THE

encyclopaedia britannica a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information eleventh edition volume xi franciscans to gibson new york encyclopaedia britannica, inc. 342 madison avenue copyright, in the united states of america, 1910, by the encyclopaedia britannica company. volume xi, slice i franciscans to french language articles in this slice: franciscans frederick i. (king of prussia) franck frederick ii. (king of prussia) franck, cesar frederick iii. (king of prussia) franck, sebastian frederick iii. (king of sicily) francke, august hermann frederick i. (elector of brandenburg) francken frederick i. (elector of the rhine) franco-german war frederick ii. (elector of the rhine) francois de neufchateau, louis frederick iii. (elector of the rhine) franconia frederick iv. (elector of the rhine) francs-archers frederick v. (elector of the rhine) francs-tireurs frederick i. (duke of saxony) franeker frederick ii. (duke of saxony) frank, jakob frederick iii. (elector of saxony) frank-almoign frederick (maryland, u.s.a.) frankel, zecharias frederick augustus i. frankenberg frederick augustus ii. frankenhausen frederick charles (karl nikolaus) frankenstein frederick henry frankenthal frederick louis frankenwald frederick william i. frankfort (indiana, u.s.a.) frederick william ii. frankfort (kentucky, u.s.a.) frederick william iii. frankfort-on-main frederick william iv. frankfort-on-oder frederick william (of brandenburg) frankincense frederick-lemaitre, antoine prosper franking fredericksburg frankl, ludwig august fredericton frankland, sir edward fredonia franklin, benjamin fredrikshald franklin, sir john fredrikstad franklin, william buel free baptists franklin (district of canada) freebench franklin (massachusetts, u.s.a.) free church federation franklin (new hampshire, u.s.a.) free church of england franklin (pennsylvania, u.s.a.) free church of scotland franklin (tennessee, u.s.a.) freedmen's bureau franklin (freeman) freehold (new jersey, u.s.a.) franklinite freehold (law) frank-marriage freeland frankpledge freeman, edward augustus franks, sir augustus wollaston freeman franks freemasonry franz, robert freeport franzen, frans mikael free ports franzensbad free reed vibrator franz josef land freesia franzos, karl emil free soil party frascati free-stone fraser, alexander campbell freetown fraser, james free trade fraser, james baillie fregellae fraser, sir william augustus freiberg fraser (river) freiburg fraserburgh freiburg im breisgau fraserville freidank frater freienwalde fraternities, college freieslebenite fraticelli freight fraud freiligrath, ferdinand frauenburg freind, john frauenfeld freinsheim, johann frauenlob freire, francisco jose fraunce, abraham freischuetz fraunhofer, joseph von freising fraustadt frejus frayssinous, denis antoine luc frelinghuysen, frederick theodore frechette, louis honore fremantle fredegond fremiet, emmanuel frederic, harold fremont, john charles fredericia fremont (nebraska, u.s.a.) frederick (name) fremont (ohio, u.s.a.) frederick i. (roman emperor) fremy, edmond frederick ii. (roman emperor) french, daniel chester frederick iii. (roman emperor) french, nicholas frederick iii. (german king) french congo frederick ii. (king of denmark) french guinea frederick iii. (king of denmark) french language frederick viii. (king of denmark) initials used in volume xi. to identify individual contributors,[1] with the headings of the articles in this volume so signed. a. b. r. alfred barton rendle, m.a., d.sc., f.r.s., f.l.s. keeper, department of botany, british museum. author of _text book on classification of flowering plants_; &c. fruit. a. b. w. k. sir alexander blackie william kennedy, ll.d., f.r.s. emeritus professor of engineering, university college, london. consulting engineer to board of ordnance. friction. a. ca. arthur cayley, ll.d., f.r.s. see the biographical article, cayley, arthur. gauss. a. e. h. l. augustus edward hough love, m.a., d.sc., f.r.s. sedleian professor of natural philosophy in the university of oxford. hon. fellow of queen's college; formerly fellow of st john's college, cambridge. secretary to the london mathematical society. function: _functions of real variables_. a. e. s. arthur everett shipley, m.a., d.sc., f.r.s. master of christ's college, cambridge. reader in zoology, cambridge university. joint-editor of the _cambridge natural history_. gastrotricha. a. ge. sir archibald geikie, ll.d. see the biographical article, geikie, sir a. geology. a. go.* rev. alexander gordon, ma. lecturer on church history in the university of manchester. franck, sebastian; gallars. a. g. b.* hon. archibald graeme bell, m.inst.c.e. director of public works and inspector of mines, trinidad. member of executive and legislative councils, inst.c.e. georgetown, british guiana. a. g. d. arthur george doughty, c.m.g., m.a., litt.d., f.r., hist.s. dominion archivist of canada. member of the geographical board of canada. author of _the cradle of new france_; &c. joint-editor of _documents relating to the constitutional history of canada_. frontenac et palluau. a. h. sm. arthur hamilton smith, m.a., f.s.a. keeper of the department of greek and roman antiquities in the british museum. member of the imperial german archaeological institute. author of _catalogue of greek sculpture in the british museum_; &c. gem: ii. (_in part_). a. m.* rev. allen menzies, d.d. professor of divinity and biblical criticism, university of st andrews. author of _history of religion_; &c. editor of _review of theology and philosophy_. free church of scotland (_in part_). a. m. c. agnes mary clerke. see the biographical article, clerke, agnes m. galileo. a. n. alfred newton, f.r.s. see the biographical article, newton, alfred. frigate-bird; gadwall; gannet; gare fowl. a. n. b. alfred neave brayshaw, ll.b. author of _bible notes on the hebrew prophets_. friends, society of. a. n. w. alfred north whitehead, m.a., d.sc., f.r.s. fellow and lecturer in mathematics, trinity college, cambridge. author of _a treatise on universal algebra_; &c. geometry: vi. (_in part_) and vii. a. r. c. alexander ross clarke, c.b., f.r.s. colonel, royal engineers. royal medallist, royal society, 1887. in charge of the trigonometrical operations of the ordnance survey, 1854-1881. geodesy (_in part_). a. s. m. alexander stuart murray, ll.d. see the biographical article, murray, alexander stuart. gem: ii. (_in part_). a. w. h.* arthur william holland. formerly scholar of st john's college, oxford. bacon scholar of gray's inn, 1900. frederick ii., _roman emperor_; french revolution: _republican calendar_; germany: _history (in part) and bibliography_. a. w. w. adolphus william ward, litt.d., ll.d. see the biographical article, ward, a. w. garrick, david (_in part_). b. a. w. r. hon. bertrand arthur william russell, m.a., f.r.s. formerly fellow of trinity college, cambridge. author of _foundations of geometry; principles of mathematics; &c._ geometry: vi. (_in part_). b. s. p. bertha surtees philpotts, m.a. (dublin). formerly librarian of girton college, cambridge. germany: _archaeology_. c. b.* charles bemont, litt.d. (oxon.). see the biographical article, bemont, c. fustel de coulanges; gascony. c. d. w. hon. carroll davidson wright. see the biographical article, wright, hon. carroll davidson. friendly societies: _united states_. c. e.* charles everitt, m.a., f.c.s., f.g.s., f.r.a.s. sometime scholar of magdalen college, oxford. geometry: _history_. c. f. a. charles francis atkinson. formerly scholar of queen's college, oxford. captain, 1st city of london (royal fusiliers). author of _the wilderness and cold harbour_. franco-german war (_in part_); french revolutionary wars: _military operations_; germany: _army_; gibraltar: _history_. c. h. ha. carlton huntley hayes, m.a., ph.d. assistant professor of history in columbia university, new york city. member of the american historical association. gelasius ii. c. k. s. clement king shorter. editor of _the sphere_. author of _sixty years of victorian literature_; _immortal memories_; _the brontes, life and letters_; &c. gaskell, elizabeth. c. mi. chedomille mijatovich. senator of the kingdom of servia. envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary of the king of servia to the court of st james's, 1895-1900 and 1902-1903. garashanin. c. m. k. sir charles malcolm kennedy, k.c.m.g., c.b. (1831-1908). head of commercial department, foreign office, 1872-1893. lecturer on international law, university college, bristol. commissioner in the levant, 1870-1871, at paris, 1872-1886. plenipotentiary, treaty of the hague, 1882. editor of kennedy's _ethnological and linguistic essays_; _diplomacy and international law_. free ports. c. pf. christian pfister, d.-es.-l. professor at the sorbonne, paris. chevalier of the legion of honour. author of _etudes sur le regne de robert le pieux_; _le duche merovingien d'alsace et la legende de sainte-odile_. franks; fredegond; germanic laws, early. c. r. b. charles raymond beazley, m.a., d.litt., f.r.g.s., f.r.hist.s. professor of modern history in the university of birmingham. formerly fellow of merton college, oxford, and university lecturer in the history of geography. lothian prizeman, oxford, 1889. lowell lecturer, boston, 1908. author of _henry the navigator_; _the dawn of modern geography_; &c. gerard of cremona. c. r. c. claude regnier conder, ll.d. colonel, royal engineers. formerly in command of survey of palestine. author of _the city of jerusalem_; _the bible and the east_; _the hittites and their language_; &c. galilee (_in part_); galilee, sea of (_in part_). c. t.* rev. charles taylor, m.a., d.d., ll.d. (1840-1908). formerly master of st john's college, cambridge. vice-chancellor, cambridge university, 1887-1888. author of _geometrical conies_; &c. geometrical continuity. c. we. cecil weatherly. formerly scholar of queen's college, oxford. barrister-at-law. gate. c. w. w. sir charles william wilson, k.c.b., k.c.m.g., f.r.s. (1836-1907). major-general, royal engineers. secretary to the north american boundary commission, 1858-1862. british commissioner on the servian boundary commission. director-general of the ordnance survey, 1886-1894. director-general of military education, 1895-1898. author of _from korti to khartoum_; _life of lord clive_; &c. galilee, sea of (_in part_). d. c. dugald clerk, m.inst.c.e., f.r.s. director of the national gas engine co., ltd. inventor of the clerk cycle gas engine. gas engine. d. f. t. donald francis tovey. balliol college, oxford. author of _essays in musical analysis_, comprising _the classical concerto_, _the goldberg variations_, and analyses of many other classical works. fugue. d. h. david hannay. formerly british vice-consul at barcelona. author of _short history of royal navy, 1217-1688_; _life of emilio castelar_; &c. french revolutionary wars: _naval operations_. e. br. ernest barker, m.a. fellow of, and lecturer in modern history at, st john's college, oxford. formerly fellow and tutor of merton college. craven scholar, 1895. fulk, king of jerusalem. e. b. el. edwin bailey elliott, m.a., f.r.s., f.r.a.s. waynflete professor of pure mathematics, and fellow of magdalen college, oxford. formerly fellow of queen's college, oxford. president of london mathematical society, 1896-1898. author of _algebra of quantics_; &c. geometry, iv. e. c. b. right rev. edward cuthbert butler; o.s.b., d.litt. (dublin). abbot of downside abbey, bath. author of "the lausiac history of palladius" in _cambridge texts and studies_. franciscans; friar. e. e. lady eastlake. see the biographical article, eastlake, sir c. l. gibson, john. e. g. edmund gosse, ll.d. see the biographical article, gosse, edmund. fryxell; garland, john. e. j. d. edward joseph dent, m.a., mus.bac. formerly fellow of king's college, cambridge. galuppi. e. o.* edmund owen, m.b., f.r.c.s., ll.d., d.sc. consulting surgeon to st mary's hospital, london, and to the children's hospital, great ormond street; late examiner in surgery at the universities of cambridge, durham and london. author of _a manual of anatomy for senior students_. gastric ulcer. e. pr. edgar prestage. special lecturer in portuguese literature in the university of manchester. commendador portuguese order of s. thiago. corresponding member of lisbon royal academy of sciences and lisbon geographical society; &c. garcao; garrett, e. w. b. sir edward william brabrook, c.b., f.s.a. barrister-at-law, lincoln's inn. chief registrar of friendly societies, 1891-1904. author of _building societies_; _provident societies and industrial welfare_; _institutions of thrift_; &c. friendly societies. f. c. c. frederick cornwallis conybeare, m.a., d.th. (geissen). fellow of the british academy. formerly fellow of university college, oxford. author of _the ancient armenian texts of aristotle_; _myth, magic and morals_; &c. funeral rites. f. c. m. francis charles montague, m.a. astor professor of european history, university college, london. formerly fellow of oriel college, oxford. author of _limits of individual liberty_; chapters in _cambridge modern history_; &c. french revolution. f. f.* sir james fortescue-flannery, bart., m.p., m.inst.c.e. ex-president of the institute of marine engineers. m.p. for the maldon division of essex, 1910. m.p. for the shipley division of yorkshire, 1895-1906. fuel: _liquid_. f. g. m. b. frederick george meeson beck, m.a. fellow and lecturer in classics, clare college, cambridge. germany: _ethnography and early history_. f. h. b. francis henry butler, m.a. worcester college, oxford. associate of royal school of mines. frankincense; galls. f. j. h. francis john haverfield, m.a., ll.d., f.s.a. camden professor of ancient history in the university of oxford. fellow of brasenose college. fellow of the british academy. formerly censor, student, tutor and librarian of christ church, oxford. ford's lecturer, 1906-1907. author of monographs on roman history, especially roman britain; &c. gaul. f. n. m. colonel frederic natusch maude, c.b. lecturer in military history, manchester university. author of _war and the world's policy_; _the leipzig campaign_; _the jena campaign_. franco-german war (_in part_). f. r. c. frank r. cana. author of _south africa from the great trek to the union_. french congo; german east africa; german south-west africa. f. r. h. friedrich robert helmert, ph.d., d.ing. professor of geodesy, university of berlin. geodesy (_in part_). f. s. francis storr. editor of the _journal of education_, london. officer d'academie (paris). games, classical. f. w. r.* frederick william rudler, i.s.o., f.g.s. curator and librarian of the museum of practical geology, london, 1879-1902. president of the geologists' association, 1887-1889. garnet; gem: i. g. e. rev. george edmundson, m.a., f.r.hist.s. formerly fellow and tutor of brasenose college, oxford. ford's lecturer, 1909. gelderland (_duchy_). g. l. georg lunge. see the biographical article. lunge, g. fuel: _gaseous_; gas: _manufacture_, ii. g. sa. george saintsbury, d.c.l., ll.d. see the biographical article, saintsbury, g. french literature; gautier. g. w. t. rev. griffiths wheeler thatcher, m.a., b.d. warden of camden college, sydney, n.s.w. formerly tutor in hebrew and old testament history at mansfield college, oxford. ghazali. h. b. hilary bauermann, f.g.s. (d. 1909). formerly lecturer on metallurgy at the ordnance college, woolwich. author of _a treatise on the metallurgy of iron_. fuel: _solid_. h. b. w. horace bolingbroke woodward, f.r.s., f.g.s. late assistant director, geological survey of england and wales. wollaston medallist, geological society. author of _the history of the geological society of london_; &c. gaudry. h. ch. hugh chisholm, m.a. formerly scholar of corpus christi college, oxford. editor of the 11th edition of the encyclopaedia britannica; co-editor of the 10th edition. gambetta; garnett, richard; george iv. (_in part_). h. c. l. hon. henry cabot lodge. see the biographical article, lodge, henry cabot. gallatin. h. f. ba. henry frederick baker, m.a., d.sc., f.r.s. fellow and lecturer of st john's college, cambridge. cayley lecturer in mathematics in the university. author of _abel's theorem and the allied theory_; &c. function: _functions of complex variables_. h. l. c. hugh longbourne callendar, f.r.s., ll.d. professor of physics, royal college of science, london. formerly professor of physics in macgill college, montreal, and in university college, london. fusion. h. m.* hugh mitchell. barrister-at-law, inner temple. gibraltar (_in part_). h. m. w. h. marshall ward, m.a., d.sc., f.r.s. (d. 1905). formerly professor of botany, cambridge. president of the british mycological society. author of _timber and some of its diseases_; _the oak_; _sach's lectures on the physiology of plants_; _diseases in plants_; &c. fungi (_in part_). h. n. henry nicol. french language (_in part_). h. r. m. hugh robert mill, d.sc., ll.d. director of british rainfall organization. editor of _british rainfall_. formerly president of the royal meteorological society. hon. member of vienna geographical society. hon. corresponding member of geographical societies of paris, berlin, budapest, st petersburg, amsterdam, &c. author of _the realm of nature_; _the international geography_; &c. geography. h. w. c. d. henry william carless davis, m.a. fellow and tutor of balliol college, oxford. fellow of all souls college, oxford, 1895-1902. author of _england under the normans and angevins_; _charlemagne_. geoffrey, _archbishop of york_; geoffrey of monmouth; gerard; gervase of canterbury; gervase of tilbury. h. w. s. h. wickham steed. correspondent of _the times_ at rome (1897-1902) and vienna. garibaldi. i. a. israel abrahams, m.a. reader in talmudic and rabbinic literature in the university of cambridge. formerly president, jewish historical society of england. author of _a short history of jewish literature_; _jewish life in the middle ages_; _judaism_; &c. frank, jakob; frankel, zecharias; frankl, ludwig a.; friedmann, meir; gaon; geiger (_in part_); gersonides. j. a. f. john ambrose fleming, m.a., d.sc., f.r.s. pender professor of electrical engineering in the university of london. fellow of university college, london. formerly fellow of st john's college, cambridge, and lecturer on applied mechanics in the university. author of _magnets and electric currents_. galvanometer. j. a. h. john allen howe, b.sc. curator and librarian of the museum of practical geology, london. author of _the geology of building stones_. fuller's earth. j. b. b. john bagnall bury, ll.d., d.c.l. see the biographical article, bury, j. b. gibbon, edward. j. b. mcm. john bach mcmaster, ll.d. professor of american history in the university of pennsylvania. author of _a history of the people of the united states_; &c. garfield, james abram. j. ga. james gairdner, ll.d., c.b. see the biographical article, gairdner, j. gardiner, stephen. j. g. c. a. john george clark anderson, m.a. censor and tutor of christ church, oxford. formerly fellow of lincoln college; craven fellow, oxford, 1896. conington prizeman, 1893. galatia. j. g. r. john george robertson, m.a., ph.d. professor of german, university of london. author of _history of german literature_; _schiller after a century_; &c. freiligrath; german literature. j. hn. justus hashagen, ph.d. privat-dozent in medieval and modern history, university of bonn. author of _das rheinland und die franzoesische herrschaft_. frederick augustus i. and ii.; frederick william i. j. h. gr. john hilton grace, m.a., f.r.s. lecturer in mathematics at peterhouse and pembroke college, cambridge. fellow of peterhouse. geometry, v. j. h. h. john henry hessels, m.a. fust. j. h. r. john horace round, m.a., ll.d. (edin.). author of _feudal england_; _studies in peerage and family history_; _peerage and pedigree_; &c. geoffrey de montbray. j. hl. r. john holland rose, m.a., litt.d. christ's college, cambridge. lecturer on modern history to the cambridge university local lectures syndicate. author of _life of napoleon i._; _napoleonic studies_; _the development of the european nations_; _the life of pitt_; &c. gardane. j. mt. james moffatt, m.a., d.d. jowett lecturer, london, 1907. author of _historical new testament_; &c. galatians, epistle to the. j. p.-b. james george joseph penderel-brodhurst. editor of the _guardian_ (london). furniture. j. si. james sime, m.a. (1843-1895). author of _a history of germany_; &c. frederick the great (_in part_). j. s. bl. john sutherland black, m.a., ll.d. assistant editor 9th edition _encyclopaedia britannica_. joint-editor of the _encyclopaedia biblica_. free church of scotland (_in part_). j. s. f. john smith flett, d.sc., f.g.s. petrographer to the geological survey. formerly lecturer on petrology in edinburgh university. neill medallist of the royal society of edinburgh. bigsby medallist of the geological society of london. fulgurite; gabbro. j. t. be. john t. bealby. joint-author of stanford's _europe_. formerly editor of the _scottish geographical magazine_. translator of sven hedin's _through asia, central asia and tibet_; &c. georgia (russia), (_in part_). j. t. c. joseph thomas cunningham, m.a., f.z.s. lecturer on zoology at the south-western polytechnic, london. formerly fellow of university college, oxford. assistant professor of natural history in the university of edinburgh. naturalist to the marine biological association. gastropoda. j. v. b. james vernon bartlet, m.a., d.d. (st. andrews). professor of church history, mansfield college, oxford. author of _the apostolic age_; &c. frommel. j. ws. john weathers, f.r.h.s. lecturer on horticulture to the middlesex county council. author of _practical guide to garden plants_; _french market gardening_; &c. fruit and flower farming (_in part_). j. w. he. james wycliffe headlam, m.a. staff inspector of secondary schools under the board of education. formerly fellow of king's college, cambridge. professor of greek and ancient history at queen's college, london. author of _bismarck and the foundation of the german empire_; &c. frederick iii. of prussia; germany: _history (in part)_. k. s. kathleen schlesinger. author of _the instruments of the orchestra_; &c. editor of the _portfolio of musical archaeology_. free reed vibrator; geige. l. d. louis duchesne. see the biographical article, duchesne, l. m. o. gelasius i. l. h.* louis halphen, d.-es.-l. principal of the course of the faculty of letters in the university of bordeaux. author of _le comte d'anjou au xi^e siecle; recueil des actes angevines_; &c. fulk nerra; geoffrey, count of anjou; geoffrey plantaganet. l. j. s. leonard james spencer, m.a. assistant in department of mineralogy, british museum. formerly scholar of sidney sussex college, cambridge, and harkness scholar. editor of the _mineralogical magazine_. galena. l. v. linda mary villari. see the biographical article, villari, pasquale. frederick iii. king of sicily. m. g. moses gaster, ph.d. chief rabbi of the sephardic communities of england. vice-president, zionist congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. ilchester lecturer at oxford on slavonic and byzantine literature, 1886 and 1891. president, folk-lore society of england. vice-president, anglo-jewish association. author of _history of rumanian popular literature_; _a new hebrew fragment of ben-sira_; _the hebrew version of the secretum secretorum of aristotle_. ghica. m. n. t. marcus niebuhr tod, m.a. fellow and tutor of oriel college, oxford. university lecturer in epigraphy. joint-author of _catalogue of the sparta museum_. gerousia. o. ba. oswald barron, f.s.a. editor of the ancestor, 1902-1905. hon. genealogist to standing council of the honourable society of the baronetage. genealogy: _modern_. o. h. olaus magnus friedrich henrici, ph.d., ll.d., f.r.s. professor of mechanics and mathematics in the central technical college of the city and guilds of london institute. author of _vectors and rotors_; _congruent figures_; &c. geometry, i., ii., and iii. p. a. paul daniel alphandery. professor of the history of dogma, ecole pratique des hautes etudes, sorbonne, paris. author of _les idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines au debut du xiii^e siecle_. fraticelli. p. a. a. philip a. ashworth, m.a., doc.juris. new college, oxford. barrister-at-law. translator of h. r. von gneist's _history of the english constitution_. germany: _geography_. p. gi. peter giles, m.a., ll.d., litt.d. fellow and classical lecturer of emmanuel college, cambridge, and university reader in comparative philology. formerly secretary of the cambridge philological society. author of _manual of comparative philology_; &c. g. p. la. philip lake, m.a., f.g.s. lecturer on physical and regional geography in cambridge university. formerly of the geological survey of india. _author of monograph of british cambrian trilobites_. translator and editor of kayser's _comparative geology_. germany: _geology_. p. m. paul meyer. see the biographical article, meyer, m. p. h. french language (_in part_). r. ad. robert adamson, ll.d. see the biographical article. adamson, robert. gassendi (_in part_). r. a. s. m. robert alexander stewart macalister, m.a., f.s.a. st john's college, cambridge. director of excavations for the palestine exploration fund. gadara; galilee (_in part_); galilee, sea of (_in part_); gerasa; gerizim; gezer; gibeon. r. ca. robert carruthers, ll.d. (1799-1878). editor of the _inverness courier_, 1828-1878. part-editor of chambers's _cyclopaedia of english literature_; lecturer at the philosophical institution, edinburgh. author of _history of huntingdon_; _life of pope_. garrick, david (_in part_). r. h. q. rev. robert hebert quick, m.a., (1831-1891). formerly lecturer on education, university of cambridge. author of _essays on educational reformers_. froebel. r. l.* richard lydekker, f.r.s., f.z.s., f.g.s. member of the staff of the geological survey of india, 1874-1882. author of catalogues of _fossil mammals, reptiles and birds in british museum_; _the deer of all lands_; &c. galago; galeopithecus; ganodonta; gelada; gibbon. r. n. b. robert nisbet bain (d. 1909). assistant librarian, british museum, 1883-1909. author of _scandinavia, the political history of denmark, norway and sweden, 1513-1900_; _the first romanovs, 1613 to 1725_; _slavonic europe, the political history of poland and russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c. frederick ii. and iii. of denmark and norway; gedymin. r. pr. robert priebsch, ph.d. professor of german philology, university of london. author of _deutsche handschriften in england_; &c. german language. r. p. s. r. phene spiers, f.s.a., f.r.i.b.a. formerly master of the architectural school, royal academy, london. past president of architectural association. associate and fellow of king's college, london. corresponding member of the institute of france. editor of fergusson's _history of architecture_. _author of architecture: east and west_; &c. garnier, j. r. we. richard webster, m.a. (princeton). formerly fellow in classics, princeton university. editor of _the elegies of maximianus_; &c. franklin, benjamin. s. a. c. stanley arthur cook, m.a. editor for palestine exploration fund. lecturer in hebrew and syriac, and formerly fellow, gonville and caius college, cambridge. examiner in hebrew and aramaic, london university, 1904-1908. council of royal asiatic society, 1904-1905. author of _glossary of aramaic inscriptions_; _the laws of moses and the code of hammurabi_; _critical notes on old testament history_; _religion of ancient palestine, &c._ genealogy: _biblical_; genesis. st. c. viscount st cyres. see the biographical article, iddesleigh, 1st earl of. gallicanism. s. r. g. samuel rawson gardiner, ll.d., d.c.l. see the biographical article, gardiner, s. r. george i., ii., iii.; george iv. (_in part_). t. as. thomas ashby, m.a., d.litt. (oxon.). director of british school of archaeology at rome. formerly scholar at christ church, oxford. craven fellow, 1897, conington prizeman, 1906. member of the imperial german archaeological institute. frascati fregellae; frascati; fregellae; fucino,lago di; fulginiae; fusaro, lago; gabii; gaeta; gallipoli (italy); gela; genoa. t. ba. sir thomas barclay, m.p. member of the institute of international law. member of the supreme council of the congo free state. officer of the legion of honour. author of _problems of international practice and diplomacy_; &c. m.p. for blackburn, 1910. geneva convention. t. c. h. thomas callan hodson. registrar, east london college, university of london. late indian civil service. author of _the metheis_; &c. genna. t. e. h. thomas erskine holland, k.c., d.c.l., ll.d. fellow of all souls college, oxford. professor of international law and diplomacy in the university of oxford, 1874-1910. fellow of the british academy. bencher of lincoln's inn. author of _studies in international law_; _the elements of jurisprudence_; _alberici gentilis de jure belli_; _the laws of war on land_; _neutral duties in a maritime war_; &c. gentili. t. g. s. thomas gaskell shearman (d. 1900). author of _the single tax_; _natural taxation_; _distribution of wealth_; &c. george, henry. t. h. h.* colonel sir thomas hungerford holdich, k.c.m.g., k.c.i.e., d.sc. superintendent frontier surveys, india, 1892-1898. gold medallist, r.g.s. (london), 1887. author of _the indian borderland_; _the countries of the king's award_; _india_; _tibet_; &c. ganges. t. m. l. rev. thomas martin lindsay, d.d. principal and professor of church history, united free church college, glasgow. author of _life of luther_; &c. gerson (_in part_). v. b. l. vivian byam lewes, f.i.c., f.c.s. professor of chemistry, royal naval college, greenwich. chief superintending gas examiner to city of london. gas: _manufacture_, i. v. h. b. vernon herbert blackman, m.a., d.sc. professor of botany in the university of leeds. formerly fellow of st john's college, cambridge. fungi (_in part_). w. a. b. c. rev. william augustus brevoort coolidge, m.a., f.r.g.s., ph.d. (bern). fellow of magdalen college, oxford. professor of english history, st david's college, lampeter, 1880-1881. author of _guide du haut dauphine_; _the range of the toedi_; _guide to grindelwald_; _guide to switzerland_; _the alps in nature and in history_; &c. editor of _the alpine journal_, 1880-1881; &c. frauenfeld; frejus; fribourg; gap; garda, lake of; gemmi pass; geneva; geneva, lake of. w. a. p. walter alison phillips, m.a. formerly exhibitioner of merton college and senior scholar of st john's college, oxford. author of _modern europe_; &c. frederick ii. of prussia (_in part_); gentleman; gentz, friedrich; germany: _history_ (_in part_) w. ba. william bacher, ph.d. professor of biblical science at the rabbinical seminary, budapest. gamaliel. w. be. sir walter besant. see the biographical article, besant, sir w. froissart. w. c. sir william crookes, f.r.s. see the biographical article, crookes, sir william. gem, artificial. w. cu. the ven. william cunningham, m.a., d.d. archdeacon of ely. birkbeck lecturer in ecclesiastical history, trinity college, cambridge. fellow of the british academy. fellow of trinity college, cambridge. author of _growth of english industry and commerce_; &c. free trade. w. e. d. william ernest dalby, m.a., m.inst.c.e., m.i.m.e. professor of civil and mechanical engineering at the city and guilds of london institute central technical college, south kensington. formerly university demonstrator in the engineering department of cambridge university. author of _the balancing of engines_; _valves and valve gear mechanism_; &c. friction (_in part_). w. fr. william fream, ll.d. (d. 1906). formerly lecturer on agricultural entomology, university of edinburgh, and agricultural correspondent of the times. fruit and flower farming (_in part_). w. f. c. william feilden craies, m.a. barrister-at-law, inner temple. lecturer on criminal law, king's college, london. editor of archbold's _criminal pleading_ (23rd edition). game laws; gaming and wagering. w. hu. rev. william hunt, m.a., litt.d. president of the royal historical society 1905-1909. author of _history of english church_, 597-1066; _the church of england in the middle ages_; _political history of england, 1760-1801_; &c. freeman, edward a.; froude; gardiner, samuel rawson. w. j. h.* william james hughan. past s.g.d. of the grand lodge of england. author of _origin of the english rite of freemasonry_. freemasonry. w. l. f. walter lynwood fleming, m.a., ph.d. professor of history in louisiana state university. author of _documentary history of reconstruction_; &c. freedmen's bureau. w. l. g. william lawson grant, m.a. professor of colonial history, queen's university, kingston, canada. formerly beit lecturer in colonial history, oxford university. editor of _acts of the privy council_ (canadian series). gait, sir alexander t. w. m. r. william michael rossetti. see the biographical article, rossetti, dante g. fuseli; gaddi; gainsborough; ghirlandajo, domenico; ghirlandajo, ridolfo. w. r. b.* william raimond baird, ll.d. author of _manual of american college fraternities_; &c. editor of _the beta theta pi_. fraternities, college. w. s. p. walter sutherland parker. deputy chairman, fur section, london chamber of commerce. fur. principal unsigned articles franz josef land. galicia. geraniaceae. free church federation. galway. geranium. french guinea. gambia. german baptist brethren. french west africa. gawain. german catholics. friedland. gelatin. gettysburg. frisian islands. genius. geyser. frisians. gentian. ghazni. fronde, the. gentianaceae. ghent. fuero. george, saint. ghor. furnace. george junior republic. giant. galapagos islands. georgia (u.s.a.). footnote: [1] a complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. encyclopaedia britannica eleventh edition volume xi franciscans (otherwise called friars minor, or minorites; also the seraphic order; and in england grey friars, from the colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey), a religious order founded by st francis of assisi (q.v.). it was in 1206 that st francis left his father's house and devoted himself to a life of poverty and to the service of the poor, the sick and the lepers; and in 1209 that he felt the call to add preaching to his other ministrations, and to lead a life in the closest imitation of christ's life. within a few weeks disciples began to join themselves to him; the condition was that they should dispose of all their possessions. when their number was twelve francis led the little flock to rome to obtain the pope's sanction for their undertaking. innocent iii. received them kindly, but with some misgivings as to the feasibility of the proposed manner of life; these difficulties were overcome, and the pope accorded a provisional approval by word of mouth: they were to become clerics and to elect a superior. francis was elected and made a promise of obedience to the pope, and the others promised obedience to francis. this formal inauguration of the institute was in 1209 or (as seems more probable) 1210. francis and his associates were first known as "penitents of assisi," and then francis chose the title of "minors." on their return to assisi they obtained from the benedictine abbey on mount subasio the use of the little chapel of st mary of the angels, called the portiuncula, in the plain below assisi, which became the cradle and headquarters of the order. around the portiuncula they built themselves huts of branches and twigs, but they had no fixed abode; they wandered in pairs over the country, dressed in the ordinary clothes of the peasants, working in the fields to earn their daily bread, sleeping in barns or in the hedgerows or in the porches of the churches, mixing with the labourers and the poor, with the lepers and the outcasts, ever joyous--the "joculatores" or "jongleurs" of god--ever carrying out their mission of preaching to the lowly and to the wretched religion and repentance and the kingdom of god. the key-note of the movement was the imitation of the public life of christ, especially the poverty of christ. francis and his disciples were to aim at possessing nothing, absolutely nothing, so far as was compatible with life; they were to earn their bread from day to day by the work of their hands, and only when they could not do so were they to beg; they were to make no provision for the morrow, lay by no store, accumulate no capital, possess no land; their clothes should be the poorest and their dwellings the meanest; they were forbidden to receive or to handle money. on the other hand they were bound only to the fast observed in those days by pious christians, and were allowed to eat meat--the rule said they should eat whatever was set before them; no austerities were imposed, beyond those inseparable from the manner of life they lived. thus the institute in its original conception was quite different from the monastic institute, benedictine or canon regular. it was a confraternity rather than an order, and there was no formal novitiate, no organization. but the number of brothers increased with extraordinary rapidity, and the field of work soon extended itself beyond the neighbourhood of assisi and even beyond umbria--within three or four years there were settlements in perugia, cortona, pisa, florence and elsewhere, and missions to the saracens and moors were attempted by francis himself. about 1217 franciscan missions set out for germany, france, spain, hungary and the holy land; and in 1219 a number of provinces were formed, each governed by a provincial minister. these developments, whereby the little band of umbrian apostles had grown into an institute spread all over europe and even penetrating to the east, and numbering thousands of members, rendered impossible the continuance of the original free organization whereby francis's word and example were the sufficient practical rule of life for all: it was necessary as a condition of efficiency and even of existence and permanence that some kind of organization should be provided. from an early date yearly meetings or chapters had been held at the portiuncula, at first attended by the whole body of friars; but as the institute extended this became unworkable, and after 1219 the chapter consisted only of the officials, provincial ministers and others. during francis's absence in the east (1219-1220) a deliberate movement was initiated by the two vicars whom he had left in charge of the order, towards assimilating it to the monastic orders. francis hurried back, bringing with him elias of cortona, the provincial minister of syria, and immediately summoned an extraordinary general chapter (september 1220). before it met he had an interview on the situation with cardinal hugolino of ostia (afterwards gregory ix.), the great friend and supporter of both francis and dominic, and he went to honorius iii. at orvieto and begged that hugolino should be appointed the official protector of the order. the request was granted, and a bull was issued formally approving the order of friars minor, and decreeing that before admission every one must pass a year's novitiate, and that after profession it was not lawful to leave the order. by this bull the friars minor were constituted an order in the technical sense of the word. when the chapter assembled, francis, no doubt from a genuine feeling that he was not able to govern a great world-wide order, practically abdicated the post of minister-general by appointing a vicar, and the policy of turning the friars minor into a great religious order was consistently pursued, especially by elias, who a year later became francis's vicar. st francis's attitude towards this change is of primary importance for the interpretation of franciscan history. there can be little doubt that his affections never altered from his first love, and that he looked back regretfully on the "umbrian idyll" that had passed away; on the other hand, there seems to be no reason for doubting that he saw that the methods of the early days were now no longer possible, and that he acquiesced in the inevitable. this seems to be professor goetz's view, who holds that sabatier's picture of francis's agonized sadness at witnessing the destruction of his great creation going on under his eyes, has no counterpart in fact, and who rejects the view that the changes were forced on francis against his better judgment by hugolino and elias (see "note on sources" at end of article francis of assisi; also elias of cortona); goetz holds that the only conflict was the inevitable one between an unrealizable ideal and its practical working among average men. but there does seem to be evidence that francis deplored tendencies towards a departure from the severe simplicity of life and from the strict observance of poverty which he considered the ground-idea of his institute. in the final redaction of his rule made in 1223 and in his testament, made after it, he again clearly asserts his mind on these subjects, especially on poverty; and in the testament he forbids any glosses in the interpretation of the rule, declaring that it is to be taken simply as it stands. sabatier's view as to the difference between the "first rule" and that of 1223 is part of his general theory, and is, to say the least, a grave exaggeration. no doubt the first rule, which is fully four times as long, gives a better picture of st francis's mind and character; the later rule has been formed from the earlier by the elimination of the frequent scripture texts and the edificatory element; but the greater portion of it stood almost verbally in the earlier. on francis's death in 1226 the government of the order rested in the hands of elias until the chapter of 1227. at this chapter elias was not elected minister-general; the building of the great basilica and monastery at assisi was so manifest a violation of st francis's ideas and precepts that it produced a reaction, and john parenti became st francis's first successor. he held fast to st francis's ideas, but was not a strong man. at the chapter of 1230 a discussion arose concerning the binding force of st francis's testament, and the interpretation of certain portions of the rule, especially concerning poverty, and it was determined to submit the questions to pope gregory ix., who had been st francis's friend and had helped in the final redaction of the rule. he issued a bull, _quo elongati_, which declared that as the testament had not received the sanction of the general chapter it was not binding on the order, and also allowed trustees to hold and administer money for the order. john parenti and those who wished to maintain st francis's institute intact were greatly disturbed by these relaxations; but a majority of the chapter of 1232, by a sort of _coup d'etat_, proclaimed elias minister-general, and john retired, though in those days the office was for life. under elias the order entered on a period of extraordinary extension and prosperity: the number of friars in all parts of the world increased wonderfully, new provinces were formed, new missions to the heathen organized, the franciscans entered the universities and vied with the dominicans as teachers of theology and canon law, and as a body they became influential in church and state. with all this side of elias's policy the great bulk of the order sympathized; but his rule was despotic and tyrannical and his private life was lax--at least according to any franciscan standard, for no charge of grave irregularity was ever brought against him. and so a widespread movement against his government arose, the backbone of which was the university element at paris and oxford, and at a dramatic scene in a chapter held in the presence of gregory ix. elias was deposed (1239). the story of these first years after st francis's death is best told by ed. lempp, _frere elie de cortone_ (1901) (but see the warning at the end of the article elias of cortona). at this time the franciscans were divided into three parties: there were the zealots, or spirituals, who called for a literal observance of st francis's rule and testament; they deplored all the developments since 1219, and protested against turning the institute into an order, the frequentation of the universities and the pursuit of learning; in a word, they wished to restore the life to what it had been during the first few years--the hermitages and the huts of twigs, and the care of the lepers and the nomadic preaching. the zealots were few in number but of great consequence from the fact that to them belonged most of the first disciples and the most intimate companions of st francis. they had been grievously persecuted under elias--br. leo and others had been scourged, several had been imprisoned, one while trying to escape was accidentally killed, and br. bernard, the "first disciple," passed a year in hiding in the forests and mountains hunted like a wild beast. at the other extreme was a party of relaxation, that abandoned any serious effort to practise franciscan poverty and simplicity of life. between these two stood the great middle party of moderates, who desired indeed that the franciscans should be really poor and simple in their manner of life, and really pious, but on the other hand approved of the development of the order on the lines of other orders, of the acquisition of influence, of the cultivation of theology and other sciences, and of the frequenting of the universities. the questions of principle at issue in these controversies is reasonably and clearly stated, from the modern capuchin standpoint, in the "introductory essay" to _the friars and how they came to england_, by fr. cuthbert (1903). the moderate party was by far the largest, and embraced nearly all the friars of france, england and germany. it was the moderates and not the zealots that brought about elias's deposition, and the next general ministers belonged to this party. further relaxations of the law of poverty, however, caused a reaction, and john of parma, one of the zealots, became minister-general, 1247-1257. under him the more extreme of the zealots took up and exaggerated the theories of the eternal gospel of the calabrian cistercian abbot joachim of fiore (floris); some of their writings were condemned as heretical, and john of parma, who was implicated in these apocalyptic tendencies, had to resign. he was succeeded by st bonaventura (1257-1274), one of the best type of the middle party. he was a man of high character, a theologian, a mystic, a holy man and a strong ruler. he set himself with determination to effect a working compromise, and proceeded with firmness against the extremists on both sides. but controversy and recrimination and persecution had stiffened the more ardent among the zealots into obstinate fanatics--some of them threw themselves into a movement that may best be briefly described as a recrudescence of montanism (see emile gebhart's _italie mystique_, 1899, cc. v. and vi.), and developed into a number of sects, some on the fringe of catholic christianity and others beyond its pale. but the majority of the zealot party, or spirituals, did not go so far, and adopted as the principle of franciscan poverty the formula "a poor and scanty use" (_usus pauper et tenuis_) of earthly goods, as opposed to the "moderate use" advocated by the less strict party. the question thus posed came before the council of vienne, 1312, and was determined, on the whole, decidedly in favour of the stricter view. some of the french zealots were not satisfied and formed a semi-schismatical body in provence; twenty-five of them were tried before the inquisition, and four were burned alive at marseilles as obstinate heretics, 1318. after this the schism in the order subsided. but the disintegrating forces produced by the great schism and by the other disorders of the 14th century caused among the franciscans the same relaxations and corruptions, and also the same reactions and reform movements, as among the other orders. the chief of these reforms was that of the observants, which began at foligno about 1370. the observant reform was on the basis of the "poor and scanty use" of worldly goods, but it was organized as an order and its members freely pursued theological studies; thus it did not represent the position of the original zealot party, nor was it the continuation of it. the observant reform spread widely throughout italy and into france, spain and germany. the great promoters of the movement were st bernardine of siena and st john capistran. the council of constance, 1415, allowed the french observant friaries to be ruled by a vicar of their own, under the minister-general, and the same privilege was soon accorded to other countries. by the end of the middle ages the observants had some 1400 houses divided into 50 provinces. this movement produced a "half-reform" among the conventuals or friars of the mitigated observance; it also called forth a number of lesser imitations or congregations of strict observance. after many attempts had been made to bring about a working union among the many observances, in 1517 leo x. divided the franciscan order into two distinct and independent bodies, each with its own minister-general, its own provinces and provincials and its own general chapter: (1) the conventuals, who were authorized to use the various papal dispensations in regard to the observance of poverty, and were allowed to possess property and fixed income, corporately, like the monastic orders; (2) the observants, who were bound to as close an observance of st francis's rule in regard to poverty and all else as was practically possible. at this time a great number of the conventuals went over to the observants, who have ever since been by far the more numerous and influential branch of the order. among the observants in the course of the sixteenth century arose various reforms, each striving to approach more and more nearly to st francis's ideal; the chief of these reforms were the alcantarines in spain (st peter of alcantara, st teresa's friend, d. 1562), the riformati in italy and the recollects in france: all of these were semi-independent congregations. the capuchins (q.v.), established c. 1525, who claim to be the reform which approaches nearest in its conception to the original type, became a distinct order of franciscans in 1619. finally leo xiii. grouped the franciscans into three bodies or orders--the conventuals; the observants, embracing all branches of the strict observance, except the capuchins; and the capuchins--which together constitute the "first order." for the "second order," or the nuns, see clara, st, and clares, poor; and for the "third order" see tertiaries. many of the tertiaries live a fully monastic life in community under the usual vows, and are formed into congregations of regular tertiaries, both men and women. they have been and are still very numerous, and give themselves up to education, to the care of the sick and of orphans and to good works of all kinds. no order has had so stormy an internal history as the franciscans; yet in spite of all the troubles and dissensions and strivings that have marred franciscan history, the friars minor of every kind have in each age faithfully and zealously carried on st francis's great work of ministering to the spiritual needs of the poor. always recruited in large measure from among the poor, they have ever been the order of the poor, and in their preaching and missions and ministrations they have ever laid themselves out to meet the needs of the poor. another great work of the franciscans throughout the whole course of their history has been their missions to the mahommedans, both in western asia and in north africa, and to the heathens in china, japan and india, and north and south america; a great number of the friars were martyred. the news of the martyrdom of five of his friars in morocco was one of the joys of st francis's closing years. many of these missions exist to this day. in the universities, too, the franciscans made themselves felt alongside of the dominicans, and created a rival school of theology, wherein, as contrasted with the aristotelianism of the dominican school, the platonism of the early christian doctors has been perpetuated. the franciscans came to england in 1224 and immediately made foundations in canterbury, london and oxford; by the middle of the century there were fifty friaries and over 1200 friars in england; at the dissolution there were some 66 franciscan friaries, whereof some six belonged to the observants (for list see _catholic dictionary_ and f. a. gasquet's _english monastic life_, 1904). though nearly all the english houses belonged to what has been called the "middle party," as a matter of fact they practised great poverty, and the commissioners of henry viii. often remark that the franciscan friary was the poorest of the religious houses of a town. the english province was one of the most remarkable in the order, especially in intellectual achievement; it produced friar roger bacon, and, with the single exception of st bonaventure, all the greatest doctors of the franciscan theological school--alexander hales, duns scotus and occam. the franciscans have always been the most numerous by far of the religious orders; it is estimated that about the period of the reformation the friars minor must have numbered nearly 100,000. at the present day the statistics are roughly (including lay-brothers): observants, 15,000, conventuals, 1500; to these should be added 9500 capuchins, making the total number of franciscan friars about 26,000. there are various houses of observants and capuchins in england and ireland; and the old irish conventuals survived the penal times and still exist. there have been four franciscan popes: nicholas iv. (1288-1292), sixtus iv. (1471-1484), sixtus v. (1585-1590), clement xiv. (1769-1774); the three last were conventuals. the great source for franciscan history is wadding's _annales_; it has been many times continued, and now extends in 25 vols. fol. to the year 1622. the story is also told by helyot, _hist. des ordres religieux_ (1714), vol. vii. abridgments, with references to recent literature, will be found in max heimbucher, _orden und kongregationen_ (1896), i. sec.sec. 37-51; in wetzer und welte, _kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), articles "armut (iii.)," "franciscaner orden" (this article contains the best account of the inner history and the polity of the order up to 1886); in herzog, _realencyklopaedie_ (3rd ed.), articles "franz von assisi" (fullest references to literature up to 1899), "fraticellen." of modern critical studies on franciscan origins, k. mueller's _anfaenge des minoritenordens und der bussbruderschaften_ (1885), and various articles by f. ehrle in _archiv fuer litteratur- und kirchengeschichte des mittelalters_ and _zeitschrift fuer katholische theologie_, deserve special mention. eccleston's charming chronicle of "the coming of the friars minor into england" has been translated into english by the capuchin fr. cuthbert, who has prefixed an introductory essay giving by far the best account in english of "the spirit and genius of the franciscan friars" (_the friars and how they came to england_, 1903). fuller information on the english franciscans will be found in a. g. little's _grey friars in oxford_ (oxford hist. soc., 1892). (e. c. b.) franck. the name of franck has been given indiscriminately but improperly to painters of the school of antwerp who belong to the families of francken (q.v.) and vrancx (q.v.). one artist truly entitled to be called franck is gabriel, who entered the gild of antwerp in 1605, became its president in 1636 and died in 1639. but his works cannot now be traced.