STATISTICS

england and wales. in england and wales the total number of persons returned in 1901 as afflicted with blindness was 25,317, being in the proportion of 778 per million living, or 1 blind person in every 1285 of the population. the following table shows that the proportion of blind persons to population has diminished at each successive enumeration since 1851, in which year particulars of those afflicted in this manner were ascertained for the first time. it will, however, be noted that, although the decrease in the proportion of blind in the latest intercensal period was still considerable, yet the rate of decrease which had obtained between 1871 and 1891 was not maintained.-- +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+ | year.| number of | blind per million | persons living to | | | blind. | of the population | one blind person. | +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+ | 1851 | 18,306 | 1021 | 979 | | 1861 | 19,352 | 964 | 1037 | | 1871 | 21,590 | 951 | 1052 | | 1881 | 22,832 | 879 | 1138 | | 1891 | 23,467 | 809 | 1236 | | 1901 | 25,317 | 778 | 1285 | +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+ the following table, which gives the proportions of blind per million living at the earlier age-groups, shows that in the decennium 1891-1901, as also in recent previous intercensal periods, there was a decrease in the proportion of blind children in england and wales generally; it thus lends support to the contention, in the _general report_ for 1891, that the decrease was due either to the lesser prevalence, or to the more efficient treatment, of purulent ophthalmia and other infantile maladies which may result in blindness. +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ | age-period. | 1851 | 1861 | 1871 | 1881 | 1891 | 1901 | +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ | under 5 years | 198 | 196 | 185 | 166 | 155 | 129 | | 5-10 | 297 | 256 | 259 | 288 | 188 | 192 | | 10-15 | 365 | 366 | 359 | " | 290 | 323 | | 15-20 | 416 | 415 | 404 | 388 | 370 | 239 | | 20-25 | 481 | 443 | 451 | 422 | 385 | 359 | +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ | total under 25 | 339 | 322 | 317 | 298 | 269 | 261 | +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ in 1886 a royal commission on the blind, deaf and dumb was appointed by the government, and, after taking much valuable evidence, issued an exhaustive and instructive report. following on the practical recommendations submitted by this commission, the elementary education (blind and deaf children) act 1893, was passed, under which the education of the blind became for the first time compulsory. in terms of this statute, the school authorities were made responsible for the provision of suitable elementary education for blind children up to sixteen years of age, and grants of l3, 3s. for elementary subjects, and of l2, 2s. for industrial training, were contributed by the state towards the cost of educating children in schools certified as efficient within the meaning of the elementary education act 1876. the principal aim of the education act of 1893 was to supply education in some useful profession or trade which will enable the blind to earn their livelihood and to become useful citizens; but the weak spot was that no provision was made therein for the completion of their education and industrial training after the age of sixteen. in england and wales, in 1907, there were twenty-four resident schools and forty-three workshops for the blind. in many of the large towns, day classes for the education of blind children have been established by local education authorities. there are forty-six home teaching societies, who send teachers to visit the blind in their homes, to teach adults who wish to learn to read, to act as colporteurs, to lend and exchange useful books, and to act as scripture readers to those who are aged and infirm. all the home teaching societies for the blind and many public libraries lend embossed books. the public library at oxford has nearly 400 volumes of classical works for the use of university students. a society was instituted in 1847 by dr w. moon for stereotyping and embossing the scriptures and other books in "moon" type. the type has been adapted to over 400 languages and dialects. after dr moon's death in 1884 the work was carried on by his daughter, miss adelaide moon, and the books are much used by the adult blind. in 1868 dr t.r. armitage, being aware of the great improvements which had been made in the education of the blind in other countries, founded the british and foreign blind association. this association was formed for the purpose of promoting the education and employment of the blind, by ascertaining what had been done in these respects in various countries, by endeavouring to supply deficiencies where these were found to exist, and by attempting to bring about greater harmony of action between the different existing schools and institutions. it gave a new impetus to the education and training of the blind in the united kingdom. at that time their education was in a state of chaos. the bible, or a great part of it, had been printed in five different systems. the founders took as an axiom that the relative merits of the various methods of education through the sense of touch should be decided by those and those only who have to rely on this sense. the council, who were all totally or partially blind, spent two years in comparing the different systems of embossed print. in 1869 and 1870 dr armitage corresponded with dr j.r. russ in regard to the new york point. no trouble was spared to arrive at a right conclusion. the braille system was finally adopted, and the association at once became a centre for supplying frames for writing braille, printed books, maps, music and other educational apparatus for the blind. all books printed by the association are printed from stereotyped plates embossed by blind copyists. about 3000 separate works, varying in length from 1 to 12 volumes, have been copied by hand to meet the requirements of public libraries and individuals. about 700 ladies, who give their services, make the first braille copy of these books, and they are recopied by blind scribes, chiefly women and girls, who are paid for their work. the national lending library, london, was founded in 1882. it has over 5500 volumes in braille and other types. books are forwarded to all parts of the united kingdom. there are fourteen magazines published in embossed type in the united kingdom. there are thirty-six pension societies--the principal are hetherington's, day's, the clothworkers', the cordwainers', the national blind relief society, royal blind pension society and indigent blind visiting society. the gardner trust administers the income of l300,000 left by henry gardner in 1879. the income is used for instructing the blind in the profession of music, in suitable trades, handicrafts and professions other than music, for pensions, and free grants to institutions and individuals for special purposes. scotland. according to the census of 1901, scotland had 3253 (or 727 per million) blind persons, as against 2797 in 1891, but in a paper read at the conference in edinburgh, 1906, the superintendent of the glasgow mission to the out-door blind stated that there were 758 employed or being educated in institutions, and 3238 known as "out-door blind," making a total of 3996. there are in scotland ten missions, so distributed as to cover the whole country, and regular visits are made as far north as the orkney and shetland islands. in carrying on the work, there are twenty-four paid missionaries or teachers and a large number of voluntary helpers. these societies originated in a desire to teach the blind to read in their own homes, and to provide them with the scriptures and other religious books, but the social, intellectual and temporal needs of the blind also receive a large share of attention. these teachers afford the best means of circulating embossed literature, therefore the library committee of the glasgow corporation has agreed to purchase books and place them in the mission library instead of in the public library. as the institutions provide for only a small number of the blind, strenuous efforts are made by the committee and teachers of missions to find some employment for the many adults who come under their care. in glasgow, a ladies' auxiliary furnishes work for 150 knitters, and takes the responsibility of disposing of their work. in scotland there are five schools for the young blind, and in connexion with each is a workshop for adults. in edinburgh the school is at west craigmillar, and the workshop in the city, but both are under the same board of directors. ireland. according to the census of 1901, there were 4253 totally blind persons in ireland, a proportion of 954 per million, as against 1135 in 1891. of these, 2430 were over 60 years of age and 11 over 100. these figures do not include the partially blind, who numbered 1217. the fact that so many aged blind persons are to be found in ireland is doubtless due to an ophthalmic epidemic which occurred during the irish famine. there are twelve institutions, a home mission and home teaching society; nine of these institutions are asylums, that system having been largely adopted in ireland. the scarcity of manufacturing industries, except in a few northern counties, entails a lack of work suited to the blind. the elementary education act (blind and deaf) does not extend to ireland. the following table gives the number of blind in age-groups in 1901:-- +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+ | age-period. | number. | age-period. | number. | +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+ | under 5 years | 10 | 50-55 | 392 | | 5-10 | 38 | 55-60 | 314 | | 10-15 | 64 | 60-65 | 617 | | 15-20 | 73 | 65-70 | 382 | | 20-25 | 95 | 70-75 | 540 | | 25-30 | 116 | 75-80 | 306 | | 30-35 | 146 | 80-85 | 372 | | 35-40 | 146 | 85-90 | 118 | | 40-45 | 205 | 95 and upwards | 95 | | 45-50 | 224 | | | +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+ british colonies. in the dominion of canada, south africa, the states of the australian commonwealth and new zealand, provision is made by the government for the education of the young blind, and in some cases for training the adults in handicrafts. embossed literature is carried free of expense, and on the victorian railways no charge is made for the guide who accompanies a blind person. the following were the census returns for 1901:-- victoria 1082 tasmania 173 new south wales 884 new zealand 274 (1891) south australia 315 natal 68 queensland 209 cape colony 2802 (1904) west australia 121 canada 3279 in australia there are institutions for the blind at melbourne, sydney, adelaide, brighton, brisbane and maylands near perth. in new zealand the institution is at auckland. in cape colony between 1875 and 1891, there was an extraordinary increase in blindness, but between 1891 and 1904 the rate per 10,000 has decreased 23.78%. there is an institution at worcester for deaf-mutes and blind, founded in 1881. it is supported by a government grant, fees and subscription. schools for the blind were established by the dominion government at brantford, ontario (1871), and halifax, nova scotia (1867). in montreal there are two private institutions, the m'kay institute for protestant deaf-mutes and blind, and a school for roman catholic children under the charge of the sisters of charity. united states. in the united states the education of the blind is not regarded as a charity, but forms part of the educational system of the country, and is carried on at the public expense. according to the _annual report_ of the commissioner of education for 1908, there were 40 state schools, with 4340 pupils. the value of apparatus, grounds and buildings was $9,201,161. for salaries and other expenditure, the aggregate was $1,460,732. the united states government appropriates $10,000 annually for printing embossed books, which are distributed among the different state schools for the blind. beside these state schools, there are workshops for the blind subsidized by the state government or the municipality. commissions composed of able men have recently been appointed in several of the states to take charge of the affairs of the blind from infancy to old age. the exhaustive summary of the 12th census enables these commissions to communicate with every blind person in their respective states. at the 12th census a change was made in the plan for securing the returns, and the work of the enumerators was restricted to a brief preliminary return, showing only the name, sex, age, post office address, and nature of the existing defects in all persons alleged to be blind or deaf. dr alexander graham bell, of washington, d.c., was appointed expert special agent of the census office for the preparation of a report on the deaf and blind. he was empowered to conduct in his own name a correspondence relating to this branch of the census inquiry. a circular containing eighteen questions was addressed to every blind person given in the census, and from the data contained in the replies the following tables (i., ii., iii., iv.) have been compiled. table i.--_the blind, by degree of blindness and sex._ +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+ | | the | the | the | | sex. | blind. | totally | partially | | | | blind. | blind. | +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+ | number-- | | | | | total | 64,763 | 35,645 | 29,118 | | male | 37,054 | 20,144 | 16,190 | | female | 27,709 | 15,501 | 12,208 | +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+ | per cent distribution-- | | | | | total | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | | male | 57.2 | 56.5 | 58.1 | | female | 42.8 | 43.5 | 41.9 | | | | | | | number per 1,000,000 | | | | | population of same sex-- | | | | | both sexes | 852 | 469 | 383 | | male | 955 | 519 | 436 | | female | 745 | 417 | 328 | +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+ table ii.--_the blind, by degree of blindness, age-periods, colour and nativity._ +--------------------------+----------+----------------------------+----------+ | | | white. | | | degree of blindness and | all +--------+---------+---------+ coloured.| | age-period. | classes. | total. | native. | foreign-| | | | | | | born. | | +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ | number-- | | | | | | | the blind | 64,763 | 56,535 | 45,479 | 10,694 | 8228 | | under 20 years | 8,308 | 7,252 | 6,937 | 231 | 1056 | | 20 years and over | 56,165 | 49,067 | 38,388 | 10,420 | 7098 | | age unknown | 290 | 216 | 154 | 43 | 74 | +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ | the totally blind | 35,645 | 30,359 | 23,636 | 6,511 | 5286 | | under 20 years | 4,123 | 3,543 | 3,377 | 129 | 580 | | 20 years and over | 31,363 | 26,704 | 20,179 | 6,636 | 4639 | | age unknown | 159 | 112 | 80 | 19 | 27 | +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ | the partially blind | 29,118 | 26,176 | 21,843 | 4,183 | 2942 | | under 20 years | 4,185 | 3,709 | 3,560 | 102 | 476 | | 20 years and over | 24,802 | 22,363 | 18,209 | 4,057 | 2439 | | age unknown | 131 | 104 | 74 | 24 | 27 | +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ | number per 1,000,000 | | | | | | | population of same age--| | | | | | | the blind | 852 | 846 | 804 | 1,047 | 896 | | under 20 years | 247 | 250 | 248 | 215 | 229 | | 20 years and over | 1,334 | 1,305 | 1,348 | 1,143 | 1574 | +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ | the totally blind | 469 | 454 | 418 | 637 | 576 | | under 20 years | 123 | 122 | 121 | 120 | 126 | | 20 years and over | 745 | 710 | 708 | 698 | 1033 | +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ | the partially blind | 383 | 392 | 386 | 410 | 320 | | under 20 years | 124 | 128 | 127 | 95 | 103 | | 20 years and over | 589 | 595 | 639 | 445 | 541 | +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ the enumerators reported a total of 101,123 persons alleged to be blind as defined in the instructions contained in the schedules, but this number was greatly reduced as a result of the correspondence directly with the individuals, 8842 reporting that the alleged defect did not exist, and 6544 that they were blind only in one eye but were able to see with the other, and hence did not come within the scope of the inquiry. no replies were received in 19,884 cases in which personal schedules were sent, although repeated inquiries were made; consequently these cases were dropped. in 380 cases the personal schedules returned were too incomplete for use, and in 75 cases duplication was discovered. the number of cases remaining for statistical treatment, after making the eliminations and corrections, was 64,763, representing 35,645 totally blind, and 29,118 partially blind. this number, however, can be considered only as the minimum, as an unknown proportion of the blind were not located by the enumerators, and doubtless a considerable proportion of the 19,884 persons who failed to return the personal schedules should be included in the total. "blindness, either total or partial, is so largely a defect of the aged, and occurs with so much greater frequency as the age advances and the population diminishes, that in any comparison of the proportion of the blind in the general population of different classes, such as native and foreign-born whites, or white and coloured, the age distribution of the population of each class should be constantly borne in mind. the differences in this respect account for many of the differences in the gross ratios, and it is only when ratios are compared for classes of population of identical ages that their relative liability to blindness can be properly inferred." table ii. shows the classification, by degree of blindness, of the blind under twenty years of age, twenty years of age and over, and of unknown age, with respect to colour and nativity, with the number at the specified ages per million of population in the same age-group. the relationship or consanguinity of parents of the 64,763 blind was reported in 56,507 cases, in 2527 (or 4.5%) of which the parents were related as cousins. in 57,726 cases the inquiry as to the existence of blind relatives was answered; 10,967 (or 19%) of this number reported that they had blind relatives. of the 2527 blind persons whose parents were cousins, 993 (or 39.3%) had blind relatives,--844 having blind brothers, sisters or ancestors, and 149 having blind collateral relatives or descendants. of the 53,980 blind whose parents were not related, 9490 (or 17.6%) had blind relatives, 7395 having blind brothers, sisters or ancestors, and 2095 having blind collateral relatives or descendants. it was found that, of the 2527 blind whose parents were cousins, 632 (or 25%) were congenitally blind, of whom 350 (or 55.4%) had also blind relatives of the classes specified; while, among the 53,980 whose parents were not so related, the number of congenitally blind was 3666 (or but 6.8%), of whom only 1023 (or 27.9%) had blind relatives. france. in 1883 the number of blind in france was estimated at 32,056, the total population of the country being 38,000,000; 2548 of the blind were under, and 29,508 above, 21 years of age; of the former 857 were receiving instruction in 21 schools supported by the state, by the city of paris, by some of the departments, and by some religious bodies. the four parisian institutions are the institution nationale des jeunes aveugles, the ecole braille (founded in 1883), the etablissement des soeurs aveugles de st paul (founded in 1852), and that of the freres de saint jean de dieu (founded in 1875). table iii.--_the blind, by degree of blindness and age-periods._ +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+ | | the | the | the | | age-period. | blind. | totally | partially | | | | blind. | blind. | +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+ | number-- | | | | | all ages | 64,763 | 35,645 | 29,118 | | under 10 years | 2,307 | 1,262 | 1,045 | | 10-19 years | 6,001 | 2,861 | 3,140 | | 20-29 " | 4,861 | 2,851 | 2,010 | | 30-39 " | 5,024 | 3,077 | 1,947 | | 40-49 " | 6,504 | 3,778 | 2,726 | | 50-59 " | 8,530 | 4,791 | 3,739 | | 60-69 " | 10,507 | 5,835 | 4,672 | | 70-79 " | 11,421 | 6,132 | 5,289 | | 80-89 " | 7,490 | 3,885 | 3,605 | | 90-99 " | 1,596 | 851 | 745 | | 100 years and over | 232 | 163 | 69 | | age unknown | 290 | 159 | 131 | | number per 1,000,000 | | | | | population of same age--| | | | | all ages | 852 | 469 | 383 | | under 10 years | 128 | 70 | 58 | | 10-19 years | 384 | 183 | 201 | | 20-29 " | 351 | 206 | 145 | | 30-39 " | 478 | 293 | 185 | | 40-49 " | 845 | 491 | 354 | | 50-59 " | 1,655 | 930 | 725 | | 60-69 " | 3,396 | 1,886 | 1,510 | | 70-79 " | 8,136 | 4,368 | 3,768 | | 80-89 " | 22,022 | 11,423 | 10,599 | | 90-99 " | 52,746 | 28,125 | 24,621 | | 100 years and over | 66,210 | 46,518 | 19,692 | | age unknown | 1,446 | 793 | 653 | +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+ germany. the number of the blind in germany was about 39,000, or 870 per million in 1885. the number of institutions was 28, nearly all being educational, with a total of 2139 pupils. all these institutions, except two which are supported entirely by private munificence, are largely assisted by the state, the communes or the provinces. seventeen of them derive their entire requirements from the state, so that they are quite independent of private charity, while the remainder are only supplemented from public funds so far as the private contributions fall short of the expenses. saxony system. the following extracts were made from an official communication from hofrath buttner, director of the institution for the blind in dresden, to the royal commission, concerning the care and supervision (_fursorge_) of the blind after their discharge from the institution:-- "when twenty years of age, the blind are usually discharged from the institution. long experience has taught us that the care and supervision of the blind after their discharge from the institution are quite as important as their education and training in the institution. it would, in our opinion, be unjust to remove them from their sad surroundings, educate and accustom them to higher wants, and then allow them to sink backward into their former miserable way of life. after much deliberation it was decided to remain in connexion with the discharged blind, to visit them in their places of abode, to learn their wants, to study the difficulties which they experienced in supporting themselves independently, and, as far as possible, to remove their grievances. director georgi began this work in 1843. director reinhard continued it from 1867 to 1879, and the present director has followed the same path. with the knowledge of these difficulties the _fursorge_ (care) for discharged blind steadily advanced, and has won the confidence of the saxon people. it was decided that, on the discharge of the blind person, the director should select a trustworthy person, residing in his future place of abode, to give him advice and practical help, to protect him from imposition, and to keep up communication with the director. if this guardian is unable to advise or help, he then writes to the director, who, if necessary, comes to the place, and this is all the easier as he travels free on all railways in saxony. the result of these visits, as well as all communications from the guardian, the letters from the blind person, and every document relating to him, are entered in a register kept at the institution. these guardians are respectable, benevolent, practical men, capable of procuring custom for their wards. but there was no doubt that, in spite of these arrangements, the discharged blind were unable to support themselves without the assistance of capital, whether in money or outfit. the blind man can do as good work as the man who can see; but as a rule he does not work so quickly, and if the man who is not blind has to use every exertion to support himself and his family, the blind man to do the same requires some special help, without which he will either not be able to compete, or will have to lead a life of great privation. "the first difficulty when a blind pupil is starting in life is to provide himself with the necessary tools and material. these the institution supplies to him, and continues through life to afford him moral and material help; and by this means the greater part of the blind are enabled to save money for sickness and old age. those who cannot return to their relations cannot at once meet all their expenses, and the weak and old need special help. a part of the money for their board and lodging is paid for those who have to be settled in other places on account of the death or untrustworthiness of their relatives. "the fund for the discharged blind is administered by the director of the institution. the number of those assisted amounts at present to about 400, who live respectably in all parts of saxony, are almost self-supporting, and feel themselves free men. for, just as a son does not feel galled by a gift from his father, so they are not ashamed to receive assistance from their second paternal home, the institution." holland. the number of the blind in holland, according to the census of the 1st of december 1869, was 1593, or one in every 2247 of the general population. the protestants and roman catholics were about equally balanced. no cognizance was taken of the blind in the census of 1879. there is only one blind institution, that of amsterdam, with 60 pupils, with a preparatory school at benuchem (with 20 pupils) and an asylum for adults with 52 inmates (unmarried). besides these, there are workshops at amsterdam, rotterdam, the hague, utrecht and middelburg. denmark. according to the census of 1870, there were in denmark 1249 blind (577 males and 672 females), or one blind for every 1428 persons. one institution has been established by government, i.e. the royal institution for the blind, at copenhagen; 100 children, aged 10 and upwards, are here educated. there is a preparatory school for blind children under 10 years of age, and an asylum for blind females, most of whom are former pupils of the royal school. an association for promoting the self-dependence of the blind assists not only former pupils of the school but every blind man or woman willing and able to work. table iv.--_the blind, by consanguinity of parents, degree of blindness, and blind relatives of other classes._ +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ | | | | |no blind | | | | | |collateral|relatives| | | consanguinity | | blind |relatives |or rela- | not | | of parents. | total. | brothers,| or de- |tives by |stated.| | | |sisters or|scendants |marriage | | | | |ancestors.| alone, | alone, | | | | | | blind. | blind. | | +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ |all classes-- | | | | | | | the blind | 64,763 | 8629 | 2338 | 46,759 | 7037 | | totally blind | 35,645 | 4378 | 1215 | 25,349 | 3703 | | partially blind | 29,118 | 4251 | 1123 | 20,410 | 3334 | +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ |parents cousins-- | | | | | | | the blind | 2,527 | 844 | 149 | 1,456 | 78 | | totally blind | 1,291 | 435 | 78 | 739 | 39 | | partially blind | 1,236 | 409 | 71 | 717 | 39 | +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ |parents not cousins--| | | | | | | the blind | 53,980 | 7395 | 2095 | 43,368 | 1122 | | totally blind | 29,892 | 3720 | 1090 | 24,541 | 541 | | partially blind | 24,088 | 3675 | 1005 | 18,827 | 581 | +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ |consanguinity of par-| | | | | | | ents not stated-- | | | | | | | the blind | 8,256 | 390 | 94 | 1,935 | 5837 | | totally blind | 4,462 | 223 | 47 | 1,069 | 3123 | | partially blind | 3,794 | 167 | 47 | 866 | 2714 | +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ sweden. the number of blind persons in sweden, according to the census of december 1880, was 3723, being at the rate of one blind person for every 1226 of the general population. at the beginning of the year 1879, the instruction of the blind in sweden was completely separated from that of the deaf and dumb, on the grounds that it hindered the intellectual development of the blind--a conclusion which experience shows to be tolerably correct. since july 1888 the royal institution of the blind has obtained a new building at tomteboda, near stockholm. norway. the law of the 8th of july 1881, concerning the instruction of abnormal children, has imposed on the state the duty of establishing a sufficient number of schools for the blind in norway as well as for the other abnormal children. all the blind of the country, from 9 years of age until the age of 21, are compelled to be educated, with a maximum of 8 years of instruction for each pupil. finland. the census of 1873 showed that in finland there were 7959 blind in a total population of about 2,000,000 inhabitants, the proportion reaching the very high figure of one for every 251 of the total population. nevertheless there were only 160 of school age. for these there are two institutions, one at helsingfors where the instruction is given in the swedish language, and where there are about 12 pupils, and another at kuopio, where the instruction is given in the finnish language, and where the pupils number about 30. austria. according to information received from the i.r. central commission for statistics, the number of blind in the provinces represented in the austrian reichsrath amounted to 15,582 in the year 1884. of these, 2345 were children up to 15 years of age, namely 433 below 5, 779 from 5 to 10, and 1113 from 10 to 15 years. the total number of institutions for blind children in austria amounts to 8. the blind children of school age who are not placed in special institutions are compulsorily taught in the public general free schools, as far as practicable. the number of blind in the whole dominion of the crown of st stephen was 208,391. italy. the number of blind persons in italy was 21,718, according to the census of 1881, and those of school age were estimated to form 25% of the whole, or about 5429 in number. but no special cognizance of the blind is taken in the government census. there are 20 institutions, schools and workshops for the blind. russia. statistics with regard to the number and condition of the blind in the russian empire are of a very limited character, and it is only of late years that any attempt has been made to draw up any accurate returns with regard to them. the total number of the blind throughout the empire is generally reckoned at from 160,000 to 200,000, thus making 1600 to 2000 per million inhabitants. in russia there are 21 institutions for the support of the blind. egypt "in egypt the blind are very numerous in comparison with other countries, and although no exact statistics are at present obtainable on this point, it is computed that the proportion is at least one totally blind person to every 50 of the population. this is principally the result of acute ophthalmia occurring in infancy, and it is fostered by the superstitious observance which prevents the mothers from washing their children from the time of birth until they are two years old, at which late date only they are weaned. there is also a great deal of infection carelessly and ignorantly conveyed direct from eye to eye, by means of unwashed fingers, and this is accountable for the occurrence of much more eye-disease than any that may be caused by the proverbial flies. the only employment followed by the blind, both mahommedan and coptic (or native christian), and that only to a limited extent, is recitation aloud--the former repeating portions of the koran at funerals, and the latter chanting the church-ritual in their services; the blind girls and women are without occupation. practically no education is given to the blind as a class, and anything which they learn has to be acquired orally by frequent repetition. the blind were not always so completely neglected, as the native ecclesiastical authorities (wakf) gave an annual grant of l2000 for the continued maintenance of a school for the blind and the deaf and dumb in cairo, which taught about 80 day-pupils; the latter years of the school were passed under the ministry of education, and it was ultimately discontinued. such a condition of affairs appealed to dr t.r. armitage, and explains his motive in trying to establish some proper means for affording the blind in egypt the necessary scholastic instruction and other training. in egypt, as in other countries, it is occasionally very difficult, and takes some time, to start any enterprise such as this on a satisfactory and practical footing, and it was left for mrs t.r. armitage to be the means of successfully carrying out her husband's wishes in this particular. in 1900 mrs armitage asked dr kenneth scott to prepare a scheme for the education and welfare of the blind in egypt, on lines suggested to her. this, through the british and foreign blind association, was submitted to queen victoria, who graciously commanded it to be sent, through the foreign office, to the khedive, who in mark of approbation and encouragement generously gave a handsome donation towards its realization. the institution for the blind was established at zeitoun, cairo, early in the year 1901, through funds provided by mrs t.r. armitage. the object of the institution, which is wholly unsectarian in character, is to educate and train the blind mentally and physically and in industrial occupations, and at the same time to improve their moral standard, so that eventually they may become in great measure, or even completely, self-supporting." (dr kenneth scott.) india. india has a large proportion of blind inhabitants, ranging from one in 600 in some provinces, to one in 400 in others, with a total of more than half a million. until recently, little had been done in the way of organized effort to educate them, though many of the missionaries had helped individual cases. at amritsar a large and well-organized work for the blind has been carried on for many years. this school has now been moved to rajpur, and helps 70 blind women and children. in 1903 a government school and hospital were established at bombay as a memorial to queen victoria. reading, writing, arithmetic, tailoring, typewriting, carpentering, lathe-work and carpet-weaving are taught. there are small schools at parantij, calcutta, palancottah, calicut, coorg, chota-nagpur, and at moulmein in burma. the memorial to queen victoria in ceylon took the form of work for the blind. j. knowles, with the help of l. garthwaite of the indian civil service, devised a scheme of oriental braille, which has been adopted by the british and foreign bible society for the production of the scriptures in eastern languages. china. blindness is very prevalent in china, and to eye-diseases, neglect and dirt, must be added leprosy and smallpox as causes. blind beggars may be seen on every highway, clamouring for alms. as in india their pitiful condition attracted the attention of the missionaries. w.h. murray, a scottish missionary in peking, made a simple and ingenious adaptation of the braille symbols to the complicated system of chinese printing, in which over 4000 characters are required. it was necessary to represent at least 408 sounds, and each one was given a corresponding braille number. when a pupil reads the number he knows instantly the sound for which it stands. a school for the blind was established at peking, and the version of the scriptures printed at peking can be read in all the provinces where the northern mandarin dialect is spoken (see miss gordon cumming, _the inventor of the numeral type for china_). a braille code has recently been arranged for mandarin, based on a system of initials and finals, by miss garland of the china inland mission. at foochow there is a large school for boys and girls in connexion with the church missionary society. at ningpo, amoy, canton and fukien work for the blind is carried on by the missionaries. japan. the blind in japan have long been trained in massage, acupuncture and music, and until recently, with few exceptions, none but the blind engaged in these occupations. from three to five years are required to become proficient in massage, but a blind person is then able to support himself. in yokohama, with a population of half a million, there are 1000 men and women engaged in massage, and all but about 100 of these are blind. in 1878 a school for the blind and deaf-mutes was established in kyoto, and soon after one in tokyo. japan has four schools for the blind, and seven combined schools for the blind and deaf-mutes. palestine. as in other eastern countries, blindness is very prevalent in palestine. ophthalmic hospitals and medical attendance are now available in the larger towns, and the missionary schools have done much to inculcate habits of cleanliness, therefore there is a slight decrease in the number of the blind. the home and school for blind girls in jerusalem is the outcome of a day school opened in 1896 by an american missionary. there is also a small school at urfa under the auspices of the american mission in that town.