REVOLUTIONARY WARS

revolutionary wars, &c.) the emperor's firmness averted what would have been an irreparable loss of position. seeing that the empire was in the last stage of dissolution, and that, even were it to survive, it would pass from the house of habsburg to that of bonaparte, he in 1804 assumed the title of hereditary emperor of austria. the object of this prudent measure was double. in the first place, he guarded against the danger that his house should sink to a lower rank than the russian or the french. in the second place, he gave some semblance of unity to his complex dominions in germany, bohemia, hungary and italy, by providing a common title for the supreme ruler. his action was justified when, in 1806, the establishment of the confederation of the rhine forced him to abdicate the empty title of holy roman emperor. in 1805 he made an important change in the working of his administration. he had hitherto been assisted by a cabinet minister who was in direct relation with all the "chanceries" and boards which formed the executive government, and who acted as the channel of communication between them and the emperor, and was in fact a prime minister. in 1805 napoleon insisted on the removal of count colloredo, who held the post. from that time forward the emperor francis acted as his own prime minister, superintending every detail of his administration. in foreign affairs after 1809 he reposed full confidence in prince metternich. but metternich himself declared at the close of his life that he had sometimes held europe in the palm of his hand, but never austria. francis was sole master, and is entitled to whatever praise is due to his government. it follows that he must bear the blame for its errors. the history of the austrian empire under his rule and since his death bears testimony to both his merits and his limitations. his indomitable patience and loyalty to his inherited task enabled him to triumph over napoleon. by consenting to the marriage of his daughter, marie louise, to napoleon in 1810, he gained a respite which he turned to good account. by following the guidance of metternich in foreign affairs he was able to intervene with decisive effect in 1813. the settlement of europe in 1815 left austria stronger and more compact than she had been in 1792, and that this was the case was largely due to the emperor. during the twenty years which preceded his death in 1835, francis continued to oppose the revolutionary spirit. he had none of the mystical tendencies of the tsar alexander i., and only adhered to the half fantastic holy alliance of 1815 out of pure politeness. but he was wholly in sympathy with the policy of "repression" which came, in popular view, to be identified with the holy alliance; and though metternich was primarily responsible for the part played by austria in the "policing" of europe, francis cannot but be held personally responsible for the cruel and impolitic severities, associated especially with the sinister name of the fortress prison of the spielberg, which made so many martyrs to freedom. it is not surprising that francis was denounced by liberals throughout europe as a tyrant and an obscurantist. but though at home, as abroad, he met all suggestions of innovation by a steady refusal to depart from old ways, he was always popular among the mass of his subjects, who called him "our good kaiser franz." in truth, if in the spirit of the traditional _landesvater_ he chastised his disobedient children mercilessly, he was essentially a well-meaning ruler who forwarded the material and moral good of his subjects according to his lights. but he held that, by the will of god, the whole sovereign authority resided in his person, and could not be shared with others without a dereliction of duty on his part and disastrous consequences; and his capital error as a ruler of austria was that he persisted in maintaining a system of administration which depended upon the indefatigable industry of a single man, and was entirely outgrown by the modern development of his subjects. before his death, government in austria was almost choked, and it broke down under a successor who had not his capacity for work. like his ancestor philip ii. of spain, francis carried caution, and a disposition to sleep upon every possible proposal, to a great length. he died on the 2nd of march 1835. see baron j.a. helfert, _kaiser franz und die oesterreichischen befreiungs-kriege_ (vienna, 1867). ample bibliographies will be found in krones von marchland's _grundriss der oesterreichischen geschichte_ (berlin, 1882). francis i. (1494-1547), king of france, son of charles of valois, count of angouleme, and louise of savoy, was born at cognac on the 12th of september 1494. the count of angouleme, who was the great-grandson of king charles v., died in 1496, and louise watched over her son with passionate tenderness. on the accession of louis xii. in 1498, francis became heir-presumptive. louis invested him with the duchy of valois, and gave him as tutor marshal de gie, and, after gie's disgrace in 1503, the sieur de boisy, artus gouffier. francois de rochefort, abbot of st mesmin, instructed francis and his sister marguerite in latin and history; louise herself taught them italian and spanish; and the library of the chateau at amboise was well stocked with romances of the round table, which exalted the lad's imagination. francis showed an even greater love for violent exercises, such as hunting, which was his ruling passion, and tennis, and for tournaments, masquerades and amusements of all kinds. his earliest gallantries are described by his sister in the 25th and 42nd stories of the _heptameron_. in 1507 francis was betrothed to claude, the daughter of louis xii., and in 1508 he came to court. in 1512 he gained his first military experience in guienne, and in the following year he commanded the army of picardy. he married claude on the 18th of may 1514, and succeeded louis xii. on the 1st of january 1515. of noble bearing, and, in spite of a very long and large nose, extremely handsome, he was a sturdy and valiant knight, affable, courteous, a brilliant talker and a facile poet. he had a sprightly wit, some delicacy of feeling, and some generous impulses which made him amiable. these brilliant qualities, however, were all on the surface. at bottom the man was frivolous, profoundly selfish, unstable, and utterly incapable of consistency or application. the ambassadors remarked his negligence, and his ministers complained of it. hunting, tennis, jewelry and his gallantry were the chief preoccupations of his life. his character was at once authoritative and weak. he was determined to be master and to decide everything himself, but he allowed himself to be dominated and easily persuaded. favourites, too, without governing entirely for him, played an important part in his reign. his capricious humour elevated and deposed them with the same disconcerting suddenness. in the early years of his reign the conduct of affairs was chiefly in the hands of louise of savoy, chancellor antoine duprat, secretary florimond robertet, and the two gouffiers, boisy and bonnivet. the royal favour then elevated anne de montmorency and philippe de chabot, and in the last years of the reign marshal d'annebaud and cardinal de tournon. women too had always a great influence over francis--his sister, marguerite d'angouleme, and his mistresses. whatever the number of these, he had only two titular mistresses--at the beginning of the reign francoise de chateaubriant, and from about 1526 to his death anne de pisseleu, whom he created duchesse d'etampes and who entirely dominated him. it has not been proved that he was the lover of diane de poitiers, nor does the story of "la belle ferronniere" appear to rest on any historical foundation.[1] circumstances alone gave a homogeneous character to the foreign policy of francis. the struggle against the emperor charles v. filled the greater part of the reign. in reality, the policy of francis, save for some flashes of sagacity, was irresolute and vacillating. attracted at first by italy, dreaming of fair feats of prowess, he led the triumphal marignano expedition, which gained him reputation as a knightly king and as the most powerful prince in europe. in 1519, in spite of wise counsels, he stood candidate for the imperial crown. the election of charles v. caused an inevitable rivalry between the two monarchs which accentuated still further the light and chivalrous temper of the king and the cold and politic character of the emperor. francis's personal intervention in this struggle was seldom happy. he did not succeed in gaining the support of henry viii. of england at the interview of the field of the cloth of gold in 1520; his want of tact goaded the constable de bourbon to extreme measures in 1522-1523; and in the italian campaign of 1525 he proved himself a mediocre, vacillating and foolhardy leader, and by his blundering led the army to the disaster of pavia (the 25th of february 1525), where, however, he fought with great bravery. "of all things," he wrote to his mother after the defeat, "nothing remains to me but honour and life, which is safe"--the authentic version of the legendary phrase "all is lost save honour." he strove to play the part of royal captive heroically, but the prison life galled him. he fell ill at madrid and was on the point of death. for a moment he thought of abdicating rather than of ceding burgundy. but this was too great a demand upon his fortitude, and he finally yielded and signed the treaty of madrid, after having drawn up a secret protest. after madrid he wavered unceasingly between two courses, either that of continuing hostilities, or the policy favoured by montmorency of peace and understanding with the emperor. at times he had the sagacity to recognize the utility of alliances, as was shown by those he concluded with the porte and with the protestant princes of germany. but he could never pledge himself frankly in one sense or the other, and this vacillation prevented him from attaining any decisive results. at his death, however, france was in possession of savoy and piedmont. in his religious policy francis showed the same instability. drawn between various influences, that of marguerite d'angouleme, the du bellays, and the duchesse d'etampes, who was in favour of the reformation or at least of toleration, and the contrary influence of the uncompromising catholics, duprat, and then montmorency and de tournon, he gave pledges successively to both parties. in the first years of the reign, following the counsels of marguerite, he protected jacques lefevre of etaples and louis de berquin, and showed some favour to the new doctrines. but the violence of the reformers threw him into the arms of the opposite party. the affair of the placards in 1534 irritated him beyond measure, and determined him to adopt a policy of severity. from that time, in spite of occasional indulgences shown to the reformers, due to his desire to conciliate the protestant powers, francis gave a free hand to the party of repression, of which the most active and most pitiless member was cardinal de tournon; and the end of the reign was sullied by the massacre of the waldenses (1545). francis introduced new methods into government. in his reign the monarchical authority became more imperious and more absolute. his was the government "_du bon plaisir_." by the unusual development he gave to the court he converted the nobility into a brilliant household of dependants. the concordat brought the clergy into subjection, and enabled him to distribute benefices at his pleasure among the most docile of his courtiers. he governed in the midst of a group of favourites, who formed the _conseil des affaires_. the states-general did not meet, and the remonstrances of the parlement were scarcely tolerated. by centralizing the financial administration by the creation of the _tresor de l'epargne_, and by developing the military establishments, francis still further strengthened the royal power. his government had the vices of his foreign policy. it was uncertain, irregular and disorderly. the finances were squandered in gratifying the king's unbridled prodigality, and the treasury was drained by his luxurious habits, by the innumerable gifts and pensions he distributed among his mistresses and courtiers, by his war expenses and by his magnificent buildings. his government, too, weighed heavily upon the people, and the king was less popular than is sometimes imagined. francis owes the greater measure of his glory to the artists and men of letters who vied in celebrating his praises. he was pre-eminently the king of the renaissance. of a quick and cultivated intelligence, he had a sincere love of letters and art. he holds a high place in the history of humanism by the foundation of the college de france; he did not found an actual college, but after much hesitation instituted in 1530, at the instance of guillaume bude (budaeus), _lecteurs royaux_, who in spite of the opposition of the sorbonne were granted full liberty to teach hebrew, greek, latin, mathematics, &c. the humanists bude, jacques colin and pierre duchatel were the king's intimates, and clement marot was his favourite poet. francis sent to italy for artists and for works of art, but he protected his own countrymen also. here, too, he showed his customary indecision, wavering between the two schools. at his court he installed benvenuto cellini, francesco primaticcio and rosso del rosso, but in the buildings at chambord, st germain, villers-cotterets and fontainebleau the french tradition triumphed over the italian. francis died on the 31st of march 1547, of a disease of the urinary ducts according to some accounts, of syphilis according to others. by his first wife claude (d. 1524) he had three sons and four daughters: louise, who died in infancy; charlotte, who died at the age of eight; francis (d. 1536); henry, who came to the throne as henry ii.; madeleine, who became queen of scotland; charles (d. 1545); and margaret, duchess of savoy. in 1530 he married eleanor, the sister of the emperor charles v. authorities.--for the official acts of the reign, the _catalogue des actes de francois i^er_, published by the academie des sciences morales et politiques (paris, 1887-1907), is a valuable guide. the _bibliotheque nationale_, the _national archives_, &c., contain a mass of unpublished documents. of the published documents, see n. camuzat, _meslanges historiques_ ... (troyes, 1619); g. ribier, _lettres et memoires d'estat_ (paris, 1666); _letters de marguerite d'angouleme_, ed. by f. genin (paris, 1841 and 1842); the _correspondence of castillon and marillac_ (ed. by kaulek, paris, 1885), of _odet de selve_ (ed. by lefevre-pontalis, paris, 1888), and of _guillaume pellicier_ (ed. by tausserat-radel, paris, 1900); _captivite du roi francois i^er_, and _poesies de francois i^er_ (both ed. by champollion-figeac, paris, 1847, of doubtful authenticity); _relations des ambassadeurs venitiens_, &c. of the memoirs and chronicles, see the journal of louise of savoy in s. guichenon's _histoire de la maison de savoie_, vol. iv. (ed. of 1778-1780); _journal de jean barillon_, ed. by de vaissiere (paris, 1897-1899); _journal d'un bourgeois de paris_, ed. by lalanne (paris, 1854); _cronique du roy francois i^er_, ed. by guiffrey (paris, 1868); and the memoirs of fleuranges, montluc, tavannes, vieilleville, brantome and especially martin du bellay (coll. michaud and poujoulat). of the innumerable secondary authorities, see especially paulin paris, _etudes sur le regne de francois i^er_ (paris, 1885), in which the apologetic tendency is excessive; and h. lemonnier in vol. v. (paris, 1903-1904) of e. lavisse's _histoire de france_, which gives a list of the principal secondary authorities. there is a more complete bibliographical study by v.l. bourrilly in the _revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine_, vol. iv. (1902-1903). the printed sources have been catalogued by h. hauser, _les sources de l'histoire de france, xvi^e siecle_, tome ii. (paris, 1907). (j. i.) footnote: [1]on this point see paulin paris, _etudes sur le regne de francois i^er_. francis ii. (1544-1560), king of france, eldest son of henry ii. and of catherine de' medici, was born at fontainebleau on the 19th of january 1544. he married the famous mary stuart, daughter of james v. of scotland, on the 25th of april 1558, and ascended the french throne on the 10th of july 1559. during his short reign the young king, a sickly youth and of feeble understanding, was the mere tool of his uncles francis, duke of guise, and charles, cardinal of lorraine, into whose hands he virtually delivered the reins of government. the exclusiveness with which they were favoured, and their high-handed proceedings, awakened the resentment of the princes of the blood, anthony king of navarre and louis prince of conde, who gave their countenance to a conspiracy (conspiracy of amboise) with the protestants against the house of guise. it was, however, discovered shortly before the time fixed for its execution in march 1560, and an ambush having been prepared, most of the conspirators were either killed or taken prisoners. its leadership and organization had been entrusted to godfrey de barri, lord of la renaudie (d. 1560); and the prince of conde, who was not present, disavowed all connexion with the plot. the duke of guise was now named lieutenant-general of the kingdom, but his catholic leanings were somewhat held in check by the chancellor michel de l'hopital, through whose mediation the edict of romorantin, providing that all cases of heresy should be decided by the bishops, was passed in may 1560, in opposition to a proposal to introduce the inquisition. at a meeting of the states-general held at orleans in the december following, the prince of conde, after being arrested, was condemned to death, and extreme measures were being enacted against the huguenots; but the deliberations of the assembly were broken off, and the prince was saved from execution, by the king's somewhat sudden death, on the 5th of the month, from an abscess in the ear. principal authorities.--"lettres de catherine de medicis," edited by hector de la ferriere (1880 seq.), and "negociations ... relatives au regne de francois ii," edited by louis paris (1841), both in the _collection de documents inedits sur l'histoire de france_; notice of francis, duke of guise, in the _nouvelle collection des memoires pour servir a l'histoire de france_, edited by j.f. michaud and j.j.f. poujoulat, series i. vol. vi. (1836 seq.); _memoires de conde servant d'eclaircissement ... a l'histoire de m. de thou_, vols. i and ii. (1743); pierre de la place, _commentaires de l'estat de la religion et de la republique sous les rois henri ii, francois ii, charles ix_ (1565); and louis regnier de la planche, _histoire de l'estat de france ... sous ... francois ii (pantheon litteraire_, new edition, 1884). see also ernest lavisse, _histoire de france_ (vol. vi. by j.h. mariejol, 1904), which contains a bibliography. francis i. (1777-1830), king of the two sicilies, was the son of ferdinand iv. (i.) and maria carolina of austria. he married clementina, daughter of the emperor leopold ii. of austria, in 1796, and at her death isabella, daughter of charles iv. of spain. after the bourbon family fled from naples to sicily in 1806, and lord william bentinck, the british resident, had established a constitution and deprived ferdinand iv. of all power, francis was appointed regent (1812). on the fall of napoleon his father returned to naples and suppressed the sicilian constitution and autonomy, incorporating his two kingdoms into that of the two sicilies (1816); francis then assumed the revived title of duke of calabria. while still heir-apparent he professed liberal ideas, and on the outbreak of the revolution of 1820 he accepted the regency apparently in a friendly spirit towards the new constitution. but he was playing a double game and proved to be the accomplice of his father's treachery. on succeeding to the throne in 1825 he cast aside the mask of liberalism and showed himself as reactionary as his father. he took little part in the government, which he left in the hands of favourites and police officials, and lived with his mistresses, surrounded by soldiers, ever in dread of assassination. during his reign the only revolutionary movement was the outbreak on the cilento (1828), savagely repressed by the marquis delcarretto, an ex-liberal turned reactionary. see nisco, _il reame di napoli sotto francesco i_ (naples, 1893). francis ii. (1836-1894), king of the two sicilies, son of ferdinand ii. and maria cristina of savoy, was the last of the bourbon kings of naples. his education had been much neglected and he proved a man of weak character, greatly influenced by his stepmother maria theresa of austria, by the priests, and by the _camarilla_, or reactionary court set. he ascended the throne on the death of his father (22nd of may 1859). as prime minister he at once appointed carlo filangieri, who, realizing the importance of the franco-piedmontese victories in lombardy, advised francis to accept the alliance with piedmont proposed by cavour. on the 7th of june a part of the swiss guard mutinied, and while the king mollified them by promising to redress their grievances, general nunziante collected other troops, who surrounded the mutineers and shot them down. the incident resulted in the disbanding of the whole swiss guard, the strongest bulwark of the dynasty. cavour again proposed an alliance to divide the papal states between piedmont and naples, the province of rome excepted, but francis rejected an idea which to him savoured of sacrilege. filangieri strongly advocated a constitution as the only measure which might save the dynasty, and on the king's refusal he resigned. meanwhile the revolutionary parties were conspiring for the overthrow of the bourbons in calabria and sicily, and garibaldi was preparing for a raid in the south. a conspiracy in sicily was discovered and the plotters punished with brutal severity, but rosalino pilo and francesco crispi had organized the movement, and when garibaldi landed at marsala (may 1860) he conquered the island with astonishing ease. these events at last frightened francis into granting a constitution, but its promulgation was followed by disorders in naples and the resignation of ministers, and liborio romano became head of the government. the disintegration of the army and navy proceeded apace, and cavour sent a piedmontese squadron carrying troops on board to watch events. garibaldi, who had crossed the straits of messina, was advancing northwards and was everywhere received by the people as a liberator. francis, after long hesitations and even an appeal to garibaldi himself, left naples (6th of september) with his wife maria sophia, the court, the diplomatic corps (the french and english ministers excepted), and went by sea to gaeta, where a large part of the army was concentrated. the next day garibaldi entered naples, was enthusiastically welcomed, and formed a provisional government. king victor emmanuel had decided on the invasion of the papal states, and after occupying romagna and the marche entered the neapolitan kingdom. garibaldi's troops defeated the neapolitan royalists on the volturno (1st and 2nd of october), while the piedmontese captured capua. only gaeta, messina, and civitella del tronto still held out, and the siege of the former by the piedmontese began on the 6th of november 1860. both francis and maria sophia behaved with great coolness and courage, and even when the french fleet, whose presence had hitherto prevented an attack by sea, was withdrawn, they still resisted; it was not until the 12th of february 1861 that the fortress capitulated. thus the kingdom of naples was incorporated in that of italy, and the royal pair from that time forth led a wandering life in austria, france and bavaria. francis died on the 27th of december 1894 at arco in tirol. his widow survived him. francis ii. was weak-minded, stupid and vacillating, but, although his short reign was stained with some cruel massacres and persecutions, he was less of a tyrant than his father. the courage and dignity he displayed during his reverses inspired pity and respect. but the fact that he protected brigandage in his former dominions and countenanced the most abominable crimes in the name of legitimism greatly diminished the sympathy which was felt for the fallen monarch. bibliography.--r. de cesare, _la fine d'un regno_, vol. ii. (citta di castello, 1900) gives a detailed account of the reign of francis ii., while h.r. whitehouse's _collapse of the kingdom of naples_ (new york, 1899) may be recommended to english readers; nisco's _francesco ii_ (naples, 1887) should also be consulted. see under naples; garibaldi; bixio; cavour; italy; filangieri; &c. (l. v.*) francis iv. (1779-1846) duke of modena, was the son of the archduke ferdinand, austrian governor of lombardy, who acquired the duchy of modena through his wife marie beatrice, heiress of the house of este as well as of many fiefs of the malaspina, pio da carpi, pico della mirandola, cibo, and other families. at the time of the french invasion (1796) francis was sent to vienna to be educated, and in 1809 was appointed governor of galicia. later he went to sardinia, where the exiled king victor emmanuel i. and his wife maria theresa were living in retirement. the latter arranged a marriage between her daughter marie beatrice and francis, and a secret family compact was made whereby if the king and his two brothers died without male issue, the salic law would be changed so that francis should succeed to the kingdom instead of charles albert of carignano (n. bianchi, _storia della diplomazia europea in italia_, i. 42-43). on the fall of napoleon in 1814 francis received the duchy of modena, including massa-carrara and lunigiana; his mother's advice was "to be above the law ... never to forgive the republicans of 1796, nor to listen to the complaints of his subjects, whom nothing satisfies; the poorer they are the quieter they are" (silingardi, "ciro menotti," in _rivista europea_, florence, 1880). the duke was well received at modena; inordinately ambitious, strong-willed, immensely rich, avaricious but not unintelligent, he soon proved one of the most reactionary despots in italy. he still hoped to acquire either piedmont or some other part of northern italy, and he was in touch with the sanfedisti and the concistoro, reactionary catholic associations opposed to the carbonari, but not always friendly to austria. against the carbonari and other liberals he issued the severest edicts, and although there was no revolt at modena in 1821 as in piedmont and naples, he immediately instituted judicial proceedings against the supposed conspirators. some 350 persons were arrested and tortured, 56 being condemned to death (only a few of them were executed) and 237 to imprisonment; a large number, however, escaped, including antonio panizzi (afterwards director of the british museum). the ferocious police official besini who conducted the trials was afterwards murdered. the duke actually proposed to prince metternich, the austrian chancellor, an agreement whereby the various italian rulers were to arrest every liberal in the country on a certain day, but the project fell through owing to opposition from the courts of florence and rome. at the congress of verona metternich made another attempt to secure the piedmontese succession for francis, but without success. the duke became ever more despotic; modena swarmed with spies and informers, education was hampered, feudalism strengthened; for the duke hoped to consolidate his power by means of the nobility, and the least expression of liberalism, or even failure to denounce a carbonaro, involved arrest and imprisonment. but strange to say, in 1830 we find francis actually coquetting with revolution. having lost all hope of acquiring the piedmontese throne, he entered into negotiations with the french orleanist party with a view to obtaining its support in his plans for extending his dominions. he was thus brought into touch with ciro menotti (1798-1831) and the modenese liberals; what the nature of the connexion was is still obscure, but it was certainly short-lived and merely served to betray the carbonari. as soon as francis learned that a conspiracy was on foot to gain possession of the town, he had menotti and several other conspirators arrested on the night of the 3rd of february 1831, and sent the famous message to the governor of reggio: "the conspirators are in my hands; send me the hangman" (there is some doubt as to the authenticity of the actual words). but the revolt broke out in other parts of the duchy and in romagna, and francis retired to mantua with menotti. a provisional government was formed at modena which proclaimed that "italy is one," but the duke returned a few weeks later with austrian troops, and resistance was easily quelled. then the political trials began; menotti and two others were executed, and hundreds condemned to imprisonment. the population was now officially divided into four classes, viz. "very loyal, loyal, less loyal, and disloyal," and the reaction became worse than ever, the duke interfering in the minutest details of administration, such as hospitals, schools, and roads. new methods of procedure were introduced to deal with political trials, but the ministerial cabal by which the country was administered intrigued and squabbled to such an extent that it had to be dismissed. on the 20th of february 1846 francis died. although he had many domestic virtues and charming manners, was charitable in times of famine, and was certainly the ablest of the italian despots, liberalism was in his eyes the most heinous of crimes, and his reign is one long record of barbarous persecution. (l. v.*) francis v. (1819-1875), duke of modena, son of francis iv., succeeded his father in 1846. although less cruel and also less intelligent than his father, he had an equally high opinion of his own authority. his reign began with disturbances at fivizzano and pontremoli, which tuscany surrendered to him according to treaty but against the wishes of the inhabitants (1847), and at massa and carrara, where the troops shot down the people. feeling his position insecure, the duke asked for and obtained an austrian garrison, but on the outbreak of revolution throughout italy and at vienna in 1848, further disorders occurred in the duchy, and on the 20th of march he fled with his family to mantua. a provisional government was formed, and volunteers were raised who fought with the piedmontese against austria. but after the piedmontese defeat francis returned to modena, with austrian assistance, in august and conferred many appointments on austrian officers. like his father, he interfered in the minutest details of administration, and instituted proceedings against all who were suspected of liberalism. not content with the severity of his judges, he overrode their sentences in favour of harsher punishments. the disturbances at carrara were ruthlessly suppressed, and the prisons filled with politicals. in 1859 numbers of young modenese fled across the frontier to join the piedmontese army, as war with austria seemed imminent; and after the austrian defeat at magenta the duke left modena to lead his army in person against the piedmontese, taking with him the contents of the state treasury and many valuable books, pictures, coins, tapestries and furniture from the palace. the events of 1859-1860 made his return impossible; and after a short spell of provisional government the duchy was united to italy. he retired to austria, and died at munich in november 1875. bibliography.--n. bianchi, _i ducati estensi_ (turin, 1852); galvani, _memorie di s.a.r. francesco iv_ (modena, 1847); _documenti riguardanti il governo degli austro-estensi in modena_ (modena, 1860); c. tivaroni, _l'italia durante il dominio austriaco_, i. 606-653 (turin, 1892), and _l'italia degli italiani_, i. 114-125 (turin, 1895); silingardi, "ciro menotti," in the _rivista europea_ (florence, 1880); f.a. gualterio, _gli ultimi rivolgimenti italiani_ (florence, 1850); bayard de volo, _vita di francesco v_ (4 vols., modena, 1878-1885). (l. v.*)