AFRICA

the period t91o-25 witnessed many important developments in africa. ‘territorial changes were numerous and had a marked effect upon political, social and economic conditions. many pages were added to the history of discovery, while the newly gained knowledge of the conti- nent has greatly affected past conceptions of the develop- ment of the higher forms of vertebrate life, especially of the mammals of the old world from morocco to china, and even across the atlantic to south america. south america and the west indies, it is now clear, were once united with west africa by a broad belt, across which vertebrates from the old world in the eocene, oligocene and early miocene formations poured westward and gradually peopled cis-andine south america. _i. exploration the largest unknown area of africa in 1910 was in the sahara, including the libyan desert. only the central part of the sahara had been adequately explored, while the greatest gaps on the map were in the libyan desert. this region may be considered first. here in 1920 hassanein bey (ahmad muhammad bey has- sanein), an egyptian officer, made a somewhat remarkable jour- ney from the confines of cyrenaica to the kufara oasis, the head- quarters of the senussi sect. he was accompanied on this journey by an english woman, rosita forbes, who has since made further adventurous journeys in the northern part of morocco, abyssinia and the lands east of the nile. hassanein bey in 1923 accomplished a still more remarkable penetration of the un- 47 known, making a journey through the libyan desert, during which he examined two “ lost ’”’ oases, into darfur and kordofan. work of the french.—previous explorations by the french (1912-7) had greatly increased knowledge of the eastern limits of the chad basin, and had definitely proved the distinction and disconnection of the chad-niger basin and the western basin of the nile. in this region the name of col. jean tilho remained predominant owing to the greatness of his discoveries, though the spelling assigned by his and other expeditions in the tibesti and ennedi mountains requires careful revision. col. tilho’s expeditions had revealed altitudes in tibesti of 11,200 ft. and the height of mt. tuside as 10,700 ft.; lesser altitudes of 9,800 ft. were determined at jebal marra, in darfur, and of 4,000 to 5,000 ft. on the western borders of the sudan, while there are other indications of high jand on the northwestern edge of the great nile basin. further to the south in the nilotic sudan, to the east of the main nile, altitudes of 10,000 ft. were discovered in 1911-2 by col. h. d. pearson. maj. cuthbert christy made an interesting journey in 1916 along the southwestern limits of the nile basin, which in places traversed the ironstone region whercin waters within sight of the explorer flowed cither south- wards into the mbomu and its affluents (congo basin), or north- east into the nile basin. french officers, among whom may be named gen. laperrine, capt. martin, capt. mougin and notably capt. augieras, had begun as early as 1904 to continue, in an energetic and scientific manner, the survey of the western sahara, from the southern confines of morocco to the basin of the senegal river and the northern and northwestern niger. the great depression (the bed of a dried-up sea), known as the juf, remained unexplored up to 1922; but since then its northeastern fringe has been made a little more known by the adventurous journeys of the citroen cars across the desert from the latitudes of insalah and ahaggar in southern algeria. a little has been added to the knowledge of the mysterious area, traversed by many great rivers, of portuguese guinea, and since 1921 the vast southern part of the niger basin, and the black and white branches of the mighty volta river, which flows into the sea in the british colony of the gold coast, have become better known in detail and in general features. at the same time, northern togoland, dahomey, southern nigeria and the basin of the great benue river were mapped in detail. east and central africa—much good work was done in east and central africa. mr. i. n. dracopoli in 1912-3 explored part of southern jubaland; he reached the lorian swamp, which receives the waters of the uaso nyiro, and solved the problem of its outflow, showing that its waters eventually reach the juba river. in april 19t2, mr. (later sir) g. f. archer completed, after over two years’ work, surveys connecting the triangulation of british east africa with maj. gwynn’s abyssinian boundary survey. in east central africa a survey by capt. e. m. jack, in rgit, of the region northeast of lake kivu and west of lake victoria added to the knowledge of the mufumbiro range of active volcanoes; karisimbi was found to be 14,780 ft. high. in dec. 1912, sir a. sharpe and mr. m. elphinstone wit- nessed the formation of a new volcano, named katarusi, which, following an earthquake, rose out of an old grass-covered lava field, sending into the northeast corner of lake kivu a river of lava which filled up a large bay. since that time the mufumbiro region and western uganda have been surveyed in considerable detail. | : the first survey along its whole length of the congo-zambezi watershed was made in 1911-4 by anglo-belgian and anglo- portuguese boundary commissions. as in the congo-nile water- shed, it was found that many rivers ran for considerable distances parallel to the divide, which is largely bush-covered. maj. reginald walker, one of the british commissioners, discovered that the luapula, the main eastern headstream of the congo, did not, as was believed, issue from lake bangweulu, but was a continuation of the chambezi, which passes through the great swamp south of bangweulu. : | results of the war.—during the world war, exigencies of 48 campaigning led to many additions to the knowledge of the topography of tropical africa, partly through the use of aircraft for survey purposes. thus very useful maps, showing routes un- suspected from the ground, were made by airmen of the northern part of portuguese east africa. in 1920 dr. p. chalmers mitchell, who passed over the nile basin in an aeroplane, proved the value of air reconnaissance to geology by the discovery in the bayuda desert, north of khartoum, of the volcanic character of a range of hills. a little later the french began to use aero- planes for survey purposes in the sahara. after south-west africa was taken over under mandate by the union of south africa much attention was given to ovambo- land (amboland), that very interesting northern part of the territory. the strenuous efforts, made for over 10 years, of e. h. l. schwarz, professor of geology, rhodes university col- lege, grahamstown, have led to a more persistent and scientific attempt, during which in 1925 air surveys were made, to explore the western part of the region lying between the kunene river, lake ngami and the southern part of bechuanaland. the urgent need of saving the country between the basin of the orange river in the south and the western kunene on the north from complete desiccation impelled schwarz to recommend the diver- sion of the kunene river from its present route to the sea to its former connection with the half-dry lake etosha (etosha pan). he hopes, by reuniting all these waters in the northwest of bechuanaland, to reopen communication both with the orange river in the south and with the zambezi in the east. ii. communications the first railw ay and steamer route across africa was com- pleted by the opening, in march rors, of a railway from kabalo on the lualaba river (upper congo) to albertville on the west shores of lake tanganyika. the vear before (1914) the german railway from dar-es-salaam had reached kigoma, on the east shores of lake tanganyika. a part of this trans-african route is by the congo, the navigable stretches of the river being linked up by railway. an all-rail east-west route across south africa had also been completed. in 1915 a line was built from prieska to kalkfontein, connecting the system of the union of south africa with that of south-west africa, and in the same year a short line of 21 m. was constructed joining walvis bay with the south-west african system. by this means walvis bay and delagoa bay were linked by railway. a second east-west all- rail route across africa will be provided by the railway from lobito bay, on the coast of angola, to katanga, where it will join the lines to beira and other east coast ports, as well as to cape town. in 1925 some 500 m. of this line remained to be completed, but the whole route had been surveyed, and its construction, after many delays, had been resumed. while the cape-to-cairo scheme still exercised men’s imag- inations, it was increasingly recognised that the true function of cross-africa routes was to bring the produce of central africa direct to the nearest seaport. the railway from cape town via bulawayo and the victoria falls, which had reached the belgian congo frontier in 1909, was, however, continued northwards across katanga to bukama on the lualaba river, the line was completed in may 1918, an addition of 442 m. in 10 years, making a through service from the cape, on the same gauge (3 ft. 6 in.), of 2,598 miles. in order to compete for the copper output of katanga, the belgians, in 1922, began the building of a railway from bukama to ilebo on the kasai river, this being a modification of a scheme for a through railway from bukama to the lower congo. east and west africa.—in east africa, an extension of the uganda railway was begun in dec. 1921. a line was con- structed from nakuru to eldoret, and in 1923 loans were raised to carry the line to mbulamuti on the busoga railway, running from jinja to namasagali, which is on the first navigable stretch of the nile. the new line opened up rich cotton growing regions. in tanganyika territory a branch line from tabora, on the dar-es-salaam-kigoma line, with its ultimate terminus at mwanza on the southern shores of lake victoria, was under africa construction in 1925, the section to kahama having been com- pleted. in the same year the british govt. announced its approval of a proposal to raise loans up to {10,000,000 for the further extension of railways and the improvement of harbours in british east africa. in west africa the french drew up plans to connect the middle niger with the guinea coast by railway. the principal line, from thies, on the dakar-st. louis railway, to kayes on the senegal river in the french sudan—whence a railway al- ready ran to bamako and kulikoro on the niger river—was be- gun in 1907, but was not completed till 1923. it is 682 m. long. in british west africa a railway from accra in the gold coast colony to kumasi in ashanti was completed in 1923. in nigeria the bridging of the niger river at jebba, completed in 1914, gave the railway from lagos to kano, 7043 m. long, an uninterrupted service. in ror3 arailway was begun from port harcourt, at the mouth of the bonny river; it was completed to the udi coal-fields, a distance of 151 m., by may 1916. from zaria, on the lagos- kano railway, a branch line, 143 m. long, built across the tin- field area to bukuru, was completed in dec. 1914. the exten- sion of the port harcourt-udi line northward, via makurdi on the benue river, to kaduna, on the lagos-kano line, was begun in 1921 and was nearing completion at the end of 1925. ‘this extension is some 450 m. in length. during the 16 years 1910-26 the railway mileage in south africa was greatly increased. the new railways were mainly of local interest, but a line from beira to the zambezi, completed in 1922, gave nyasaland direct access to the asses save that the zambezi remained to be bridged. trans-saharan railway schemes had not, up to 1926, got be- yond the stage of preliminary survey, unless the extension of the railway from biskra to tuggurt, opened in 1914, be taken as the first section of such a route. the surveys had shown, how- ever, that there were no serious engineering difficulties to be overcome. political interest in morocco led the french govt. to build lines traversing that country from casablanca, on the atlantic ocean, via fez and taza to ujda, where a junction is made with the algerian railways. the rising against the french and spanish governments in northern morocco had, however, up to 1926, paralysed any efforts to connect tangier and tetuan with the french railway system, though there was then hope that such work might soon be undertaken. in the suez canal zone a railway from el qantara, on the canal, to gaza, in palestine, was constructed in 1916-8 by the british for military purposes, thus giving railway connection with the systems of palestine, syria and asia minor. ancillary to, or in sub- stitution for, railways, made great progress, notably in west africa, the belgian congo and uganda. since 1910 powerful wireless telegraph stations have been established at many ports and inland centres, while motor-cars and aeroplanes have achieved a conquest of blank and unmapped africa with a de- gree of rapidity which would have been deemed marvellous at the beginning of the 2oth century. the first flight from cairo to cape town was made in 1920; in 1925 the continent was first traversed from end to end (algeria—sahara—belgian congo— uganda—tanganyika—cape town) by motor-car. wi. ethnological discoveries one direction in which africa has greatly increased its im- portance and interest in the eyes of reflective persons lies in the past history of the human and sub-human species within its do- main. we are gradually coming to understand that, subsequent to the complete severance of west africa from brazil, which took place, we may guess, somewhere early in the miocene epoch and, at a later date, of east africa from madagascar and the broken sub-continent of which mauritius, reunion, the amirante is, and the seychelles are now the only remains, some further changes took place during the miocene and pliocene epochs in the western sahara and in the libyan desert between the tibesti heights and the nile. belgrade o { grack | = <tantinople gibralex tangie yi : oale pp tehrano = | f damascus cbaghdad oat *(bistchs zy der, _ alexc. ex as ti gates beiru ojerusalem canar ‘ @ ‘ yit tripolita [es sooo ¢ (a) ra ened aa fet cin ie sok ' nod or se habe ,8 is uy osokna- aujila a : . = | 9o s a i shs ss : “maree pete : bs h ge cee a nagga bees ghat baas meg & menge to on “hew dongor® i? an ay 2 tena * kares <a. — [eanedi re anglo e ss eee ead vetis 80/4 kha epease fasher af obeid g. of ¢. guardafus e n ) adales [ese e 0° equator s ou t\h eascension /. aldabra fs (3) dic oelgado cd'4 | “comoro wp at 4£ ah tf & mossamedes a hg alas “ol c1 mnt ‘$e ee vento pe alexanadreye a ar we \ es of of helena /. 0 c ea n c. frio®& | walvis ba san nee ee se ee ee ee -—— = a tropic of capricorn _ ~~ africa g a 1 rb keetm ( he, pae belagon iderit oe f he. € ap olourenco marques laderi english miles sp oc me ay: a) ps a be, ry) 500 1000 port nolte eae! kin rerle ra , pie itz p a= ~ q} ur kilometres af t cfourban 0 500 1000 ati bre , main railways — ee east lond. falar j boundaries —-— — etown? ns oa “tercolonial oun © mae o a 0 am 0 ame hop? orstrict ~ = cc) long east _40° of gresrnich (o former german territory 39.7). france 4.2001 000 foot 680.000 g* britain 3.984.000 350.000 belgium 930.000 abas sini 350.000 o| portugal 788.000 spain 140.000 lrberia 40.000 sq.m. africa the congo basin, like lake chad, had become a great shallow inland sea, and before the advent of man these western portions of the continent contained vast areas covered with shallow water. in any case, from the evidence offered by the prehistoric and historic distribution of mammals and birds, a striking dis- similarity has been shown between the prehistoric mammalian fauna of the north of africa, egypt, abyssinia, the nilotic sudan, and east, south-central, southwest and southernmost africa on the one hand, and the western portions of the continent on the other. over an increasingly narrow belt, which stretches west- ward from the nilotic sudan to the cameroons, there still con- tinues a certain affinity in beasts and birds; this affinity extends to the southern part of senegambia, though even here, and in nigeria and the congo basin north of the main congo, there still exists a strange dissimilarity in the distribution of the mam- malian fauna. in the same way south africa exhibits a wealth of mammalian life which, so far as present discoveries go, is absent from west africa. | evidences of early man.—the most remarkable development in african discovery has taken place since 1922. before that date no discovery, of an unchallengeable character, showing the existence there of any human race earlier than the negro, the term negro including bushman and hottentot, had been made in africa. there were faint evidences in the rocks and caves of southernmost africa of the co-existence there at a relatively remote period—though there was little in the remains which assigned the date with tolerable precision—of some bushman-like race with mammals now extinct, such as a lingering type of mastodon. but all the human remains of any antiquity in east, north or south africa seemed to be of negro type, and therefore within the range of close kinship with homo sapiens. but in 1921 a fine specimen of a male skull, which has been subsequently named homo rhodesiensis, was discovered in the broken hill mine, in the central part of northern rhodesia. there were also traces of accompanying bones of the limbs. this type bore suggestive resemblances to homo neanderthalen- sis, whose former existence in north africa had been suspected for some 30 years, though until then it had left unquestionable remains only at gibraltar and in palestine. at the beginning of 1925 a further discovery was made at taungs in bechuanaland, in what is now an almost desert region. here, embedded in the rocks of the surface, the bones of a young individual, perhaps 10 years old, were brought to sight, so clearly significant as to be unmistakable. hitherto, though the negro sub-species offers, like the australoid, indications of ape-like features lost by the white man and the. mongol, it was difficult to extrude either negro or australoid from specific kinship with the rest of existing humanity. but the human re- mains found in south-central africa near the kafue river, and this truly remarkable man-ape from the heart of bechuanaland, show that at some period of uncertain remoteness there lingered an ape-like human being with close affinities to the man of ne- anderthal, and also, in an upward direction, to the australoid sub-species of homo sapiens; and further, that the chimpanzecs had penetrated to south africa, and there had left behind, per- haps 500,000 years ago, under altogether different climatic conditions, an ape-like form very near to the human family. iv. political history the political map of africa changed very considerably between 1910 and 1925. in 1910 the british seli-governing colonies of the cape, natal, transvaal and orange free state were formed into the union of south africa, with a single government and one legislature. in 1911 a considerable area of french equa- torial africa was transferred to german cameroons and in return germany acknowledged a french protectorate over the greater part of morocco. in nov. 1912 a franco-spanish treaty defined the spanish zones in morocco. in rg12, also, italy annexed the turkish vilayets of tripoli and benghazi (cyre- naica) to which the common name of libya was given. in dec. 1914 a british protectorate over egypt was proclaimed, but by a declaration of feb. 1922 great britain acknowledged the in- 49 dependence of egypt. the status of the anglo-egyptian sudan remained unchanged. in june 1919, by the treaty of versailles, germany renounced possession of all her oversea protectorates in favour of the prin- cipal allied and associated powers. these territories, which had all been conquered by the allies during the world war, were placed under mandatories. the union of south africa became mandatory for german south-west africa; togoland was divided between france and great britain; and france became mandatory for cameroons, except for a small portion which was placed under the administration of british nigeria. britain became mandatory for german east africa, renamed the tanganyika territory, but by subsequent anglo-belgian agree- ments belgium became mandatory for the provinces of ruanda and urundi. in 1920-5 italy gained additions to tripoli and cyrenaica by arrangements with france and egypt and to italian somaliland by arrangement with great britain. as a result of these changes africa was divided among the following powers. the territories governed under mandate are reckoned in the possession of the power named:— sq. m. france 4,200,000 great britain 3,984,000! belgium , 930,000 portugal . 788,000 italy . 680,000 egypt 350,000 abyssinia 350,000 spain 140,000? liberia 40,000 these figures give a total of 11,462,000 sq.m. as the area of africa. in the absence of definite surveys of large areas of the continent this may be regarded as a close approximation to accuracy. german policy.—the extinction of turkish rule in north africa had long been foreseen and was no matter for regret. it ended a connection which had lasted five centuries and had been almost wholly evil in its effects. german sovereignty in africa had only dated from 1884 and had been rapidly enlarged. endeavours to extend it further had been a prominent factor in german policy for a decade before the world war. germany desired a footing on the african coast of the mediterranean and a port on the atlantic coast of morocco. these desires conflicted with italian and french ambitions, and in 19rr the issue on both points was decided against germany. as to morocco, the franco-german convention of feb. 9 1909 had recognised the privileged position of france in morocco, but not a french pro- tcctorate over that country, and the sending of the german gunboat, *f panther,’ to agadir, in july r911, was a protest against what germany considered an unwarranted extension of french influence in morocco, and an intimation that if ger- man treaty rights in morocco were to be renounced, france must make compensation. the intervention of great britain on the side of france put an end to a dangerous situation; germany, by a convention concluded nov. 4 1911, accepted compensation in central africa and withdrew opposition to the establishment of a french protectorate in morocco. while the franco-german negotiations were in progress, italy abruptly declared war on turkey and invaded, and held, cyrenaica and tripoli. thus germany, who had designed to exploit those vilayets through the medium of an <austro- hungarian chartered company, was deprived of her last oppor- tunity—short of war—of gaining a foothold in the mediterranean. she turned her attention to the development of a afittel afrika policy. this policy aimed at securing germany’s supremacy, primarily economic and ultimately political, in central equatorial africa. the aim was to reserve the belgian congo, angola and mozambique, north of the zambezi, as a german sphere, and thus to link up cameroons with the south-west and east africa protectorates. german industries had need of the raw material tropical africa produces, and, moreover, southern angola was a good field for european settlement. 1 including anglo-egyptian sudan. 2 including the spanish zones in morocco. 50 british statesmen were not unfavourable to german expansion in equatorial] africa, so long as it was confined to the economic sphere. in 1898 an agreement, signed by mr. a. j. balfour and count hatzfeldt, had divided angola and mozambique into spheres in which great britain and germany respectively were to give financial and economic help to the portuguese. this was followed in 1899 by the treaty of windsor, the object being to reassure portugal that the balfour-hatzfeldt agreement was not in derogation of her sovereign rights in africa. neither the agree- - ment with germany, nor the treaty with portugal was published. after the settlement of the morocco crisis, germany reopened negotiations with great britain in respect of portugal's african colonies, and prince lichnowsky (the german ambassador) and sir edward grey reached a new agreement, which was ready for signature in 1913. nearly all angola was recognised as a german economic sphere, as well as the northern part of mozambique. the rest of mozambique, including delagoa bay and the zam- bezi valley, was to be a british economic sphere. sir edward grey made it a condition of signing that the 1898 and 1899 documents should be published. the german foreign office raised objections, herr von jagow (then foreign minister) stating that the german press would regard the terms of the treaty of windsor and the lichnowsky agreement as contra- dictory. by july 1914, however, german consent to publica- tion had been given, but before the new agreement could be signed the world war had broken out. the world war—during the progress of the campaigns in africa the whole of the continent, except abyssinia and the spanish protectorates, became involved in the struggle. the conquest of the german colonies was foreseen in the negotiation which preceded italy’s entry into the war, and article 13 of the agreement signed in london on april 26 1915, between france, russia, great britain and italy, laid down that:— in the event of france and britain increasing their colonial ter- ritories in africa at the expense of germany, those two powers agree in principle that italy may claim some equitable compensation, particularly as regards the settlement in her favour of the questions relative to the frontiers of the italian colonies of eritrea, somaliland and libya, and the neighbouring colonies belonging to france and great britain. italian ambitions.—italian ambitions had gone beyond the readjustment of frontiers; in particular italy wished to acquire jibuti, the port of french somaliland and the starting place of a railway to abyssinia. as jibuti was the only french port on the suez canal route to the east and to madagascar, as well as the only approach to abyssinia that france possessed, she declined to entertain proposals for its surrender. italy, however, obtained from france a welcome rectification of the tripoli-tunisia frontier, as well as valuable railway and commercial concessions in tunisia. in regard to the cyrenaica-egyptian frontier, the british govt., in 1919, offered italy a readjustment of territory in the libyan desert. the negotiations had not been concluded when egypt was granted independence and after that time they were conducted directly between italy and egypt. they turned largely on the possession of the oasis of jaghbub, a place of some strategic importance, where is also the tomb-mosque of the founder of the senussi sect. on dec. 6 1925, an italo-fgyptian agreement was signed, by which jaghbub was included in cyrenaica. the wells to the west of el sollum were included in egyptian territory, thus giving el sollum a needed water supply. south of siwa the frontier was drawn along longitude 25° e. to the boundary of the anglo-egyptian sudan in latitude 22° north. in 1925 the anglo-egyptian sudan was verging on the position of a clearly defined british protectorate; the tributary sultanate of darfur had been conquered in 1915, and in 1922-3 the frontier separating it from french equatorial africa, which had been in question since 1899, had been delimited on the spot. france and spain.—in the same year (1912) that france obtained her protectorate in morocco, she concluded an arrange- ment with spain whereby a spanish protectorate was set up in the northern part of the sultanate, the port of tangier and a small area around it being made however an international zone. africa in the french protectorate marshal lyautey, the resident- general, adopted a bold and conciliatory policy and won the confidence and respect of the moors. in their zone the spaniards met with determined opposition, largely owing to the uprise of a moor, styled abdel-krim. in the territory known, somewhat vaguely, as er-rif, there seems to have been, as in the coastward portions of algeria and tunisia, a much more marked iberian element in the population than there is in the south of morocco, and this part of northern morocco had shown a great hatred of european interference. the spaniards suffered a severe reverse in 1921 and there was again heavy fighting in 1924 and 1925. in the last-named year the rifs invaded the french zone, but were defeated and driven back, while the spanish forces gained some successes in the northeastern area. recent developments.—abyssinia under ras tafari has been making strenuous efforts to attain the position of a civilised power and has joined the league of nations, but evidence is still needed to show that she possesses in her yellow, brown and black people the elements of real and lasting progress without extraneous european support. in southern rhodesia the growth of a vigorous white community led to that country being made, in 1923, a self-governing colony of the british empire, and with the assumption of direct imperial control of northern rhodesia in 1924 chartered-company rule in british africa came to an end. in east africa another vigorous and local white community made its influence felt, namely the settlers in the british east africa protectorate, which protectorate was an- nexed to the british crown in 1920 and renamed kenya colony. a subject which raised large issues was the position of indians in south and east africa, but it was of less importance than the growth of race consciousness among the negroes. increase of education and of christianity, the employment of large numbers of africans in industries and the lessons taught by the world war, were among the factors which intensified the feeling of racial unity and led to manifestations of a new anti-white move- ment. this movement was different to the simple objection to interference by europeans, or arabs, previously displayed, and had a consciousness of the need of self-development and prog- ress. not all the ferment among the negroes was anti-white, however, and an encouraging feature was the growing recogni- tion, in south africa as in the tropical regions of the continent, of the duty of the white man to help the negro in his efforts to attain a higher status. for further information, see the articles on the various countries of africa, e.g., abyssinia; belgian conco; cameroons; ecypt; kenya; mozambique; south africa. see also mandate; nile. bisltiograrny.—(1) exploration.—f. r. cana, “ problems in exploration: africa,’’ geo. jour., vol. 38 (1911); i. n. dracopoh, through jubaland to the lorian swamp (1914); f. r. cana, “ the sahara in 1915,’ gee. jour., vol. 46 (1915); col. jean tilho, “ the exploration of tibesti, erdi, borkou and lnnedi in 1912-7,” geo. jour., vol. 56 (1920); rosita forbes, the secret of the sahara kufara (1921); sir a. sharpe, the backbone of africa (1921); t. alexander barns, the wonderland of the ikastern congo (1922); f. migeod, across fquatortal africa (1923); a. m. hassanein bey, the lost oases (1925). (2) communications, geography, ete —documenis scientifiques de la mission tilho (1910-4); a. knox, the climate of africa (1911); h. hubert, mission scientifique au soudan (1916); j. w. gregory, the rift valleys and geology of east africa (1921); e. h. l. schwarz, the kalahari desert (1922). (3) peoples and languages.—sir h. h. johnston, a comparative study of the bantu and semt-bantu languages (vol. 1., 1919; vol. 2., 1922); a. werner, zutroductory sketch of ihe bantu languages (1919; 1925); c. k. meek, the northern tribes of nigeria, 2 vol. (1925). (4) history, politics, etc-—sir h. il. johnston, the opening up of africa (1911); j. h. harris, dawn in darkest africa (1912); fr. stuhlmann, ein kulturgeschichilicher ausflug in den aures (allas von sud-algerien) (1912); sir h. h. johnston, a history of the colonisation of africa (1913); c. h. stigand, administration 1n tropical africa (1914); sir h. hf. johnston, ‘ the political geog- raphy of africa before and after the war,” geo. jour., vol. 45 (1915); f, baltzer, die kolonialbahnen mit besonderer berticksichtigung afrikas (1916); l. woolf, empire and commerce in africa (1920); sir f. d. lugard, the dual mandate in british tropical africa (1922). the officials of the british museum natural history dept. have published some very interesting works on africa since 1904. prom- aga khan—agriculture inent among them is dr. c. w. andrews, a descriptive catalogue of the tertiary vertebrata of the fayum, egypt (1906). p. l. sclater, oldfield thomas and others, the book of antelopes, in 4 vol. (1894- 1900); dr. rudolf marloth, the flora of south africa (1913-5). similarly a good deal of light is thrown on the palaeontology of africa in the works and the pamphlets issued by dr. peringucy and dr. robert broom in south africa, and in the united states by henry fairfield osborn. for current affairs consult the geog- raphical journal, the journal of the african soctety and l’ afrique francaise (paris, monthly). see also the bibliographies under south africa, egypt, etc. cis fis jacke be) aga khan (1877- ), indian moslem leader (see 1.363). during 1910-21 his influence both on indian and international affairs was shown in various directions. he was president of the all-india moslem league and initiated the fund for raising the mahommedan college at aligarh to university status, which was effected in 1920. during the world war he endeavoured to secure the support of the moslems of the empire for the british cause. in 1918 he published /nudia in transition which was not without considerable effect in the final shaping of reforms under the india act of r919. at the peace conference in 1919 and sub- sequently in 1921 before the treaty of sevres, and in 1923 before the treaty of lausanne he advocated a less stringent attitude towards turkey. his manifold services to the cause of inter- national peace led the council of state in india to recommend, feb. 5, 1924, that he be awarded the nobel peace prize. agliardi, antonio (1832-1015), italian cardinal and diplomatist (see 1.377), died in rome march 19 rors. agram: sce zagreb.