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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "chunk_id": "1911:lombardy:fb0b41bc6c70",
    "title": "LOMBARDY",
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    "verified_text": "lombardy, a territorial division of italy, bounded n. by the alps, s. by emilia, e. by venetia and w. by piedmont. it is divided into eight provinces, bergamo, brescia, como, cremona, mantua, milan, pavia and sondrio, and has an area of 9386 sq. m. milan, the chief city, is the greatest railway centre of italy; it is in direct communication not only with the other principal towns of lombardy and the rest of italy but also with the larger towns of france, germany and switzerland, being the nearest great town to the tunnels of the st gothard and the simplon. the other railway centres of the territory are mortara, pavia and mantua, while every considerable town is situated on or within easy reach of the railway, this being rendered comparatively easy owing to the relative flatness of the greater part of the country. the line from milan to porto ceresio is worked in the main by electric motor driven trains, while on that from lecco to colico and chiavenna over-head wires are adopted. the more remote districts and the immediate environs of the larger town are served by steam tramways and electric railways. the most important rivers are the po, which follows, for the most part, the southern boundary of lombardy, and the ticino, one of the largest tributaries of the po, which forms for a considerable distance the western boundary. the majority of the italian lakes, those of garda, idro, iseo, como, lugano, varese and maggiore, lie wholly or in part within it. the climate of lombardy is thoroughly continental; in summer the heat is greater than in the south of italy, while the winter is very cold, and bitter winds, snow and mist are frequent. in the summer rain is rare beyond the lower alps, but a system of irrigation, unsurpassed in europe, and dating from the middle ages, prevails, so that a failure of the crops is hardly possible. there are three zones of cultivation: in the mountains, pasturage; the lower slopes are devoted to the culture of the vine, fruit-trees (including chestnuts) and the silkworm; while in the regions of the plain, large crops of maize, rice, wheat, flax, hemp and wine are produced, and thousands of mulberry-trees are grown for the benefit of the silkworms, the culture of which in the province of milan has entirely superseded the sheep-breeding for which it was famous during the middle ages. milan is indeed the principal silk market in the world. in 1905 there were 490 mills reeling silk in lombardy, with 35,407 workers, and 276 throwing-mills with 586,000 spindles. the chief centre of silk weaving is como, but the silk is commercially dealt with at milan, and there is much exportation. a considerable amount of cotton is manufactured, but most of the raw cotton (600,000 bales) is imported, the cultivation being insignificant in italy. there are 400 mills in lombardy, 277 of which are in the province of milan. the largest linen and woollen mills in italy are situated at fara d'adda. milan also manufactures motor-cars, though turin is the principal centre in italy for this industry. there are copper, zinc and iron mines, and numerous quarries of marble, alabaster and granite. in addition to the above industries the chief manufactures are hats, rope and paper-making, iron-casting, gun-making, printing and lithography. lombardy is indeed the most industrial district of italy. in parts the peasants suffer much from _pellagra_. the most important towns with their communal population in the respective provinces, according to the census of 1901, are bergamo (46,861), treviglio (14,897), total of province 467,549, number of communes 306; brescia (69,210), chiari (10,749), total of province 541,765, number of communes 280; como (38,174), varese (17,666), cantu (10,725), lecco (10,352), total of province 594,304, number of communes 510; cremona (36,848), casalmaggiore (16,407), soresina (10,358), total of province 329,471, number of communes 133; mantua (30,127), viadana (16,082), quistello (11,228), suzzara (11,502), st benedetto po (10,908), total of province 315,448, number of communes 68; milan (490,084), monza (42,124), lodi (26,827), busto arsizio (20,005), legnano (18,285), seregno (12,050), gallarate (11,952), codogno (11,925), total of province 1,450,214, number of communes 297; pavia (33,922), vigevano (23,560), voghera (20,442), total of province 504,382, number of communes 221; sondrio (7077), total of province 130,966, number of communes 78. the total population of lombardy was 4,334,099. in most of the provinces of lombardy there are far more villages than in other parts of italy except piedmont; this is attributable partly to their mountainous character, partly perhaps to security from attack by sea (contrast the state of things in apulia). previous to the fall of the roman republic lombardy formed a part of gallia transpadana, and it was lombardy, venetia and piedmont, the portion of the italian peninsula n. of the po, that did not receive citizenship in 89 b.c. but only latin rights. the gift of full citizenship in 49 b.c. made it a part of italy proper, and lombardy and piedmont formed the 11th region of augustus (transpadana) while venetia and istria formed the 10th. it was the second of the regions of italy in size, but the last in number of towns; it appears, however, to have been prosperous and peaceful, and cultivation flourished in its fertile portions. by the end of the 4th century a.d. the name liguria had been extended over it, and milan was regarded as the capital of both. stranger still, in the 6th century the old liguria was separated from it, and under the name of _alpes cottiae_ formed the 5th lombard province of italy. for details of subsequent history see lombards and italy; and for architecture see architecture. g. t. rivoira in _origini dell' architettura_ lombarda (2 vols. rome, 1901-1907), successfully demonstrates the classical origin of much that had hitherto been treated by some authorities as \"byzantine.\" in the development of renaissance architecture and art lombardy played a great part, inasmuch as both bramante and leonardo da vinci resided in milan at the end of the 15th century. lombok (called by the natives _sasak_), one of the lesser sunda islands, in the dutch east indies, e. of java, between 8° 12 and 9° 1 s. and 115° 46 and 116° 40 e., with an area of 3136 sq. m. it is separated from bali by the strait of lombok and from sumbawa by the strait of alas. rising out of the sea with bold and often precipitous coasts, lombok is traversed by two mountain chains. the northern chain is of volcanic formation, and contains the peak of lombok (11,810 ft.), one of the highest volcanoes in the malay archipelago. it is surrounded by a plateau (with lower summits, and a magnificent lake, segara anak) 8200 ft. high. the southern chain rises a little over 3000 ft. between the two chains is a broad valley or terrace with a range of low volcanic hills. forest-clad mountains and stretches of thorny jungle alternating with rich alluvial plains, cultivated like gardens under an ancient and elaborate system of irrigation, make the scenery of lombok exceedingly attractive. the small rivers serve only for irrigation and the growing of rice, which is of superior quality. in the plains are also grown coffee, indigo, maize and sugar, katyang (native beans), cotton and tobacco. all these products are exported. to the naturalist lombok is of particular interest as the frontier island of the australian region, with its cockatoos and megapods or mound-builders, its peculiar bee-eaters and ground thrushes. the sasaks must be considered the aborigines, as no trace of an earlier race is found. they are mahommedans and distinct in many other respects from the hindu balinese, who vanquished but could not convert them. the island was formerly divided into the four states of karang-asam lombok on the w. side, mataram in the n.w., pagarawan in the s.w. and pagutan in the e. balinese supremacy dated from the conquest by agong dahuran in the beginning of the 19th century; the union under a single raja tributary to bali dated from 1839. in july 1894 a dutch expedition landed at ampanam, and advanced towards mataram, the capital of the balinese sultan, who had defied dutch authority and refused to send the usual delegation to batavia. the objects of that expedition were to punish mataram and to redress the grievances of the sasaks whom the balinese held in cruel subjection. the first dutch expedition met with reverses, and ultimately the invaders were forced back upon ampanam. the dutch at once despatched a much stronger expedition, which landed at ampanam in september. mataram was bombarded by the fleet, and the troops stormed the sultan's stronghold, and tjakra negara, another chieftain's citadel, both after a desperate resistance. the old sultan of mataram was captured, and he and other balinese chiefs were exiled to different parts of the malay archipelago, whilst the sultan's heir fell at the hands of his warriors. thus ended the balinese domination of lombok, and the island was placed under direct dutch-indian control, an assistant resident being appointed at ampanam. lombok is now administered from bali by the dutch resident on that island. the people, however, are in undisturbed exercise of their own laws, religions, customs and institutions. disturbances between the sasaks and the lombok balinese frequently occur. lombok has been divided since 1898 into the west, middle and east lombok. its chief towns are mataram, praya and sisi. on the west coast the harbour of ampanam is the most frequented, though, on account of heavy breakers, it is often difficult of approach. the sasaks are estimated at 320,000, the balinese at 50,000, europeans number about 40, chinese 300, and arabs 170. see a. r. wallace, _malay archipelago_ (london, 1869, and later editions). the famous \"wallace's line\" runs immediately west of lombok, which therefore has an important part in the work. captain w. cool, _with the dutch in the east_ (amsterdam and london, 1897), in dutch and english, is a narrative of the events sketched above, and contains many particulars about the folklore and dual religions of lombok, which, with bali, forms the last stronghold of hinduism east of java.",
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