LOCRI

locri, an ancient city of magna graecia, italy. the original settlers took possession of the zephyrian promontory (capo bruzzano some 12 m. n. of capo spartivento), and though after three or four years they transplanted themselves to a site 12 m. farther north, still near the coast, 2 m. s. of gerace marina below the modern gerace, they still retained the name of locri epizephyrii ([greek: lokroi hoi epizephurioi]), which served to distinguish them from the ozolian and opuntian locri of greece itself (see preceding article). the foundation of locri goes back to about 683 b.c. it was the first of all greek communities to have a written code of laws given by zaleucus in 664 b.c. from locri were founded the colonies of meisma and heiponium (hipponium). it succeeded in repelling the attacks of croton (battle on the river sagras, perhaps sometime in the 6th century), and found in syracuse a support against rhegium: it was thus an active adversary of athenian aggrandisement in the west. pindar extolls its uprightness and love of the heroic muse of beauty, of wisdom, and of war, in the 10th and 11th olympian odes. stesichorus (q.v.) was indeed of locrian origin. but it owed its greatest external prosperity to the fact that dionysius i. of syracuse selected his wife from locri: its territory was then increased, and the circuit of its walls was doubled, but it lost its freedom. in 356 b.c. it was ruled by dionysius ii. from the battle of heraclea to the year 205 (when it was captured by p. cornelius scipio africanus maior, and placed under the control of his legate q. pleminius), locri was continually changing its allegiance between rome and her enemies; but it remained an ally, and was only obliged like other greek coast towns to furnish ships. in later roman times it is often mentioned, but was apparently of no great importance. it is mentioned incidentally until the 6th century a.d., but was destroyed by the saracens in 915. excavations in 1889-1890 led to the discovery of an ionic temple (the doric style being usual in magna graecia) at the north-west angle of the town--originally a cella with two naves, a closed pronaos on the e. and an adytum at the back (w.), later converted into a hexastyle peripheral temple with 34 painted terra-cotta columns. this was then destroyed about 400 b.c. and a new temple built on the ruins, heptastyle peripteral, with no intermediate columns in the cella and opisthodomos, and with 44 columns in all. the figures from the pediment of the twin dioscuri, who according to the legend assisted locri against crotona, are in the naples museum (see r. koldewey and o. puchstein, _griechische tempel in unteritalien und sicilien_, berlin, 1899, pp. l sqq.). subsequent excavations in 1890-1891 were of the greatest importance, but the results remained unpublished up to 1908. from a short account by p. orsi in _atti del congresso storico_, vol. v. (archeologia) rome, 1904, p. 201, we learn that the exploration of the environs of the temple led to the discovery of a large number of archaic terra-cottas, and of some large trenches, covered with tiles, containing some 14,000 scyphoi arranged in rows. the plan of the city was also traced; the walls, the length of which was nearly 5 m., consisted of three parts--the fortified castles ([greek: phrouria]) with large towers, on three different hills, the city proper, and the lower town--the latter enclosed by long walls running down to the sea. in the roman period the city was restricted to the plain near the sea. since these excavations, a certain amount of unauthorized work has gone on, and some of the remains have been destroyed. in the course of these excavations some prehistoric objects have been discovered, which confirm the accounts of thucydides and polybius that the greek settlers found the siculi here before them. (t. as.) locse (ger. _leutschau_), the capital of the county of szepes, in hungary, 230 m. n.e. of budapest by rail. pop. (1900) 6845, mostly germans and slovaks. the county of szepes is the highest part of hungary, and its north-western portion is occupied by the tatra mountains. locse lies in an elevated position surrounded by mountains, and is one of the oldest towns of hungary. the church of st james is a gothic structure of the 13th century, with richly carved altar, several monuments, and a celebrated organ erected in 1623, and long reputed the largest in hungary. the old town-hall, restored in 1894, contains a protestant upper gymnasium, founded in 1544, and one of the oldest printing establishments in hungary, founded in 1585. bee-keeping and the raising of garden produce are the chief industries. founded by saxon colonists in 1245, locse had by the early part of the 16th century attained a position of great relative importance. in 1599 a fire destroyed the greater part of the town, and during the 17th century it suffered repeatedly at the hands of the transylvanian princes and leaders. locus (lat. for "place"; in gr. [greek: topos]), a geometrical term, the invention of the notion of which is attributed to plato. it occurs in such statements as these: the locus of the points which are at the same distance from a fixed point, or of a point which moves so as to be always at the same distance from a fixed point, is a circle; conversely a circle is the locus of the points at the same distance from a fixed point, or of a point moving so as to be always at the same distance from a fixed point; and so in general a curve of any given kind is the locus of the points which satisfy, or of a point moving so as always to satisfy, a given condition. the theory of loci is thus identical with that of curves (see curve and geometry: § _analytical_). the notion of a locus applies also to solid geometry. here the locus of the points satisfying a single (or onefold) condition is a surface; the locus of the points satisfying two conditions (or a twofold condition) is a curve in space, which is in general a twisted curve or curve of double curvature. locust.[1] in its general acceptation this term is applied only to certain insects of the order _orthoptera_, family _acridiidae_. the family _locustidae_ is now viewed zoologically in a sense that does not admit of the species best known as "locusts" being included therein. the idea of a very destructive insect is universally associated with the term; therefore many orthopterous species that cannot be considered true locusts have been so-called; in north america it has even embraced certain _hemiptera-homoptera_, belonging to the _cicadidae_, and in some parts of england cockchafers are so designated. in a more narrow definition the attribute of migration is associated with the destructive propensities, and it therefore becomes necessary that a true locust should be a migratory species of the family _acridiidae_. moreover, the term has yet a slightly different signification as viewed from the old or new world. in europe by a locust is meant an insect of large size, the smaller allied species being ordinarily known as "grasshoppers," hence the "rocky mountain locust" of north america is to eastern ideas rather a grasshopper than a locust. in europe, and a greater part of the old world, the best known migratory locust is that which is scientifically termed _pachytylus cinerascens_ with which an allied species _p. migratorius_ has been often confounded. another locust found in europe and neighbouring districts is _caloptenus italicus_, and still another, _acridium peregrinum_, has once or twice occurred in europe, though its home (even in a migratory sense) is more properly africa and asia. these practically include all the locusts of the old world, though a migratory species of south africa known as _pachytylus pardalinus_ (presumed to be distinct from _p. migratorius_) should be mentioned. the rocky mountain locust of north america is _caloptenus spretus_, and in that continent there occurs an _acridium_ (_a. americanum_) so closely allied to _a. peregrinum_ as to be scarcely distinct therefrom, though there it does not manifest migratory tendencies. in the west indies and central america _a. peregrinum_ is also reported to occur. the females excavate holes in the earth in which the eggs are deposited in a long cylindrical mass enveloped in a glutinous secretion. the young larvae hatch and immediately commence their destructive career. as these insects are "hemimetabolic" there is no quiescent stage; they go on increasing rapidly in size, and as they approach the perfect state the rudiments of the wings begin to appear. even in this stage their locomotive powers are extensive and their voracity great. once winged and perfect these powers become infinitely more disastrous, redoubled by the development of the migratory instinct. the laws regulating this instinct are not perfectly understood. food and temperature have a great deal to do with it, and there is a tendency for the flights to take a particular direction, varied by the physical circumstances of the breeding districts. so likewise each species has its area of constant location, and its area of extraordinary migration. perhaps the most feasible of the suggestions as to the causes of the migratory impulse is that locusts naturally breed in dry sandy districts in which food is scarce, and are impelled to wander to procure the necessaries of life; but against this it has been argued that swarms bred in a highly productive district in which they have temporarily settled will seek the barren home of their ancestors. another ingenious suggestion is that migration is intimately connected with a dry condition of the atmosphere, urging them to move on until compelled to stop for food or procreative purposes. swarms travel considerable distances, though probably generally fewer than 1000 m., though sometimes very much more. as a rule the progress is only gradual, and this adds vastly to the devastating effects. when an extensive swarm temporarily settles in a district, all vegetation rapidly disappears, and then hunger urges it on another stage. the large old world species, although undoubtedly phytophagous, when compelled by hunger sometimes attack at least dry animal substances, and even cannibalism has been asserted as an outcome of the failure of all other kinds of food. the length of a single flight must depend upon circumstances. from peculiarities in the examples of _acridium peregrinum_ taken in england in 1869, it has been asserted that they must have come direct by sea from the west coast of africa; and what is probably the same species has been seen in the atlantic at least 1200 m. from land, in swarms completely covering the ship; thus, in certain cases flight must be sustained for several days and nights together. the height at which swarms fly, when their horizontal course is not liable to be altered by mountains, has been very variously estimated at from 40 to 200 ft., or even in a particular case to 500 ft. the extent of swarms and the number of individuals in a swarm cannot be accurately ascertained. they come sometimes in such numbers as to completely obscure the sun, when the noise made by the rustling of the wings is deafening. nevertheless some idea on this point may be formed from the ascertained fact that in cyprus in 1881, at the close of the season, 1,600,000,000 egg-cases, each containing a considerable number of eggs, had been destroyed; the estimated weight exceeding 1300 tons. yet two years later, it is believed that not fewer than 5,076,000,000 egg-cases were again deposited in the island. [illustration: fig. 1.--_pachytylus migratorius_. this and the other figures are all natural size.] in europe the best known and ordinarily most destructive species is _pachytylus cinerascens_, and it is to it that most of the numerous records of devastations in europe mainly refer, but it is probably not less destructive in many parts of africa and asia. that the arid steppes of central asia are the home of this insect appears probable; still much on this point is enveloped in uncertainty. in any case the area of permanent distribution is enormous, and that of occasional distribution is still greater. the former area extends from the parallel of 40° n. in portugal, rising to 48° in france and switzerland, and passing into russia at 55°, thence continuing across the middle of siberia, north of china to japan; thence south to the fiji islands, to new zealand and north australia; thence again to mauritius and over all africa to madeira. the southern distribution is uncertain and obscure. taking exceptional distribution, it is well known that it occasionally appears in the british isles, and has in them apparently been noticed as far north as edinburgh; so also does it occasionally appear in scandinavia, and it has probably been seen up to 63° n. in finland. looking at this vast area, it is easy to conceive that an element of uncertainty must always exist with regard to the exact determination of the species, and in europe especially is this the case, because there exists a distinct species, known as _p. migratorius_, the migratory area of which appears to be confined to turkestan and eastern europe. _p. cinerascens_ is certainly the most common of the "locusts" occasionally found in the british isles, and e. de selys-longchamps is of opinion that it breeds regularly in belgium, whereas the true _p. migratorius_ is only accidental in that country. [illustration: fig. 2.--_acridium peregrinum_.] a south african species allied to the preceding and provisionally identified as _pachytylus salcicollis_ is noteworthy from the manifestation of the migratory instinct in immature wingless individuals. the families of young, after destroying the vegetation of a district, unite in a vast army and move away in search of fresh pastures, devastating the country as they go and proceeding of necessity on foot, hence they are known to the dutch as "voetgangers." travelling northwards towards the centre of the continent, the home of their parents before migration, they are diverted from their course by no obstacles. upon reaching a river or stream they search the bank for a likely spot to cross, then fearlessly cast themselves upon the water where they form floating islands of insects, most of which usually succeed in gaining the opposite bank, though many perish in the attempt. _acridium peregrinum_ (fig. 2) can scarcely be considered even an accidental visitor to europe; yet it has been seen in the south of spain, and in many examples spread over a large part of england in the year 1869. it is a larger insect than _p. migratorius_. there is every reason to believe that it is the most destructive locust throughout africa and in india and other parts of tropical asia, and its ravages are as great as those of _p. migratorius_. presumably it is the species occasionally noticed in a vast swarm in the atlantic, very far from land, and presumably also it occurs in the west indies and some parts of central america. in the argentine republic a (possibly) distinct species (_a. paranense_) is the migratory locust. _caloptenus italicus_ (fig. 3) is a smaller insect, with a less extended area of migration; the destruction occasioned in the districts to which it is limited is often scarce less than that of its more terrible allies. it is essentially a species of the mediterranean district, and especially of the european side of that sea, yet it is also found in north africa, and appears to extend far into southern russia. _caloptenus spretus_ (fig. 4) is the "rocky mountain locust" or "hateful grasshopper" of the north american continent. though a comparatively small insect, not so large as some of the grasshoppers of english fields, its destructiveness has procured for it great notoriety. by early travellers and settlers the species was not recognized as distinct from some of its non-migratory congeners. but in 1877, congress appointed a united states entomological commission to investigate the subject. the report of the commissioners (c. v. riley, a. s. packard and c. thomas) deals with the whole subject of locusts both in america and the old world. _c. spretus_ has its home or permanent area in the arid plains of the central region east of the rocky mountains, extending slightly into the southern portion of canada; outside this is a wide fringe to which the term sub-permanent is applied, and this is again bounded by the limits of only occasional distribution, the whole occupying a large portion of the north american continent; but it is not known to have crossed the rocky mountains westward, or to have extended into the eastern states. [illustration: fig. 3.--_caloptenus italicus_.] as to remedial or preventive measures tending to check the ravages of locusts, little unfortunately can be said; but anything that will apply to one species may be used with practically all. something can be done (as is now done in cyprus) by offering a price for all the egg-tubes collected, which is the most direct manner of attacking them. some little can be done by destroying the larvae while in an unwinged condition, and by digging trenches in the line of march into which they can fall and be drowned or otherwise put an end to. little can be done with the winged hordes; starvation, the outcome of their own work, probably here does much. in south africa some success has attended the spraying of the swarms with arsenic. it has been shown that with all migratory locusts the breeding-places, or true homes, are comparatively barren districts (mostly elevated plateaus); hence the progress of colonization, and the conversion of those heretofore barren plains into areas of fertility, may (and probably will) gradually lessen the evil. [illustration: fig. 4.--rocky mountain locust (_caloptenus spretus_). (after riley.) a, a, a, female in different positions, ovipositing. b, egg-pod extracted from ground, with the end broken open. c, a few eggs lying loose on the ground. d, e show the earth partially removed, to illustrate an egg-mass already in place, and one being placed. f, shows where such a mass has been covered up.] locusts have many enemies besides man. many birds greedily devour them, and it has many times been remarked that migratory swarms of the insects were closely followed by myriads of birds. predatory insects of other orders also attack them, especially when they are in the unwinged condition. moreover, they have still more deadly insect foes as parasites. some attack the fully developed winged insect. but the greater part attack the eggs. to such belong certain beetles, chiefly of the family _cantharidae_, and especially certain two-winged flies of the family _bombyliidae_. these latter, both in the old and new world, must prevent vast quantities of eggs from producing larvae. the larger old world species form articles of food with certain semi-civilized and savage races, by whom they are considered as delicacies, or as part of ordinary diet, according to the race and the method of preparation. (r. m'l.; r. i. p.) footnote: [1] the lat. _locusta_ was first applied to a lobster or other marine shell-fish and then, from its resemblance, to the insect.