ADMIRALTY, BOARD OF

the history of the british admiralty since 1909 is the history of a steady increase in departments growing out of the vast multiplication and development of technical and applied sciences, and the problem of admiralty administration is to co-ordinate these multifarious activities into a single whole. this is peculiarly difficult in a war service where one is constantly preparing for one’s work without actually performing it. the solution must be sought in freeing those responsible for larger questions from the crush- ing load of merely administrative business by imposing a clear distinction between fighting and supply, between the science of using the weapon and science of maintaining it in efficiency. up to 1909 the intelligence dept. was the thinking department of the admiralty. both lord fisher and sir arthur wilson were opposed to a staff, and the idea found little favcur at sea. in roto the intelligence dept. split into the two departments of intelligence and mobilisation of which the latter gradually be- came immersed in details of manning and mobilisation. the first sea lords of the time had no use for a staff; the navy was wedded to methods of centralisation, and there was a tendency to regard the conduct of a war as a simple business, which each flag officer must perform in his own way. this happy faith received a rude shock at the agadir crisis in the summer of roti, when sir arthur wilson was unable to pro- duce any clear plans for war. opposed to the idea of a staff, he resigned, and it was left to mr. churchill, in his memorandum of jan. rot2, to institute the beginnings of a staff system. the new war staff, as it was called, consisted of three divisions: operations, intelligence, and mobilisation. its deficiencies were serious. the chief of the war staff was not a member of the board and could not act with the authority of the board. when in 1914 war broke out, the work of the staff fell largely into the hands of a small group of admirals, senior to the chief of the staff and working independently of him. war period —the admiralty board at this time, under a patent of dec. 1 1913, consisted of the first lord, mr. winston churchill (from oct. 24 1911); the first sea lord, adm. prince louis of battenberg (since dec. 9 1912); the second sea lord, vice-adm. sir frederick hamilton (succeeded vice-adm. jellicoe, july 30 1914); third sea lord, rear-adm. archibald moore (since may 29 1913); fourth sea lord, capt. cecil lambert (since dec. 1 1913); civil lord, mr. george lambert (since dec. 21 1905); parliamentary and financial secretary, sir francis hopwood, afterwards lord southborough (since jan. 18 1912); and the permanent secretary, sir w. graham greene. rear-adm. sir doveton sturdee was chief of the war staff, but there were at least two flag officers senior to him, sir arthur wilson and sir henry jackson, also acting in an advisory capacity to the board. although the admiralty achieved a master stroke in the battle of the falkland is., the deficiencies of the system, which were felt at coronel, became gravely manifest in 1915; lord fisher was then first sea lord, having succeeded prince louis of battenberg (afterward marquis of milford haven) on oct. 30 1914, when rear-adm. sir henry oliver became chief of the war staff. lord fisher was immersed in a plan for a great land- ing in the baltic. the first lord, in the case of the dardanelles, over-estimated the power of the “‘ queen elizabeth’s ” 15-in. guns and the war staff could neither supply an element of strong independent criticism, nor grip the problem and transform it into a practicable proposition. lord fisher pulled down his blinds and left the admiralty without a word on may 15. mr. churchill ceased to be first lord some days later when the govt. was reconstructed. these two were succeeded by adm. sir henry jackson and mr. arthur balfour (may 28 1915). at the end of 1916, adm. sir john jellicoe came from the grand fleet to succeed sir henry jackson (dec. 4 1916); sir g ador—adriatic sea edward carson succeeded mr. arthur balfour (dec. 12) and an anti-submarine division was instituted; then on jan. 31 1917 the chief of the royal naval air service, com. godfrey paine, was added to the board as t’ifth sea lord, but it was not till may 1017 that the staff was thoroughly re-organised to meet the pressing danger of the german submarine campaign. (order in council may 19 1917.) the office of chief of the naval staff was then merged in that of first sea lord, while the appointment of a deputy chief (vice-adm. sir henry oliver) and assistant chicf (rear-adm. alex. duff), both with seats on the board, gave the naval stall a predominant weight of board authority. sir eric geddes at the same time became cuntroller, and all questions of supply were concentrated in his hands till he succeeded sir edward carson as first lord (july 20). on sept. 6 adm. sir rosslyn wemyss was appointed deputy first sea lord to deal with questions of foreign policy and operations abroad. finally, in oct. 1917, the development was carried a step further when two committces were formed in the board, one of operations, the other of supply, both under the chairmanship of the first lord, and by an important order in council of oct. 23 1917, the chief of the naval staff was authorised to issue all orders relating to operations and move- ments of the fleet, signing them in his own name. three new divisions of the staff had been formed, viz: plans (rear-adm. roger keyes), minesweeping (capt. lionel preston), and mer- cantile movements (capt. whitehead), the latter having evolved from the convoy section. | in dec. 1917 rear-adm. roger keyes went to dover to put in force a new and drastic plan of closing the straits to sub- marines and under the pressure of events some sweeping changes took place. acting adm. sir rosslyn wemyss succeeded adm. sir john jellicoe as first sea lord (jan. 10 1918), and rear- adm. sydney fremantle took vice-adm. sir henry oliver’s place as deputy chief of the naval staff. when peace was declared adm. sir rosslyn wemyss, afterward lord wester wemyss, was still in the post which four admirals had held in turn and was succeeded by earl beatty on nov. 3 roto. organisation in 1925.—the board as constituted in 1925 con- sisted of ten members, viz: first lord, first sea lord, and chief of the naval staff (policy and war), second sea lord (per- sonnel), third sea lord (material), fourth sea lord (supplies and transport), deputy chief of the naval staff (operations and intelligence), assistant chief of the naval staff (design and de- velopment of material), civil lord, financial secretary, and permanent secretary. the admiralty office may be classified under the heads of: i, secretary’s dept., five branches, viz: m. (military) dealing with political and diplomatic questions; c.w. (commissions and warrants) personnel of officers; n. (navy) personnel of men; cle. (civil establishment); n.l. (naval law); discipline and king's regulations; library and record office. ii. naval staff, seven divisions, viz: operations, intelligence, plans, trade, training, gunnery, and torpedo. iii. personnel departments, seven, viz: mobilisation, recruit- ing, medical, physical training, paymaster, chaplain of fleet, royal marines. iv. technical, viz: hydrography and navigation, naval con- struction, naval engineering, electrical engineering, naval ord- nance, torpedoes and mining, naval equipment, compass, dock- yards, civil engincering, signal, and scientific research. supply, viz: victualling, stores, sea transport. vi. finance, viz: dockyards’ accounts, contract and purchase, accountant gencral, (an'c.d. ador, gustave (184s- }, swiss statesman, was born at geneva, dec. 23 1845, of a vaudois family established there in 1814. he studied law at the academy and in 1868 became an advocate. in 1871 he started his political career as member of the communal council of cologny and was elected mayor in 1878 and 1883. in 1878-9 he represented geneva in the swiss national council and became a member of the executive of the canton of geneva, being in charge of the dept. of justice and police. he resigned, however, in 1880, after an unfavourable election, but returned to this post in 1885 and was president of the cantonal executive in 1892 and 1896. from 1889 to 1917 he was a member of the swiss national council, of which he was president in rgot. ador gained an internationa! reputation for the hard and dis- interested work he did for the international red cross. he had become president of the committee four years before the world war, and when it broke out he founded an association at geneva for facilitating communications between prisoners of war and their families and for alleviating their condition. this other achievement included the establishment of the central agency for forwarding parce's and let ers. in june 1917, after the enforced resignation of arthur hoff- mann, aclor became a member of the executive of the swiss federation with the portfolio of toreign affairs. toward the end of rg918 he was elected president of the swiss federation; he retired at the end of his year of office. iie headed the swiss delegation which visited paris and london in january—february 1920 to secure a reservation of the principle of the neutrality of switzerland when she joined the league of nations. ile did important work for the league itself, first as president of the brussels conference of 1920 and then as president of the eco- nomic and financial commission. adrianople or epirnen (see 1.217), now again a turkish city, has changed hands several times in the succession of mili- tary operations since 1912. the population in 1924 was given as only 56,347, as compared with about 80,000 in 1905 and 63,454 in r9tz. this diminution is due to the emigration of the popu- lation, with the exception of the jews, after the successive occupa- tions of the city. the south-western portion of the city, burnt down in 1905, was rebuilt with comparatively broad streets. the railway station across the maritza at karagatch, which stands among ruins, is being rebuilt. in 1912, during the first balkan war, adrianople was invested by the bulgars and it. was taken from the turks, with serbian assistance, in 1913, after a siege of 135 days. during the second balkan war, in june of the latter year, the turks retook the town and, by the treaty of constantinople, signed on sept. 29 1913, it was ceded, together with karagatch, to turkey by bul- garia., after the world war, the greek army, having been com- missioned to restore order in thrace in may 1920, entered adri- anople in july, and it was ceded to them, on aug. 10 1920, by the treaty of sevres. during the greco-turkish war of 1923 the greeks occupied the suburb of karagatch, the railway station of which is very important for the traffic to dedeagatch and had therefore been abandoned by turkey to bulgaria in ro15. on leaving it they destroyed many buildings and removed the mach- inery from the mills. after the war adrianople was again re- stored to turkey by the mudania convention of oct. 1922 and its restoration was confirmed by the treaty of lausanne of july 24 1923. a protocol attached to the treaty subjected the greck inhabitants of karagatch to the exchange of populations, and compelled them “to emigrate six months after the re- establishment of peace.” , bibnl1ography.—british and forelen state papers (1914), part i, vol. 107, p. 706; (1920), vol. 113, p. 652 (london, 1917-23); treaty series, no. 16 (1923). adriatic sea (see 1.218), the arm of the mediterranean lying between italy and the balkan peninsula. before the world war the adriatic littoral belonged to four states—italy, austria- hungary, montenegro and albania and in practice to the two first. the object of the italian govt. in negotiating the “ secret ”’ treaty of london of april 26 1915, was to secure, in return for italy’s entrance into the war on the side of the allies, the con- version of the adriatic into an italian lake—il nostro mare. article 4 of that treaty provided that “ all istria up to the quarnero and comprising volosca, just beyond abbazia and the istrian islands of cherso, lussin . . . and the adjoining islets’ with castua and mattuglie, the station for abbazia, should become italian. article 5 declared that italy ‘“ shall equally receive the province of dalmatia . comprising lisarica and tribanj in the north ” to a line as far south as cape planca (ploee), between sebenico and trati (trogir), on the mainland, with “all the islands . . . from premuda, selve (silba) and pago in the north to meleda in the south, comprising adult education 9 lissa, lesina, curzola, lagosta (lastovo) and pelagosa, with the solitary exception of great zirona (voli drvenik) and small zirona (mali drvenik), bua (ciovo), solta and brazza.’’ the whole coast from cape planca to the “ southern root ” of the peninsula of sab- bioncello and from a point 10 km. to the south of ragusa vecchia (cavtat) to the river viosa (north of valona), except montenegro, and all the non-italian islands were to be neutralised. the rest of the dalmatian coast, besides fiume and the islands of veglia and arbe in the north, were to go to croatia, serbia and montenegro, besides the albanian roadstead of san giovanni di medua (the landing-place for scutari); but iurazzo was to be albanian. article 6 further conferred upon italy ‘ the entire sovereignty over valona, the island of saseno and a territory sufficiently extended to assure the defence of those points (from the viosa .. . approxi- mately to the northern frontier of the district of chimara). article 7 neutralised the coast south of the above as far as cape stylos opposite corfu. this treaty violated every principle of nationality; it assigned to italy provinces overwhelmingly slav (for the italian population of dalmatia was only 3-5°%), it dismembered albania and would have created a new irredentism far more powerful than that which italy had fought to cure. the entrance of the united states into the war made the treaty a dead ictter, although baron sonnino, then italian minister of foreign affairs, still clung to it, for president wilson refused to be bound by it, and even some italians, notably bissolati and prof. salvenum, disapproved of it. thus began the wearisome “ adriatic question,” which at times threatened war between italy and the yugoslavs, and attempts were made by british publicists, notably messrs. steed and seton-watson, to bring about an agreement, the “ pact of rome,” between the two races. the departure of sig. orlando, then the italian premier, and baron sonnino from the paris conference was due to this question, which was not regulated till the treaty of rapallo between the italians and the yugoslavs on nov. 12 1920, largely the work of sig. giolitti and count sforza, who had meanwhile become premier and minister of foreign affairs. in dalmatia, italy obtained only zara—the one overwhelmingly italian town—with an enclave which in- cluded the albanian settlement of borgo erizzo and the island of lagosta. italy kept the whole of istria (despite its large slav minority) with the islands of cherso and lussin and that of pelagosa. ‘ all the other islands which belonged to the former austro-hungarian monarchy ”’ were “ recognised as forming part of the kingdom of the serbs, croats and slovenes.” by article 4, both states recognised the full liberty and inde- pendence of the state of fiume (¢.v.), consisting of the corpus separatum (the city) and a corridor south of castua (which be- came yugoslav) connecting it with volosca and abbazia. sig. giolitti evacuated albania, where italy retains only the island of saseno. sig. mussolini observed the rapallo treaty and set- tled the question of fiume, though his wilder followers have pro- claimed their intention of annexing dalmatia. zara’s italian patriotism has cost her dear. in austrian days the capital of dalmatia and the seat of the local diet, where numerous officials resided, she is now a small provincial town, the population of which is dwindling, with only one industry— the manufacture of maraschino—with no railway communication, and much in the same isolated position of calais or boulogne when they were english. yugoslavia has already the nucleus of a navy in the adriatic, which is described at belgrade, no less than in rome, as “ our sea,’’ and the dalmatian slavs are famous seamen. still, the keys of the mouth of the adriatic, brindisi and saseno are in italian hands. but saseno is waterless and dominated by the acroceraunian mountains. bibliography.—r. w. seton-watson, the balkans, italy, and the adriatic (1915); british and foreign staite papers, vol. 112, p. 973 (1919), vol. 113, p. 1087 (1920); g. salvemini, la guestione deil’ adriatico (rome, 1919); adriaticus, la guestion adriatique; recueil de documents officiels (paris, 1920); see also ‘‘ the problem of dalmatia" by “ antenor "” in i/istory, april 1919; e. j. and c. g, woodhouse, /taly and the jugosiavs (boston, 1920). cw. mr.) adult education.—since ro10 adult education has, espe- cially in england, acquired a new meaning. the phrase originally meant education of adults who have not been properly educated as children. as the educational system improved, the need for such education diminished, but as democratic government developed, it brought with it the need, felt by everyone, for education in citizenship. adult education in this sense has been described as “an inseparable aspect of citizenship” and the new movement which dates from the beginning of this century, has extended to democratic countries all over the world, includ- ing such countries as germany and the united states, which, because they had carly possessed a comprehensive system of elementary and secondary education, have not felt the need for adult education in its original sense. fartety of type.—the new movement has taken many forms and is carried on by many different organisations. these are divided between such as definitely adhere to a particular school of thought or political party and those, of which the workers’ educational assn. in britain and the danish people’s high schools are conspicuous examples, which aim at giving an edu- cation which is not subservient to any political programme. the latter aim sharply distinguishes education from propa- ganda. there is a great variation also in the extent to which these various organisations use the help of the public educa- tional system of the country. workers’ educational association.—behind the difference of aim, however, there is very substantial identity in the problems and methods of recent adult education, and a short account of the new movement, inaugurated in england by the foundation of the workers’ educational assn. by mr. albert mansbridge in 1903, will bring these out. that association aimed at bringing together working-class organisations to provide for an educa- tion, designed not to take men out of their class or trade, but to equip them, whatever their occupation in life should be, for the work of citizenship. it was to be a highway and not a ladder. the education it desired to bring into being was to be broad, impartial and scholarly, was to aim at a higher university standard and was to enlist the aid of the universities and of public authorities. the association from the first insisted that the distinctive feature of adult education is that it must be controlled by the students, as the education of the young cannot be. the univer- sities were asked to help in maintaining the standard of educa- tion, but the choice of subjects and of tutors were to be with the students. it was recognised from the first that adult stu- dents bring an experience of life and an understanding of prac- tical problems which are, in their way, as important a contribu- tion as the more theoretical knowledge of the teachers, and that therefore adult education requires a technique and organisation of its own in which both students and university trained teachers have their part to play. . tutorial classes —in 1907 the university of oxford organised the first tutorial class, the characteristic educational instrument of the new movement. these classes were small, between 20 and 30 persons, meeting once a weck in the winter over a period of three years. each class consisted of an hour’s lecture and an hour’s discussion, the students undertaking from the start to attend for the full period of three years and to do written work. the classes were under the control of a joint committee consisting of equal numbers of representatives of the university and of working class organisations. the quality of work done in these classes was often of a good university honours standard. all the other universities of england and wales followed, and in 192§ there were over 500 tutorial classes with 12,000 students. the total amount of education of this kind now given in demo- cratic countries is very considerable and is rapidly increasing. the movement is still young and its future organisation is still uncertain. its great strength in the past was that it has been run by voluntary associations and has in a real sense been a university controlled in the main by its students. it suffers, however, from the weakness of administration and the fluctuat- ing enthusiasm characteristic of all voluntary organisations. its success in the future will depend on how far it can be con- nected more closely with public educational institutions on the one hand and organised labour on the other, without losing its voluntary character. see final report of the adult education committee (cmd. 321, 1919). gy 2d12,) io united states —the term adult education has been used in the united states since about 1916, although there is a lack of agreement as to what the term should include. some think of it as work for illiterates, or for immigrants; others employ it to mean the making up of deficiency in the earlier education of mature men and women; still others use it in the broader sense of the means by which adult men and women shall be released from the thrall of custom and tradition and prepared for intelligent par- ticipation in the current of the world’s life. this vagueness of meaning reflects the various origins of the movement, which include the lyceums, workmen’s institutes and “literary societies ” of the previous century; the “chautauqua movement,” dating from 1873; social settlements in cities, dating from about 1890; university extension, which has carried college classes into every corner of the land; people’s institutes; open forums, church forums and summer forums for educational purposes; women’s clubs and parents’ congresses; young people’s organisations, of many sorts; ‘‘ moonlight schools ” for illiterate kentucky mountaincers, who after the work of the day, gather in groups on moonlight nights to learn to read; “‘ americanisa- tion work,’ promoted by many types of agency since the world war; and the growing efforts of public libraries to diffuse knowl- edge and promote intelligence. mention should be made also of evening schools and other forms of educational extension, in which nearly a million and a half young people between the ages of 14 and 25 were enrolled in 1926. most of this work points definitely to vocational interests and uses. ‘* correspondence schools ”? have an enrolment of some 2,500,000 students, with about 1,500,000 new enrolments each year. not more than 10% of these students, however, finish the courses for which they reg- ister and pay. since 1918, the term ‘‘ workers’ education ”’ has come into use, workers’ universities having been established in many cities from boston to seattle; a workers’ education bureau was established in new york city to promote the movement. in aim it wavers between the objectives of producing better workers and better human beings—a defect common to most american educational thinking. the first important step toward the co-ordination of the vari- ous movements for adult education in the united states was taken under the initiative of the carnegie corp., in oct. 1925, when an american assn. for adult education was organised, at cleveland, ohio. the purpose of this national association 1s stated, in part, as follows: “ to promote the development and improve- ment of adult education in the united states and to co-operate with similar associations in all parts of the world.” at its first meeting it took steps to make available information regarding the various types of adult education, arranging also for future regional conferences and for a national conference on adult edu- cation to be held annually. c]i. ks, ees) adulteration: see food, pure.