional studies. the alternation allows more intense application to college work, since the students do not grow stale from unrelieved application to books. the “ personnel department ”’ furnishes vocational counsel, locates positions, visits students at work, and helps them realise its educational value. credit toward the degree is given for suitable practical accomplishment. (a. e. mo.) antiseptics (sce 2.146).—during recent years the study of antiseptics has gone mainly along two lines—to produce more efficient antiseptics for use in the ordinary way by external application, and to elabcrate chemical substances which can be injected into the circulation and destroy the infecting microbes. at the same time many studies have been made on the natural antiseplics by which the bo:ly rids itself of infection. natural aiitiseptics—these exist in greater or less degree in almost every cell of the human body, as well as in most of the secretions. metchnikofi showed that some cells (phagocytes), and especially the white corpuscles of the blood, could ingest and digest microbes, and wright discovered that this ingestion or phagocytosis only took place after the microbes had been acted antiseptlics on by the blood fluids. the blood fluids also have a corsideratle power of destroying or restraining the growth of many patho- genic bacteria (see iammunity). ileming showed in 1922 that the cells and secretions of the human body have a remarkable anti- septic power toward certain microbes by virtue of their contain- ing a ferment which has been called “ lysozyme.” of all the secretions the tears are the richest in this ferment, and it has been shown that human tears, even when diluted six million times, have a markedly destructive action on some of the microbes found in the air—obviously a natural means of pro- tection against infection. chemical antiseplics —research has been aiecia to the action of these on the natural defences of the body, and the body cells are, in general, found to be much more susceptible to the action of these chemicals than are bacteria. if an ordinary chemical antiseptic, e.g., carbolic acid is added to blood infected with staphylococci or streptococci (the ordinary microbes of suppuration), the blood itself has such a power of killing these microbes that with a moderate implantation some 95 to 99% are destroyed; but when the concentration of carbolic acid in the blood reaches 1 in 600 the whole of the natural antiseptic powcr of the blood is lost and every microbe implanted survives and multiplies. of course, more concentrated solutions of the chemical will, in addition to killing the blood cells, inhibit or destroy the bacteria and so exert an antiseptic action, but this is only manifest after the natural defences against "infection have been destroyed. | chemotherapy.—the ideal method of using an antiseptic for the treatment of a bacterial infection is to introduce it into the circulation so that it reaches every portion of the infected focus and destroys the microbes. for ordinary bacterial infections this ideal has not yet been attained, but remarkable advances have been made in this direction in certain infections. in 1910 ehrlich prepared an organic arsenical product which when in- jected into the body, rapidly destroyed the microbe of syphilis, and this product, salvarsan, together with the more recently introduced substances of similar constitution, has revolutionised the treatment of this disease (see venereal diseases). follow- ing ehrlich, morgenroth prepared a quinine derivative (opto- chin) which had a remarkable affinity for the pneumococcus (the microbe which causes pneumonia), while it had little action on other microbes; but unfortunately this substance had certain toxic qualities which rendered it unsuitable in practice. in some other infections, also, drugs have been found which can destroy the infecting agent without exercising any serious toxic action on the human body; notable among these are emcetine in amoebic dysentery (see dysentery), and “ bayer 205” in sleeping sickness. the fact that drugs can be prepared which have a very specific action on one microbe offers some hope that in the near future there will be produced chemicals which will destroy the ordinary disease-producing bacteria without dam- aging the tissues, and so furnish an easy and certain remedy for the common infections. chemical antiseptics and wounds.—prior to the world war the use of antiseptics in surgery had been largely discarded in favour of aseptic methods which aimed at preventing the access of microbes to the wound. during the war, however, it was found that all the wounds were infected with septic microbes, and many antiseptic methods were employed in the hope of destroying these microbes. briefly, the results obtained were these: none of the antiseptics was able rapidly to sterilise a wound; most of them were without any evident effect on the bacterial infection; those which have appeared to have some in- fluence on the course of the infection had, in addition to their ‘antiseptic ” action on the bacteria, a stimulant effect on the infected tissues, and this probably contributed largely to their success. the popular pre-war antiseptics, such as carbolic acid, iodine and the salts of mercury, were found to be without effect on the progress of an infection, although outside the body, these are powerlul bactericidal agents. chlorine derivatives obtained great popularity in the form of eusol (hypochlorous acid), sodium hypochlorite (dakin’s fluid) antwerp—antwerp, siege of or chloramine-t, a more complicated organic derivative, and this type of antiseptic is still in common use under various trade names. some of the aniline dyes also are used as antiseptics, and outside the body these are probably the most powerful of all the chemical bactericidal agents. gentian violet, brilliant green and acrillavine have been largely used, but in all these cases the action on the bacteria is slow and the dyes are rapidly absorbed by the tissues and dressings of the wound. acriflavine differs from almost all other antiseptics in that it has a more powerful action in blood serum than it has in water, and it was hoped from this that it would prove very eliective in killing bac- teria embedded in the tissues; this hope, however, has not been fulfilled, although the dye still obtains some popularity in the treatment of certain infections. another method of using an antiseptic is to fill the wound with an almost insoluble substance which slowly gives off an antiseptic substance. a good example of this is iodoform, and although this in itself has no power of killing microbes it slowly breaks down in contact with the body fluids and liberates small quantities of iodine, to which the antiseptic action of the iodo- form is attributed. this substance, iodoform, used to be very popular in the treatment of septic infections, but it possesses a very penetrating odour and has been largely given up on this account. in addition to its direct antiseptic action, it possesses, in common with some of the chlorine antiseptics, the power of inducing a large flow of lymph from the wound and so aiding the natural defensive mechanism of the body. sterilisation.—while antiseptics have not been very successful in killing bacteria in infected tissues in the body, they are invaluable in sterilising apparatus, instruments and _ infected matter of many kinds outside the body. an infected water supply can be efficiently and economically sterilised by the use of a small quantity of chlorine (see water, purification of); the infective excreta from cases of typhoid fever and similar diseases can be rendered harmless by treating them with carbolic acid or other similar antiseptic; catgut for use in surgical opera- tions can only be sterilised by the use of chemical antiseptics, and there are innumerable other ways in which these chemicals fulfil their function of destroying bacteria. bibliography.—medical research council, london, special re- port ne. 57. siudies in wound infections (1921). (a, fl.) antwerp (see 2.155) had an estimated population in 1923 of 300,000. the decision taken in 1878 to change it from a fortress to a fortified position by the construction of an outer line of forts at a distance of from 5 to 11 m. from the city had been to a great extent carried out by aug. 1914, though no one of the 17 forts involved in the scheme had been completed. the belgian govt. left brussels for antwerp on aug. 17 1914; and three days later the belgian army, retiring before von beseler’s forces, took up a position behind the fortified lines. the bombardment began on sept. 28 and on oct. 9 the city surrendered. by that date only about a tenth of the population remained in the city. the dam- age included the destruction of some 300 houses, mostly in the marche-aux-souliers, the avenue d’amerique and the suburbs near the forts. on nov. 19 1918 the king and queen of the belgians entered the city in state. restoration work.—after the german evacuation in 1918 the restoration of the city proceeded rapidly. the zoological gar- dens were restocked, various new streets were laid out, a large railway station was built and at the end of 1925 work was begun on a great boulevard to brussels. more important, however, are the extensions and improvements in the harbour works under- ‘taken after the world war. they include the construction of a canal dock over three miles long which stretches from the old wet dock no. 3 to the bend of the scheldt at kruisschans, where it ends in a maritime lock approximately 886 ft. long and rrs ft. wide, with a depth ranging from 33 to 48 ft. the dock itself is maintained at a constant depth of about 39 ft., and is connected with the other docks in the harbour by a channel about 440 yd. long and 110 yd. wide. it was estimated that the lock would be completed by the end of 1926. further schemes of extension included the construction of wet docks adjoining the canal dock 145 and in 1925 the building of two wet and three dry docks was undertaken. the complete plan was designed to give the port a total dock water area of 1,334 ac. and a quayage length of 28 miles. the necessary railway extensions bring the length of the port railway system up to 500 miles. during the german occupation antwerp remained to all intents and purposes a dead city. from the close of 1918 onwards its trade and industry showed a steady revival, and in 1924 the tonnage of shipping using the port was 17,496,900. the construction of river boats for export to africa was resumed after the war, and this industry rapidly returned to something approaching its former importance. shipbuilding proper showed little sign of prosperity, although a good deal of ship repairing was attracted to the port. antwerp, siege of.—<after the meuse the natural line of defence for the belgian army against an adversary from the east is the schelde and the entrenched camp of antwerp. asa commercial metropolis antwerp was an obvious centre for arse- nals, hospitals and stores of munitions and provisions, and it be- came the army’s base of operations. by reason of its situation the fortress was also a refuge, if only a temporary one; it was also an excellent flank position for use against the lines of communica- tion of the german armies operating in the north of france. through ostend and zeebrugge, antwerp had easy means of communication with england. under the shelter of antwerp and the schelde, british troops could safely land in flanders, operate in liaison with the belgian army, protect the pas-de- calais coast with its sea traffic, vital to england, and prevent the allied left wing from being turned and enveloped. the defences described. —the entrenched camp of antwerp, as it was in 1914, was the result of two distinct undertakings, (1) those carried out between 1859 and 1870 under the direction of brialmont, and comprising a line of detached forts placed at about a distance of two to three miles from the agglomeration of buildings and built both in masonry and in earth, and a poly- gonal enceinte on the outskirts of the city; and (2) those under- taken after 1906, which provided a principal line of defence, composed of 17 forts about 3 m. apart, with permanent redoubts in the intervals. the forts were placed at a distance of 5 to 11 m. from the city proper and were armed with one or two cupolas for twin 15-cm. guns, two cupolas for single 12-cm. howitzers and four or six cupolas for single 7-5-cm. guns. the redoubts had only one 7-5-cm. cupola. forts and redoubts were con- structed entirely of ordinary concrete, with vaults 2:50 metres thick at the crown and surrounded by wet ditches, 33 ft. wide. the old fort line was about to be transformed into an enceinte de sitrete, the forts being organised for small weapons and con- nected by concrete redoubts and a grille. these extensive works had necessarily to be spread over several years and on the outbreak of hostilities in 1914, not one of the forts planned in 1906 was completed. some lacked cupolas; others had cupolas without concrete aprons, and these had ta be improvised by pouring gravel, iron rods and cement, in some cases sacks of cement soaked with water, or even simple sandbags, round the cupolas. communications and drainage were not established either inside or outside the forts, neither was the machinery in place. no equipment for fire observation and no observation posts existed and the necessary survey work for firing by the map was incomplete. the substructures and the armouring, constructed to resist the 21-cm. mortar, were not calculated to face 30-5- or 42-cm. projectiles. the total perim- eter was 60m. of which 6 m. were protected by inundations. the defence force numbered only 40,0c0 men, most of whom had seen no military service for 10 years. the staff was entirely inadequate for the duties. . operations begin.—the retreat of the belgian army behind the nethe on aug. 20 was only temporary. when the german i. army wheeled through and past brussels on its way to france, it dropped the iii. res. corps under von beseler, and three land- wehr brigades, to face northward as a flankguard against the belgian field army in antwerp. von beseler took up his posi- tion on the line grimberghen-over-de-vaert-aerschot. on ve ‘dee sah dp \ ee ae ak | a 3 ra wren b: si lokeren » a _—> otl lh hip lyre ch www n a siege of antwerp|\ [914 english miles alosti nst re. a. o kilometres 8) 5 masn railways canals forts belgians wwmm germans »i°oct. -— / i* oct. exzezzzza st super-heavy howitzer fattery —=— ach stl b. aug. 25 and again on sept. 9 the belgians, in co-operation with the allied attacks on the frontiers and the marne, mace sorties from antwerp and attacked his lines. on the second of these occasions his situation was at one time critical. a third sortie was being prepared toward sept. 20, when reports began to come in of important german movements and of a quantity of very heavy artillery on the roads in the region north of brussels. falkenhayn, acting as chief of the general staff, had given the order to carry the fortress and the powerful materie?, which had laid in ruins the forts of liege, namur and maubeuge, was being established in position between the senne and the grande nethe, from sempst to heyst. the total artillery strength of the ger- mans before antwerp was 186 pieces of field artillery, 48 long guns of 10, 13 and 15 cm., 120 howitzers of 15 and 21 cm. and 13 supcr-heavy howitzers of 30-5 and 42 cm. von beseler’s army group comprised at that time the 37th landwehr bde. between alost and termonde, where it had served in flank guard since sept. 14; the 4th res. div. between termonde and the willebroeck canal; the marine div. between this canal and the dyle about malines; the iit. res. corps from the dyle to the antwerp-aerschot railway and the 26th land- wehr bde. north of aerschot, with a group furnished by the iii. res. corps further to the right front at westerloo. on sept. 27 the belgian field army was distributed as follows: the rst and 2nd divs., between the senne and the nethe, from willebroeck to lierre, with the 5th div. in reserve north of the nethe; the 6th and ard divs. between the senne and the schelde; the 4th div. at termonde and the cavalry div. about alost- wetteren to cover the communications between antwerp and the sea. the german bombardment.—on the morning of the 28th the german bombardment was let loose along the whole front be- tween termonde and lierre. it at once became clear that the attack was being concentrated on the south front of the fortress. von beseler had not the necessary forces to prosecute a siege on another side while still covering the communications through es \ 0 st gilles-waes mm’ hoef , agsrode x i baier lma —— <* div. brussels (i antwerp, siege of . bavarian cavasry division l£rsatz landwehr . marine . naval reserve brigade st nicolas ~, gtr. div. x ines ¥ qyle pr forts a. waelhem 8. wavre s® catherine cc. dorpveld d. koningshoycht lida e£. lierre brussels against a sortie. trusting in the proved powers of his weapons of attack which, installed beyond the range of the bel- gian gun, could fire as deliberately as on an experimental range, he decided to spare his infantry, to destroy the forts and throw into confusion the lines of defence by gunfire, controlled by air- crait. the results attained, he proposed cautiously to advance his infantry and gain a footing in the shattered forts and pul- verised lines of defence. the bombardment was continued for four days with clocklike regularity. it was directed against four forts (waelhem, wavre ste. catherine, koningshoycht and lierre) and the spaces be- tween them. the concrete was inferior in quality to that of liege and namur, and galleries were pierced, men’s quarters destroyed, cupolas destroyed, jammed or made inaccessible; powder magazines blew up, fires broke out and the air in the shelters became unbreathable. forts and trenches had been reduced to rubbish heaps by the time that the enemy, on oct. rat 5 p.m., delivered his assault. resistance was offered every- where except at wavre ste. catherine, where the garrison had been driven away by the flames. the bombardment recommenced on oct. 2, increasing in pre- cision, and the inevitable happened. the dorpveld redoubt and fort waelhem, which had been reduced to the last extremity, now surrendered. the tallaert redoubt blew up; the konings- hoycht and lierre forts, which had been ruined, were evacuated. on the night of oct. 2-3, and on oct. 4, all the defence troops were transferred to the north of the nethe from waelhem to _ lierre. the belgian troops now began to be seriously disheart- ened. for a fortnight past the race to the sea had been in prog- ress in france, the battle front had reached arras and bethune and fresh german masses were traversing belgium in a westerly direction. the question was, would the allies win the race in time to join hands with the belgians on the schelde? this junc- tion was essential, even if it entailed the abandonment of the fortress. the king was strongly in favour of holding the fortress until the last extremity, in order to keep occupied the german aosta—appendicitis troops and material now concentrated before it, and also to gain time for the formation of a franco-british-belgian front on the dendre or on the schelde, leaning on the dutch frontier. assistance from britain —mr. winston churchill, at that time first lord of the admiralty, fully realised the rele of the fortress as the bulwark of the pas-de-calais. when he heard that the belgian govt. was to leave the city he came to take stock of the situation. the king informed him personally of the task he pro- posed for the belgian army on the extreme left of the allies. entirely in agreement, mr. churchill returned to london to push forward the dispatch of english and french reinforcements to antwerp and, above all, to ghent. the immediate result of mr. churchill’s intervention was the arrival at antwerp on the evening of oct. 3 of a brigade of 2,000 men of the british royal naval division. the appearance of these, the first allies the belgian soldiers had set eyes on during the two months of the war, roused enthusiasm, but unfortunately this assistance could be no more than a moral stimulus. mean- time, von beseler was bringing up his heavy batteries to crush fort kessel, while his infantry was making its way slowly into lierre, being held up on the northern boundary of that town by the fire of the marine brigade on the fifth. to the south of the town four german battalions crossed the nethe under cover of the bombardment and on the night of oct. 5-6 the sth belgian div. attempted to push them back into the river. this counter-attack, with bayonets fixed and unloaded rifles, reached the nethe at one point and caused the enemy serious alarm for a moment, but the fatigue of the attacking troops and the superiority of the german artillery rendered any permanent success impossible. in the course of the day (oct. 6) the remain- der of the rst, 2nd and sth divs. and the british marine. bde. fell back to the line contich-bouchot. meantime, along the schelde, the enemy was becoming more and more agressive at baesrode, termonde and schoonaerde, where the 6,oo0 men of the 4th div. lay extended on a front of 18 miles. in the region of lille the enemy’s right wing was only 30 m. from the sea, whereas the distance from the nethe to nieuport was 85 miles. it was essential to save the belgian army from being surrounded, and the king decided that the field troops should cross the schelde on the night of oct. 6-7 and march to join the british 7th and 3rd cavalry divs. then landing at zeebrugge and ostend, which were to move to ghent in conjunction with a brigade of french marines. the decision came just in time, for on oct. 7 the germans forced the schelde at schoonaerde and pushed on toward lokeren. the city abandoned.—the continuation of the defence was entrusted to gen. deguise with the garrison troops, the 2nd div. and the british naval div. which had been brought up to 10,000 men. the general placed these two divisions on the line of forts 1 to 8, where throughout the days of the 7th and 8th they sto- ically endured the usual bombardment. an attempt to intimi- date the governor by the bombardment of the city had no effect. the departure of the field army, on the other hand, did affect the morale of the population and the fortress troops. the british admiralty did not want the naval div. to be surrounded and telephoned for it to be withdrawn, whereupon deguise decided to withdraw the 2nd div. also, to abandon the city and to con- tinue the defence on the left bank. but the fortress troops had now reached the limit of their endurance and the general, know- ing the germans to be near lokeren, authorised officers and units to leave the fortress and rejoin the field army. meanwhile the civil authorities, seeing the city empty of troops and threat- ened with destruction by the fires which had been started by the bombardment, sent a deputation to von beseler to save the city from a disaster which could have no military advantage. the fortress was empty, the works out of action; on oct. ro the gover- nor signed the capitulation. (see belgrum, invasion of.) bibliography.— m. schwarte, der grosse krieg 1914-8 (1921-4); j. e. edmonds, /tistory of the great war (1921, etc.); belgian army, official, la campagne de l’ armee belge, 31 juillet 1914—-1 janvier ro15 (paris, 1915); an engineer, antwerpen belegerd en gevalien (rotterdam, 1914); d. jerrold, the roval naval division (1923). (see also world war: bibliography.) (r. van o.) 147 aosta, emanuele filiberto, duke of (18609-__—i+);~ italian general, was born jan. 13 1869, the eldest son of prince amedeo of savoy, duke of aosta (see 1.804), and thus a cousin of victor emmanuel iii. he adopted a military career, but this was interrupted by a serious illness and when the world war broke out he was on the retired list. later, however, he was appointed to the command of the iii. army. after the war the rumour of the possibility of his being proclaimed king in place of victor emmanuel iii., owing to the latter’s reluctance to adopt fascism in its entirety, gained a certain amount of credence in foreign circles. apartments: see architecture.