LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR

lightning conductor, or lightning rod (franklin), the name usually given to apparatus designed to protect buildings or ships from the destructive effects of lightning (fr. _paratonnerre_, ger. _blitzableiter_). the upper regions of the atmosphere being at a different electrical potential from the earth, the thick dense clouds which are the usual prelude to a thunder storm serve to conduct the electricity of the upper air down towards the earth, and an electrical discharge takes place across the air space when the pressure is sufficient. lightning discharges were distinguished by sir oliver lodge into two distinct types--the _a_ and the _b_ flashes. the _a_ flash is of the simple type which arises when an electrically charged cloud approaches the earth without an intermediate cloud intervening. in the second type _b_, where another cloud intervenes between the cloud carrying the primary charge and the earth, the two clouds practically form a condenser; and when a discharge from the first takes place into the second the free charge on the earth side of the lower cloud is suddenly relieved, and the disruptive discharge from the latter to earth takes such an erratic course that according to the lightning research committee "no series of lightning conductors of the hitherto recognized type suffice to protect the building." in germany two kinds of lightning stroke have been recognized, one as "zundenden" (causing fire), analogous to the _b_ flash, the other as "kalten" (not causing fire), the ordinary _a_ discharge. the destructive effect of the former was noticed in 1884 by a. parnell, who quoted instances of damage due to mechanical force, which he stated in many cases took place in a more or less upward direction. the object of erecting a number of pointed rods to form a lightning conductor is to produce a glow or brush discharge and thus neutralize or relieve the tension of the thunder-cloud. this, if the latter is of the _a_ type, can be successfully accomplished, but sometimes the lightning flash takes place so suddenly that it cannot be prevented, however great the number of points provided, there being such a store of energy in the descending cloud that they are unable to ward off the shock. a _b_ flash may ignore the points and strike some metal work in the vicinity; to avoid damage to the structure this must also be connected to the conductors. a single air terminal is of no more use than an inscribed sign-board; besides multiplying the number of points, numerous paths, as well as interconnexions between the conductors, must be arranged to lead the discharge to the earth. the system of pipes and gutters on a roof must be imitated; although a single rain-water pipe would be sufficient to deal with a summer shower, in practice pipes are used in sufficient number to carry off the greatest storm. _protected area._--according to lodge "there is no space near a rod which can be definitely styled an area of protection, for it is possible to receive violent sparks and shocks from the conductor itself, not to speak of the innumerable secondary discharges that are liable to occur in the wake of the main flash." the report of the lightning research committee contains many examples of buildings struck in the so-called "protected area." _material for conductors._--franklin's original rods (1752) were made of iron, and this metal is still employed throughout the continent of europe and in the united states. british architects, who objected to the unsightliness of the rods, eventually specified copper tape, which is generally run round the sharp angles of a building in such a manner as to increase the chances of the lightning being diverted from the conductor. the popular idea is that to secure the greatest protection a rod of the largest area should be erected, whereas a single large conductor is far inferior to a number of smaller ones and copper as a material is not so suitable for the purpose as iron. a copper rod allows the discharge to pass too quickly and produces a violent shock, whereas iron offers more impedance and allows the flash to leak away by damping down the oscillations. thus there is less chance of a side flash from an iron than from a copper conductor. _causes of failure._--a number of failures of conductors were noticed in the 1905 report of the lightning research committee. one cause was the insufficient number of conductors and earth connexions; another was the absence of any system for connecting the metallic portion of the buildings to the conductors. in some cases the main stroke was received, but damage occurred by side-flash to isolated parts of the roof. there were several examples of large metallic surfaces being charged with electricity, the greater part of which was safely discharged, but enough followed unauthorized paths, such as a speaking-tube or electric bell wires, to cause damage. in one instance a flash struck the building at two points simultaneously; one portion followed the conductor, but the other went to earth jumping from a small finial to a greenhouse 30 ft. below. _construction of conductors._--the general conclusions of the lightning research committee agree with the independent reports of similar investigators in germany, hungary and holland. the following is a summary of the suggestions made:-- the conductors may be of copper, or of soft iron protected by galvanizing or coated with lead. a number of paths to earth must be provided; well-jointed rain-water pipes may be utilized. [illustration: fig. 1.--holdfast.] [illustration: fig. 2.] [illustration: fig. 3.--aigrette.] [illustration: fig. 4.--holdfast on roof.] every chimney stack or other prominence should have an air terminal. conductors should run in the most direct manner from air to earth, and be kept away from the walls by holdfasts (fig. 1), in the manner shown by a (fig. 2); the usual method is seen in b (fig. 2), where the tape follows the contour of the building and causes side flash. a building with a long roof should also be fitted with a horizontal conductor along the ridge, and to this aigrettes (fig. 3) should be attached; a simpler method is to support the cable by holdfasts armed with a spike (fig. 4). joints must be held together mechanically as well as electrically, and should be protected from the action of the air. at westminster abbey the cables are spliced and inserted in a box which is filled with lead run in when molten. [illustration: _fig_. 5.--tubular earth.] _earth connexion._--a copper plate not less than 3 sq. ft. in area may be used as an earth connexion if buried in permanently damp ground. instead of a plate there are advantages in using the tubular earth shown in fig. 5. the cable packed in carbon descends to the bottom of the perforated tube which is driven into the ground, a connexion being made to the nearest rain-water pipe to secure the necessary moisture. no further attention is required. plate earths should be tested every year. the number of earths depends on the area of the building, but at least two should be provided. insulators on the conductor are of no advantage, and it is useless to gild or otherwise protect the points of the air-terminals. as heated air offers a good path for lightning (which is the reason why the kitchen-chimney is often selected by the discharge), a number of points should be fixed to high chimneys and there should be at least two conductors to earth. all roof metals, such as finials, flashings, rain-water gutters, ventilating pipes, cowls and stove pipes, should be connected to the system of conductors. the efficiency of the installation depends on the interconnexion of all metallic parts, also on the quality of the earth connexions. in the case of magazines used for explosives, it is questionable whether the usual plan of erecting rods at the sides of the buildings is efficient. the only way to ensure safety is to enclose the magazine in iron; the next best is to arrange the conductors so that they surround it like a bird cage. bibliography.--the literature, although extensive, contains so many descriptions of ludicrous devices, that the student, after reading benjamin franklin's _experiments and observations on electricity made at philadelphia_ (1769), may turn to the _report_ of the lightning rod conference of december 1881. in the latter work there are abstracts of many valuable papers, especially the reports made to the french academy, among others by coulomb, laplace, gay-lussac, fresnel, regnault, &c. in 1876 j. clerk maxwell read a paper before the british association in which he brought forward the idea (based on faraday's experiments) of protecting a building from the effects of lightning by surrounding it with a sort of cage of rods or stout wire. it was not, however, until the bath meeting of the british association in 1888 that the subject was fully discussed by the physical and engineering sections. sir oliver lodge showed the futility of single conductors, and advised the interconnexion of all the metal work on a building to a number of conductors buried in the earth. the action of lightning flashes was also demonstrated by him in lectures delivered before the society of arts (1888). the clerk maxwell system was adopted to a large extent in germany, and in july 1901 a sub-committee of the berlin electro-technical association was formed, which published rules. in 1900 a paper entitled "the protection of public buildings from lightning," by killingworth hedges, led to the formation, by the royal institute of british architects and the surveyors' institution, of the lightning research committee, on which the royal society and the meteorological society were represented. the _report_, edited by sir oliver lodge, sir john gavey and killingworth hedges (hon. sec.), was published in april 1905. an illustrated supplement, compiled by k. hedges and entitled _modern lightning conductors_ (1905), contains particulars of the independent reports of the german committee, the dutch academy of science, and the royal joseph university, budapest. a description is also given of the author's modified clerk maxwell system, in which the metal work of the roofs of a building form the upper part, the rain-water pipes taking the place of the usual lightning-rods. see also sir oliver lodge, _lightning conductors_ (london, 1902). (k. h.) lights, ceremonial use of. non-christian religions. the ceremonial use of lights in the christian church, with which this article is mainly concerned, probably has a double origin: in a very natural symbolism, and in the adaptation of certain pagan and jewish rites and customs of which the symbolic meaning was christianized. light is everywhere the symbol of joy and of life-giving power, as darkness is of death and destruction. fire, the most mysterious and impressive of the elements, the giver of light and of all the good things of life, is a thing sacred and adorable in primitive religions, and fire-worship still has its place in two at least of the great religions of the world. the parsis adore fire as the visible expression of ahura-mazda, the eternal principle of light and righteousness; the brahmans worship it as divine and omniscient.[1] the hindu festival of dewali (diyawali, from _diya_, light), when temples and houses are illuminated with countless lamps, is held every november to celebrate lakhshmi, the goddess of prosperity. in the ritual of the jewish temple fire and light played a conspicuous part. in the holy of holies was a "cloud of light" (_shekinah_), symbolical of the presence of yahweh, and before it stood the candlestick with six branches, on each of which and on the central stem was a lamp eternally burning; while in the forecourt was an altar on which the sacred fire was never allowed to go out. similarly the jewish synagogues have each their eternal lamp; while in the religion of islam lighted lamps mark things and places specially holy; thus the ka'ba at mecca is illuminated by thousands of lamps hanging from the gold and silver rods that connect the columns of the surrounding colonnade. greece and rome. the greeks and romans, too, had their sacred fire and their ceremonial lights. in greece the _lampadedromia_ or _lampadephoria_ (torch-race) had its origin in ceremonies connected with the relighting of the sacred fire. pausanias (i. 26, § 6) mentions the golden lamp made by callimachus which burned night and day in the sanctuary of athena polias on the acropolis, and (vii. 22, §§ 2 and 3) tells of a statue of hermes agoraios, in the market-place of pharae in achaea, before which lamps were lighted. among the romans lighted candles and lamps formed part of the cult of the domestic tutelary deities; on all festivals doors were garlanded and lamps lighted (juvenal, _sat._ xii. 92; tertullian, _apol._ xxxv.). in the cult of isis lamps were lighted by day. in the ordinary temples were candelabra, e.g. that in the temple of apollo palatinus at rome, originally taken by alexander from thebes, which was in the form of a tree from the branches of which lights hung like fruit. in comparing pagan with christian usage it is important to remember that the lamps in the pagan temples were not symbolical, but votive offerings to the gods. torches and lamps were also carried in religious processions. funeral lamps. the pagan custom of burying lamps with the dead conveyed no such symbolical meaning as was implied in the late christian custom of placing lights on and about the tombs of martyrs and saints. its object was to provide the dead with the means of obtaining light in the next world, a wholly material conception; and the lamps were for the most part unlighted. it was of asiatic origin, traces of it having been observed in phoenicia and in the punic colonies, but not in egypt or greece. in europe it was confined to the countries under the domination of rome.[2] christian symbolism of light. in christianity, from the very first, fire and light are conceived as symbols, if not as visible manifestations, of the divine nature and the divine presence. christ is "the true light" (john i. 9), and at his transfiguration "the fashion of his countenance was altered, and his raiment was white and glistering" (luke ix. 29); when the holy ghost descended upon the apostles, "there appeared unto them cloven tongues of fire, and it sat upon each of them" (acts ii. 3); at the conversion of st paul "there shined round him a great light from heaven" (acts ix. 3); while the glorified christ is represented as standing "in the midst of seven candlesticks ... his head and hairs white like wool, as white as snow; and his eyes as a flame of fire" (rev. i. 14, 15). christians are "children of light" at perpetual war with "the powers of darkness." the early church. tertullian and lactantius. 2nd and 3rd centuries. all this might very early, without the incentive of jewish and pagan example, have affected the symbolic ritual of the primitive church. there is, however, no evidence of any ceremonial use of lights in christian worship during the first two centuries. it is recorded, indeed (acts xx. 7, 8), that on the occasion of st paul's preaching at alexandria in troas "there were many lights in the upper chamber"; but this was at night, and the most that can be hazarded is that a specially large number were lighted as a festive illumination, as in modern church festivals (martigny, _dict. des antiqu. chret._). as to a purely ceremonial use, such early evidence as exists is all the other way. a single sentence of tertullian (_apol._ xxxv.) sufficiently illuminates christian practice during the 2nd century. "on days of rejoicing," he says, "we do not shade our door-posts with laurels nor encroach upon the day-light with lamps" (_die laeto non laureis postes obumbramus nec lucernis diem infringimus_). lactantius, writing early in the 4th century, is even more sarcastic in his references to the heathen practice. "they kindle lights," he says, "as though to one who is in darkness. can he be thought sane who offers the light of lamps and candles to the author and giver of all light?" (_div. inst. vi. de vero cultu_, cap. 2, in migne, _patr. lat._ vi. 637).[3] this is primarily an attack on votive lights, and does not necessarily exclude their ceremonial use in other ways. there is, indeed, evidence that they were so used before lactantius wrote. the 34th canon of the synod of elvira (305), which was contemporary with him, forbade candles to be lighted in cemeteries during the day-time, which points to an established custom as well as to an objection to it; and in the roman catacombs lamps have been found of the 2nd and 3rd centuries which seem to have been ceremonial or symbolical.[4] again, according to the _acta_ of st cyprian (d. 258), his body was borne to the grave _praelucentibus cereis_, and prudentius, in his hymn on the martyrdom of st lawrence (_peristeph._ ii. 71, in migne, _patr. lat._ lx. 300), says that in the time of st laurentius, i.e. the middle of the 3rd century, candles stood in the churches of rome on golden candelabra. the gift, mentioned by anastasius (_in sylv._), made by constantine to the vatican basilica, of a _pharum_ of gold, garnished with 500 dolphins each holding a lamp, to burn before st peter's tomb, points also to a custom well established before christianity became the state religion. jerome and vigilantius. whatever previous custom may have been--and for the earliest ages it is difficult to determine absolutely owing to the fact that the christians held their services at night--by the close of the 4th century the ceremonial use of lights had become firmly and universally established in the church. this is clear, to pass by much other evidence, from the controversy of st jerome with vigilantius. vigilantius, a presbyter of barcelona, still occupied the position of tertullian and lactantius in this matter. "we see," he wrote, "a rite peculiar to the pagans introduced into the churches on pretext of religion, and, while the sun is still shining, a mass of wax tapers lighted.... a great honour to the blessed martyrs, whom they think to illustrate with contemptible little candles (_de vilissimis cereolis_)!" jerome, the most influential theologian of the day, took up the cudgels against vigilantius (he "ought to be called dormitantius"), who, in spite of his fatherly admonition, had dared again "to open his foul mouth and send forth a filthy stink against the relics of the holy martyrs" (_hier. ep._ cix. al. 53--_ad ripuarium presbyt._, in migne, _patr. lat._ p. 906). if candles are lit before their tombs, are these the ensigns of idolatry? in his treatise _contra vigilantium_ (_patr. lat._ t. xxiii.) he answers the question with much common sense. there can be no harm if ignorant and simple people, or religious women, light candles in honour of the martyrs. "we are not born, but reborn, christians," and that which when done for idols was detestable is acceptable when done for the martyrs. as in the case of the woman with the precious box of ointment, it is not the gift that merits reward, but the faith that inspires it. as for lights in the churches, he adds that "in all the churches of the east, whenever the gospel is to be read, lights are lit, though the sun be rising (_jam sole rutilante_), not in order to disperse the darkness, but as a visible sign of gladness (_ad signum laetitiae demonstrandum_)." taken in connexion with a statement which almost immediately precedes this--"cereos autem non clara luce accendimus, sicut frustra calumniaris: sed ut noctis tenebras hoc solatio temperemus" (§ 7)--this seems to point to the fact that the ritual use of lights in the church services, so far as already established, arose from the same conservative habit as determined the development of liturgical vestments, i.e. the lights which had been necessary at the nocturnal meetings were retained, after the hours of service had been altered, and invested with a symbolical meaning. practice in the 4th century. eastern church. already they were used at most of the conspicuous functions of the church. paulinus, bishop of nola (d. 431), describes the altar at the eucharist as "crowned with crowded lights,"[5] and even mentions the "eternal lamp."[6] for their use at baptisms we have, among much other evidence, that of zeno of verona for the west,[7] and that of gregory of nazianzus for the east.[8] their use at funerals is illustrated by eusebius's description of the burial of constantine,[9] and jerome's account of that of st paula.[10] at ordinations they were used, as is shown by the 6th canon of the council of carthage (398), which decrees that the acolyte is to hand to the newly ordained deacon _ceroferarium cum cereo_. as to the blessing of candles, according to the _liber pontificalis_ pope zosimus in 417 ordered these to be blessed,[11] and the gallican and mozarabic rituals also provided for this ceremony.[12] the feast of the purification of the virgin, known as candlemas (q.v.), because on this day the candles for the whole year are blessed, was established--according to some authorities--by pope gelasius i. about 492. as to the question of "altar lights," however, it must be borne in mind that these were not placed upon the altar, or on a retable behind it, until the 12th century. these were originally the candles carried by the deacons, according to the _ordo romanus_ (i. 8; ii. 5; iii. 7) seven in number, which were set down either on the steps of the altar, or, later, behind it. in the eastern church, to this day, there are no lights on the high altar; the lighted candles stand on a small altar beside it, and at various parts of the service are carried by the lectors or acolytes before the officiating priest or deacon. the "crowd of lights" described by paulinus as crowning the altar were either grouped round it or suspended in front of it; they are represented by the sanctuary lamps of the latin church and by the crown of lights suspended in front of the altar in the greek. development of the use. to trace the gradual elaboration of the symbolism and use of ceremonial lights in the church, until its full development and systematization in the middle ages, would be impossible here. it must suffice to note a few stages in the process. the burning of lights before the tombs of martyrs led naturally to their being burned also before relics and lastly before images and pictures. this latter practice, hotly denounced as idolatry during the iconoclastic controversy (see iconoclasm), was finally established as orthodox by the second general council of nicaea (787), which restored the worship of images. a later development, however, by which certain lights themselves came to be regarded as objects of worship and to have other lights burned before _them_, was condemned as idolatrous by the synod of noyon in 1344.[13] the passion for symbolism extracted ever new meanings out of the candles and their use. early in the 6th century ennodius, bishop of pavia, pointed out the three-fold elements of a wax-candle (_opusc._ ix. and x.), each of which would make it an offering acceptable to god; the rush-wick is the product of pure water, the wax is the offspring of virgin bees,[14] the flame is sent from heaven.[15] clearly, wax was a symbol of the blessed virgin and the holy humanity of christ. the later middle ages developed the idea. durandus, in his _rationale_, interprets the wax as the body of christ, the wick as his soul, the flame as his divine nature; and the consuming candle as symbolizing his passion and death. in the roman catholic church. dedication of a church. at mass and choir services. sanctuary lamps. symbol of the real presence. in the completed ritual system of the medieval church, as still preserved in the roman catholic communion, the use of ceremonial lights falls under three heads. (1) they may be symbolical of the light of god's presence, of christ as "light of light," or of "the children of light" in conflict with the powers of darkness; they may even be no more than expressions of joy on the occasion of great festivals. (2) they may be votive, i.e. offered as an act of worship (_latria_) to god. (3) they are, in virtue of their benediction by the church, _sacramentalia_, i.e. efficacious for the good of men's souls and bodies, and for the confusion of the powers of darkness.[16] with one or more of these implications, they are employed in all the public functions of the church. at the consecration of a church twelve lights are placed round the walls at the twelve spots where these are anointed by the bishop with holy oil, and on every anniversary these are relighted; at the dedication of an altar tapers are lighted and censed at each place where the table is anointed (_pontificale rom._ p. ii. _de eccl. dedicat. seu consecrat._). at every liturgical service, and especially at mass and at choir services, there must be at least two lighted tapers on the altar,[17] as symbols of the presence of god and tributes of adoration. for the mass the rule is that there are six lights at high mass, four at a _missa cantata_, and two at private masses. at a pontifical high mass (i.e. when the bishop celebrates) the lights are seven, because seven golden candlesticks surround the risen saviour, the chief bishop of the church (see rev. i. 12). at most pontifical functions, moreover, the bishop--as the representative of christ--is preceded by an acolyte with a burning candle (_bugia_) on a candlestick. the _ceremoniale episcoporum_ (i. 12) further orders that a burning lamp is to hang at all times before each altar, three in front of the high altar, and five before the reserved sacrament, as symbols of the eternal presence. in practice, however, it is usual to have only one lamp lighted before the tabernacle in which the host is reserved. the special symbol of the real presence of christ is the _sanctus_ candle, which is lighted at the moment of consecration and kept burning until the communion. the same symbolism is intended by the lighted tapers which must accompany the host whenever it is carried in procession, or to the sick and dying. as symbols of light and joy a candle is held on each side of the deacon when reading the gospel at mass; and the same symbolism underlies the multiplication of lights on festivals, their number varying with the importance of the occasion. as to the number of these latter no rule is laid down. they differ from liturgical lights in that, whereas these must be tapers of pure beeswax or lamps fed with pure olive oil (except by special dispensation under certain circumstances), those used merely to add splendour to the celebration may be of any material; the only exception being, that in the decoration of the altar gas-lights are forbidden. tenebrae. in general the ceremonial use of lights in the roman catholic church is conceived as a dramatic representation in fire of the life of christ and of the whole scheme of salvation. on easter eve the new fire, symbol of the light of the newly risen christ, is produced, and from this are kindled all the lights used throughout the christian year until, in the gathering darkness (_tenebrae_) of the passion, they are gradually extinguished. this quenching of the light of the world is symbolized at the service of _tenebrae_ in holy week by the placing on a stand before the altar of thirteen lighted tapers arranged pyramidally, the rest of the church being in darkness. the penitential psalms are sung, and at the end of each a candle is extinguished. when only the central one is left it is taken down and carried behind the altar, thus symbolizing the betrayal and the death and burial of christ. this ceremony can be traced to the 8th century at rome. the paschal candle. on easter eve new fire is made[18] with a flint and steel, and blessed; from this three candles are lighted, the _lumen christi_, and from these again the paschal candle.[19] this is the symbol of the risen and victorious christ, and burns at every solemn service until ascension day, when it is extinguished and removed after the reading of the gospel at high mass. this, of course, symbolizes the ascension; but meanwhile the other lamps in the church have received their light from the paschal candle, and so symbolize throughout the year the continued presence of the light of christ. baptism. ordination, etc. funeral lights. at the consecration of the baptismal water the burning paschal candle is dipped into the font "so that the power of the holy ghost may descend into it and make it an effective instrument of regeneration." this is the symbol of baptism as rebirth as children of light. lighted tapers are also placed in the hands of the newly-baptized, or of their god-parents, with the admonition "to preserve their baptism inviolate, so that they may go to meet the lord when he comes to the wedding." thus, too, as "children of light," candidates for ordination and novices about to take the vows carry lights when they come before the bishop; and the same idea underlies the custom of carrying lights at weddings, at the first communion, and by priests going to their first mass, though none of these are liturgically prescribed. finally, lights are placed round the bodies of the dead and carried beside them to the grave, partly as symbols that they still live in the light of christ, partly to frighten away the powers of darkness. excommunication. conversely, the extinction of lights is part of the ceremony of excommunication (_pontificale rom._ pars iii.). regino, abbot of prum, describes the ceremony as it was carried out in his day, when its terrors were yet unabated (_de eccles. disciplina_, ii. 409). "twelve priests should stand about the bishop, holding in their hands lighted torches, which at the conclusion of the anathema or excommunication they should cast down and trample under foot." when the excommunication is removed, the symbol of reconciliation is the handing to the penitent of a burning taper. protestant churches. as a result of the reformation the use of ceremonial lights was either greatly modified, or totally abolished in the protestant churches. in the reformed (calvinistic) churches altar lights were, with the rest, done away with entirely as popish and superstitious. in the lutheran churches they were retained, and in evangelical germany have even survived most of the other medieval rites and ceremonies (e.g. the use of vestments) which were not abolished at the reformation itself. church of england. the "lincoln judgment." in the church of england the practice has been less consistent. the first prayer-book of edward vi. directed two lights to be placed on the altar. this direction was omitted in the second prayer-book; but the "ornaments rubric" of queen elizabeth's prayer-book seemed again to make them obligatory. the question of how far this did so is a much-disputed one and is connected with the whole problem of the meaning and scope of the rubric (see vestments). an equal uncertainty reigns with regard to the actual usage of the church of england from the reformation onwards. lighted candles certainly continued to decorate the holy table in queen elizabeth's chapel, to the scandal of protestant zealots. they also seem to have been retained, at least for a while, in certain cathedral and collegiate churches. there is, however, no mention of ceremonial candles in the detailed account of the services of the church of england given by william harrison (_description of england_, 1570); and the attitude of the church towards their use, until the ritualistic movement of the 17th century, would seem to be authoritatively expressed in the _third part of the sermon against peril of idolatry_, which quotes with approval the views of lactantius and compares "our candle religion" with the "gentiles idolators." this pronouncement, indeed, though it certainly condemns the use of ceremonial lights in most of its later developments, and especially the conception of them as votive offerings whether to god or to the saints, does not necessarily exclude, though it undoubtedly discourages, their purely symbolical use.[20] in this connexion it is worth pointing out that the homily against idolatry was reprinted, without alteration and by the king's authority, long after altar lights had been restored under the influence of the high church party supreme at court. illegal under the act of uniformity they seem never to have been. the use of "wax lights and tapers" formed one of the indictments brought by p. smart, a puritan prebendary of durham, against dr burgoyne, cosin and others for setting up "superstitious ceremonies" in the cathedral "contrary to the act of uniformity." the indictments were dismissed in 1628 by sir james whitelocke, chief justice of chester and a judge of the king's bench, and in 1629 by sir henry yelverton, a judge of common pleas and himself a strong puritan (see _hierurgia anglicana_, ii pp. 230 seq.). the use of ceremonial lights was among the indictments in the impeachment of laud and other bishops by the house of commons, but these were not based on the act of uniformity. from the restoration onwards the use of ceremonial lights, though far from universal, was not unusual in cathedrals and collegiate churches.[21] it was not, however, till the ritual revival of the 19th century that their use was at all widely extended in parish churches. the growing custom met with fierce opposition; the law was appealed to, and in 1872 the privy council declared altar lights to be illegal (_martin_ v. _mackonochie_). this judgment, founded as was afterwards admitted on insufficient knowledge, produced no effect; and, in the absence of any authoritative pronouncement, advantage was taken of the ambiguous language of the ornaments rubric to introduce into many churches practically the whole ceremonial use of lights as practised in the pre-reformation church. the matter was again raised in the case of _read and others_ v. _the bishop of lincoln_ (see lincoln judgment), one of the counts of the indictment being that the bishop had, during the celebration of holy communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a shelf or retable behind the communion table when they were not necessary for giving light. the archbishop of canterbury, in whose court the case was heard (1889), decided that the mere presence of two candles on the table, burning during the service but lit before it began, was lawful under the first prayer-book of edward vi. and had never been made unlawful. on the case being appealed to the privy council, this particular indictment was dismissed on the ground that the vicar, not the bishop, was responsible for the presence of the lights, the general question of the legality of altar lights being discreetly left open. the custom of placing lighted candles round the bodies of the dead, especially when "lying in state," has never wholly died out in protestant countries, though their significance has long been lost sight of.[22] in the 18th century, moreover, it was still customary in england to accompany a funeral with lighted tapers. picart (_op. cit._ 1737) gives a plate representing a funeral cortege preceded and accompanied by boys, each carrying four lighted candles in a branched candlestick. there seems to be no record of candles having been carried in other processions in england since the reformation. the usage in this respect in some "ritualistic" churches is a revival of pre-reformation ceremonial. see the article "lucerna," by j. toutain in daremberg and saglio's _dict. des antiquites grecques et romaines_ (paris, 1904); j. marquardt, "romische privatalterthumer" (vol. v. of becker's _rom. alterthumer_), ii. 238-301; article "cierges et lampes," in the abbe j. a. martigny's _dict. des antiquites chretiennes_ (paris, 1865); the articles "lichter" and "koimetarien" (pp. 834 seq.) in herzog-hauck's _realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed., leipzig. 1901); the article "licht" in wetzer and welte's _kirchenlexikon_ (freiburg-i.-b., 1882-1901), an excellent exposition of the symbolism from the catholic point of view, also "kerze" and "lichter"; w. smith and s. cheetham, _dict. of chr. antiquities_ (london, 1875-1880), i. 939 seq.; in all these numerous further references will be found. see also muhlbauer, _gesch. u. bedeutung der wachslichter bei den kirchlichen funktionen_ (augsburg, 1874); v. thalhofer, _handbuch der katholischen liturgik_ (freiburg-i.-b., 1887), i. 666 seq.; and, for the post-reformation use in the church of england, _hierurgia anglicana_, new ed. by vernon staley (london, 1903). (w. a. p.) footnotes: [1] "o fire, thou knowest all things!" see a. bourquin, "brahma-karma, ou rites sacres des brahmans," in the _annales du musee guimet_ (paris, 1884, t. vii.). [2] j. toutain, in daremberg and saglio, _dictionnaire, s.v._ "lucerna." [3] this is quoted with approval by bishop jewel in the homily _against peril of idolatry_ (see below). [4] this symbolism--whatever it was--was not pagan, i.e. the lamps were not placed in the graves as part of the furniture of the dead--in the catacombs they are found only in the niches of the galleries and the arcosolia--nor can they have been votive in the sense popularized later. [5] "clara coronantur densis altaria lychnis" (_poem. de s. felice natalitium_, xiv. 99, in migne, _patr. lat._ lxi. 467). [6] "continuum scyphus est argenteus aptus ad usum." [7] "sal, ignis et oleum" (lib. i. tract. xiv. 4, in migne, xi. 358). [8] _in sanct. pasch._ c. 2; migne, _patr. graeca_, xxxvi. 624. [9] [greek: phota t' ephapsantes kyklo epi skeuon chryson, thaumaston theama tois horosi pareichon] (_vita constantini_, iv. 66). [10] "cum alii pontifices lampadas cereosque proferrent, alii choras psallentium ducerent" (ep. cviii. _ad eustochium virginem_, in migne). [11] this may be the paschal candle only. in some codices the text runs: "per parochias concessit licentiam benedicendi cereum paschalem" (du cange, _glossarium, s.v._ "cereum paschale"). in the three variants of the notice of zosimus given in duchesne's edition of the _lib. pontif._ (1886-1892) the word _cera_ is, however, alone used. nor does the text imply that he gave to the suburbican churches a privilege hitherto exercised by the metropolitan church. the passage runs: "hic constituit ut diaconi leva tecta haberent de palleis linostimis per parrochias et ut cera benedicatur," &c. _per parrochias_ here obviously refers to the head-gear of the deacons, not to the candles. [12] see also the _peregrinatio sylviae_ (386), 86, &c., for the use of lights at jerusalem, and isidore of seville (_etym._ vii. 12; xx. 10) for the usage in the west. that even in the 7th century the blessing of candles was by no means universal is proved by the 9th canon of the council of toledo (671), "de benedicendo cereo et lucerna in privilegiis paschae." this canon states that candles and lamps are not blessed in some churches, and that inquiries have been made why _we_ do it. in reply, the council decides that it should be done to celebrate the mystery of christ's resurrection. see isidore of seville, _conc._, in migne, _pat. lat._ lxxxiv. 369. [13] du cange, _glossarium, s.v._ "candela." [14] bees were believed, like fish, to be sexless. [15] "venerandis compactam elementis facem tibi, domine, mancipamus: in qua trium copula munerum primum de impari numero complacebit: quae quod gratis deo veniat auctoribus, non habetur incertum: unum quod de fetibus fluminum accedunt nutrimenta flammarum: aliud quod apum tribuit intemerata fecunditas, in quarum partibus nulla partitur damna virginitas: ignis etiam coelo infusus adhibetur" (_opusc._ x. in migne, _patr. lat._ t. lxiii.). [16] all three conceptions are brought out in the prayers for the blessing of candles on the feast of the purification of the b.v.m. (candlemas, q.v.). (1) "o holy lord, ... who ... by the command didst cause this liquid to come by the labour of bees to the perfection of wax, ... we beseech thee ... to bless and sanctify these candles for the use of men, and the health of bodies and souls...." (2) "... these candles, which we thy servants desire to carry lighted to magnify thy name; that by offering them to thee, being worthily inflamed with the holy fire of thy most sweet charity, we may deserve," &c. (3) "o lord jesus christ, the true light, ... mercifully grant, that as these lights enkindled with visible fire dispel nocturnal darkness, so our hearts illumined by invisible fire," &c. (_missale rom._). in the form for the blessing of candles _extra diem purificationis b. mariae virg._ the virtue of the consecrated candles in discomfiting demons is specially brought out: "that in whatever places they may be lighted, or placed, the princes of darkness may depart, and tremble, and may fly terror-stricken with all their ministers from those habitations, nor presume further to disquiet and molest those who serve thee, almighty god" (_rituale rom._). [17] altar candlesticks consist of five parts: the foot, stem, knob in the centre, bowl to catch the drippings, and pricket (a sharp point on which the candle is fixed). it is permissible to use a long tube, pointed to imitate a candle, in which is a small taper forced to the top by a spring (_cong. rit._, 11th may 1878). [18] this is common to the eastern church also. pilgrims from all parts of the east flock to jerusalem to obtain the "new fire" on easter eve at the church of the holy sepulchre. here the fire is supposed to be miraculously sent from heaven. the rush of the pilgrims to kindle their lights at it is so great, that order is maintained with difficulty by mahommedan soldiers. [19] the origin of the paschal candle is lost in the mists of antiquity. according to the abbe chatelain (quoted in diderot's _encyclopedie, s.v._ "cierge") the paschal candle was not originally a candle at all, but a wax column on which the dates of the movable feasts were inscribed. these were later written on paper and fixed to the paschal candle, a custom which in his day survived in the cluniac churches. [20] this homily, written by bishop jewel, is largely founded on bullinger's _de origine erroris in divinorum et sacrorum cultu_ (1528, 1539). [21] a copper-plate in bernard picart's _ceremonies and religious customs of the various nations_ (eng. trans., london, 1737), vi. pt. 1, p. 78, illustrating an anglican communion service at st paul's, shows two lighted candles on the holy table. [22] in some parts of scotland it is still customary to place two lighted candles on a table beside a corpse on the day of burial.