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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "title": "LAMAR",
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    "verified_text": "lamar, lucius quintus cincinnatus (1825-1893), american statesman and judge, was born at the old \"lamar homestead,\" in putnam county, georgia, on the 17th of september 1825. his father, lucius q. c. lamar (1797-1834), was an able lawyer, a judge of the superior court of georgia, and the compiler of the _laws of georgia from 1810 to 1819_ (1821). in 1845 young lamar graduated from emory college (oxford, ga.), and in 1847 was admitted to the bar. in 1849 he removed to oxford, mississippi, and in 1850-1852 was adjunct professor of mathematics in the state university. in 1852 he removed to covington, ga., to practise law, and in 1853 was elected a member of the georgia house of representatives. in 1855 he returned to mississippi, and two years later became a member of the national house of representatives, where he served until december 1860, when he withdrew to become a candidate for election to the \"secession\" convention of mississippi. he was elected to the convention, and drafted for it the mississippi ordinance of secession. in the summer of 1860 he had accepted an appointment to the chair of ethics and metaphysics in the university of mississippi, but, having been appointed a lieutenant-colonel in the confederate army in the spring of 1861, he resigned his professorship. the colonel of his regiment (nineteenth mississippi) was killed early in the battle of williamsburg, on the 5th of may 1862, and the command then fell to lamar, but in october he resigned from the army. in november 1862 he was appointed by president jefferson davis special commissioner of the confederacy to russia; but he did not proceed farther than paris, and his mission was soon terminated by the refusal of the confederate senate to confirm his appointment. in 1866 he was again appointed to the chair of ethics and metaphysics in the university of mississippi, and in the next year was transferred to the chair of law, but in 1870, republicans having become trustees of the university upon the readmission of the state into the union, he resigned. from 1873 to 1877 he was again a democratic representative in congress; from 1877 to 1885 he was a united states senator; from 1885 to january 1888 he was secretary of the interior; and from 1888 until his death at macon, ga., on the 23rd of january 1893, he was an associate justice of the supreme court of the united states. in congress lamar fought the silver and greenback craze and argued forcibly against the protective tariff; in the department of the interior he introduced various reforms; and on the supreme court bench his dissenting opinion in the _neagle case_ (based upon a denial that certain powers belonging to congress, but not exercised, were by implication vested in the department of justice) is famous. but he is perhaps best known for the part he took after the civil war in helping to effect a reconciliation between the north and the south. during the early secession movement he strove to arouse the white people of the south from their indifference, declaring that secession alone could save them from a doom similar to that of the former whites of san domingo. he probably never changed his convictions as to the righteousness of the \"lost cause\"; but he accepted the result of the war as a final settlement of the differences leading to it, and strove to restore the south in the union, and to effect the reunion of the nation in feeling as well as in government. this is in part seen from such speeches as his eulogy on charles sumner (27th of april 1874), his leadership in reorganizing the democratic party of his own state, and his counsels of peace in the disputed presidential election of 1876. see edward mayes, _lucius q. c. lamar: his life, times and speeches_ (nashville, tenn., 1896). lamarck, jean baptiste pierre antoine de monet, chevalier de (1744-1829), french naturalist, was born on the 1st of august 1744, at bazantin, a village of picardy. he was an eleventh child; and his father, lord of the manor and of old family, but of limited means, having placed three sons in the army, destined this one for the church, and sent him to the jesuits at amiens, where he continued till his father's death. after this he would remain with the jesuits no longer, and, not yet seventeen years of age, started for the seat of war at bergen-op-zoom, before which place one of his brothers had already been killed. mounted on an old horse, with a boy from the village as attendant, and furnished by a lady with a letter of introduction to a colonel, he reached his destination on the evening before a battle. next morning the colonel found that the new and very diminutive volunteer had posted himself in the front rank of a body of grenadiers, and could not be induced to quit the position. in the battle, the company which he had joined became exposed to the fire of the enemy's artillery, and in the confusion of retreat was forgotten. all the officers and subalterns were killed, and not more than fourteen men were left, when the oldest grenadiers seeing there were no more french in sight proposed to the young volunteer so soon become commandant to withdraw his men. this he refused to do without orders. these at last arrived; and for his bravery he was made an officer on the spot, and soon after was named to a lieutenancy. after the peace, the regiment was sent to monaco. there one of his comrades playfully lifted him by the head, and to this it was imputed that he was seized with disease of the glands of the neck, so severe as to put a stop to his military career. he went to paris and began the study of medicine, supporting himself by working in a banker's office. he early became interested in meteorology and in physical and chemical speculations of a chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength into botany, and in 1778 published his _flore francaise_, a work in which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the student with facility to determine species. this work, which went through several editions and long kept the field, gained for its author immediate popularity as well as admission to the academy of sciences. in 1781 and 1782, under the title of botanist to the king, an appointment obtained for him by buffon, whose son accompanied him, he travelled through various countries of europe, extending his knowledge of natural history; and on his return he began those elaborate contributions to botany on which his reputation in that science principally rests, namely, the _dictionnaire de botanique_ and the _illustrations de genres_, voluminous works contributed to the _encyclopedie methodique_ (1785). in 1793, in consequence of changes in the organization of the natural history department at the jardin du roi, where he had held a botanical appointment since 1788, lamarck was presented to a zoological chair, and called on to lecture on the _insecta_ and _vermes_ of linnaeus, the animals for which he introduced the term _invertebrata_. thus driven, comparatively late in life, to devote his principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the malady resulted subsequently in total blindness. yet his greatest zoological work, the _histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres_, was published from 1815 to 1822, with the assistance, in the last two volumes, of his eldest daughter and of p. a. latreille (1762-1833). a volume of plates of the fossil shells of the neighbourhood of paris was collected in 1823 from his memoirs in the _annales des museums_. he died on the 18th of december 1829. the character of lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike for its excellences and its defects. his excellences were width of scope, fertility of ideas and a pre-eminent faculty of precise description, arising not only from a singularly terse style, but from a clear insight into both the distinctive features and the resemblances of forms. that part of his zoological work which constitutes his solid claim to the highest honour as a zoologist is to be found in his extensive and detailed labours in the departments of living and fossil _invertebrata_. his endeavours at classification of the great groups were necessarily defective on account of the imperfect knowledge possessed in his time in regard to many of them, e.g. echinoderms, ascidians and intestinal worms; yet they are not without interest, particularly on account of the comprehensive attempt to unite in one great division as _articulata_ all those groups that appeared to present a segmented construction. moreover, lamarck was the first to distinguish vertebrate from invertebrate animals by the presence of a vertebral column, and among the invertebrata to found the groups _crustacea_, _arachnida_ and _annelida_. in 1785 (_hist. del' acad._) he evinced his appreciation of the necessity of natural orders in botany by an attempt at the classification of plants, interesting, though crude and falling immeasurably short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate friend a. l. de jussieu. the problem of taxonomy has never been put more philosophically than he subsequently put it in his _animaux sans vertebres_: \"what arrangement must be given to the general distribution of animals to make it conformable to the order of nature in the production of these beings?\" the most prominent defect in lamarck must be admitted to have been want of control in speculation. doubtless the speculative tendency furnished a powerful incentive to work, but it outran the legitimate deductions from observation, and led him into the production of volumes of worthless chemistry without experimental basis, as well as into spending much time on fruitless meteorological predictions. his _annuaires meteorologiques_ were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not discontinued until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented with one of his works on natural history. to the general reader the name of lamarck is chiefly interesting on account of his theory of the origin of life and of the diversities of animal forms. the idea, which appears to have been favoured by buffon before him, that species were not through all time unalterable, and that the more complex might have been developed from pre-existent simpler forms, became with lamarck a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration. spontaneous generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as resulting from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a \"singular tension,\" a kind of \"erethisme\" or \"orgasme\"; and, having thus accounted for the first appearance of life, he explained the whole organization of animals and formation of different organs by four laws (introduction to his _histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres_, 1815):-- 1. \"life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the volume of every body possessing it, and to enlarge its parts, up to a limit which it brings about. 2. \"the production of a new organ in an animal body results from the supervention of a new want (_besoin_) continuing to make itself felt, and a new movement which this want gives birth to and encourages. 3. \"the development of organs and their force of action are constantly in ratio to the employment of these organs. 4. \"all which has been acquired, laid down, or changed in the organization of individuals in the course of their life is conserved by generation and transmitted to the new individuals which proceed from those which have undergone those changes.\" the second law is often referred to as lamarck's hypothesis of the evolution of organs in animals by appetence or longing, although he does not teach that the animal's desires affect its conformation directly, but that altered wants lead to altered habits, which result in the formation of new organs as well as in modification, growth or dwindling of those previously existing. thus, he suggests that, ruminants being pursued by carnivora, their legs have grown slender; and, their legs being only fit for support, while their jaws are weak, they have made attack with the crown of the head, and the determination of fluids thither has led to the growth of horns. so also the stretching of the giraffe's neck to reach the foliage he supposes to have led to its elongation; and the kangaroo, sitting upright to support the young in its pouch, he imagines to have had its fore-limbs dwarfed by disuse, and its hind legs and tail exaggerated by using them in leaping. the fourth law expresses the inheritance of acquired characters, which is denied by august weismann and his followers. for a more detailed account of lamarck's place in the history of the doctrine of evolution, see evolution.",
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