LADO ENCLAVE

lado enclave, a region of the upper nile formerly administered by the congo free state, but since 1910 a province of the anglo-egyptian sudan. it has an area of about 15,000 sq. m., and a population estimated at 250,000 and consisting of bari, madi, kuku and other nilotic negroes. the enclave is bounded s.e. by the north-west shores of albert nyanza--as far south as the port of mahagi--e. by the western bank of the nile (bahr-el-jebel) to the point where the river is intersected by 5° 30 n., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the nile westward to 30° e. this meridian forms the west frontier to 4° n., the frontier thence being the nile-congo watershed to the point nearest to mahagi and from that point direct to albert nyanza. the country is a moderately elevated plateau sloping northward from the higher ground marking the congo-nile watershed. the plains are mostly covered with bush, with stretches of forest in the northern districts. traversing the plateau are two parallel mountainous chains having a general north to south direction. one chain, the kuku mountains (average height 2000 ft.), approaches close to the nile and presents, as seen from the river, several apparently isolated peaks. at other places these mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous line like a huge wall. from dufile in 3° 34 n. to below the bedden rapids in 4° 40 n. the bed of the nile is much obstructed and the river throughout this reach is unnavigable (see nile). below the bedden rapids rises the conical hill of rejaf, and north of that point the nile valley becomes flat. ranges of hill, however, are visible farther westwards, and a little north of 5° n. is jebel lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft. high and some 12 m. distant from the nile. it has given its name to the district, being the first hill seen from the nile in the ascent of some 1000 m. from khartum. on the river at rejaf, at lado, and at kiro, 28 m. n. of lado, are government stations and trading establishments. the western chain of hills has loftier peaks than those of kuku, jebel loka being about 3000 ft. high. this western chain forms a secondary watershed separating the basin of the yei, a large river, some 400 m. in length, which runs almost due north to join the nile, from the other streams of the enclave, which have an easterly or north-easterly direction and join the nile after comparatively short courses. the northern part of the district was first visited by europeans in 1841-1842, when the nile was ascended by an expedition despatched by mehemet ali to the foot of the rapids at bedden. the neighbouring posts of gondokoro, on the east bank of the nile, and lado, soon became stations of the khartum ivory and slave traders. after the discovery of albert nyanza by sir samuel baker in 1864, the whole country was overrun by arabs, levantines, turks and others, whose chief occupation was slave raiding. the region was claimed as part of the egyptian sudan, but it was not until the arrival of sir samuel baker at gondokoro in 1870 as governor of the equatorial provinces, that any effective control of the slave traders was attempted. baker was succeeded by general c. g. gordon, who established a separate administration for the bahr-el-ghazal. in 1878 emin pasha became governor of the equatorial province, a term henceforth confined to the region adjoining the main nile above the sobat confluence, and the region south of the bahr-el-ghazal province. (the whole of the lado enclave thus formed part of emin's old province.) emin made his headquarters at lado, whence he was driven in 1885 by the mahdists. he then removed to wadelai, a station farther south, but in 1889 the pasha, to whose aid h. m. stanley had conducted an expedition from the congo, evacuated the country and with stanley made his way to the east coast. while the mahdists remained in possession at rejaf, great britain in virtue of her position in uganda claimed the upper nile region as within the british sphere; a claim admitted by germany in 1890. in february 1894 the union jack was hoisted at wadelai, while in may of the same year great britain granted to leopold ii., as sovereign of the congo state, a lease of large areas lying west of the upper nile inclusive of the bahr-el-ghazal and fashoda. pressed however by france, leopold ii. agreed to occupy only that part of the leased area east of 30° e. and south of 5° 30 n., and in this manner the actual limits of the lado enclave, as it was thereafter called, were fixed. congo state forces had penetrated to the nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not until 1897, when on the 17th of february commandant chaltin inflicted a decisive defeat on the mahdists at rejaf, that their occupation of the lado enclave was assured. after the withdrawal of the french from fashoda, leopold ii. revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in 1894. in this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new agreement made with great britain in 1906, was annulled (see africa, § 5). the king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to the anglo-sudanese government (see _treaty series_, no. 4, 1906). see _le mouvement geographique_ (brussels) _passim_, and especially articles in the 1910 issues. ladoga (formerly nevo), a lake of northern russia, between 59° 56 and 61° 46 n., and 29° 53 and 32° 50 e., surrounded by the governments of st petersburg and olonets, and of viborg in finland. it has the form of a quadrilateral, elongated from n.w. to s.e. its eastern and southern shores are flat and marshy, the north-western craggy and fringed by numerous small rocky islands, the largest of which are valamo and konnevitz, together having an area of 14 sq. m. ladoga is 7000 sq. m. in area, that is, thirty-one times as large as the lake of geneva; but, its depth being less, it contains only nineteen times as much water as the swiss lake. the greatest depth, 730 ft., is in a trough in the north-western part, the average depth not exceeding 250 to 350 ft. the level of lake ladoga is 55 ft. above the gulf of finland, but it rises and falls about 7 ft., according to atmospheric conditions, a phenomenon very similar to the _seiches_ of the lake of geneva being observed in connexion with this. the western and eastern shores consist of boulder clay, as well as a narrow strip on the southern shore, south of which runs a ridge of crags of silurian sandstones. the hills of the north-western shore afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the laurentian system, whilst valamo island is made up of a rock which russian geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. the granite and marble of serdobol, and the sandstone of putilovo, are much used for buildings at st petersburg; copper and tin from the pitkaranta mine are exported. no fewer than seventy rivers enter ladoga, pouring into it the waters of numberless smaller lakes which lie at higher levels round it. the volkhov, which conveys the waters of lake ilmen, is the largest; lake onega discharges its waters by the svir; and the saima system of lakes of eastern finland contributes the vuoxen and taipale rivers; the syas brings the waters from the smaller lakes and marshes of the valdai plateau. ladoga discharges its surplus water by means of the neva, which flows from its south-western corner into the gulf of finland, rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second. the water of ladoga is very pure and cold; in may the surface temperature does not exceed 36° fahr., and even in august it reaches only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at valamo being 36.8°. the lake begins to freeze in october, but it is only about the end of december that it is frozen in its deeper parts; and it remains ice-bound until the end of march, though broad icefields continue to float in the middle of the lake until broken up by gales. only a small part of the ladoga ice is discharged by the neva; but it is enough to produce in the middle of june a return of cold in the northern capital. the thickness of the ice does not exceed 3 or 4 ft.; but during the alternations of cold and warm weather, with strong gales, in winter, stacks of ice, 70 and 80 ft. high, are raised on the shores and on the icefields. the water is in continuous rotatory motion, being carried along the western shore from north to south, and along the eastern from south to north. the vegetation on the shores is poor; immense forests, which formerly covered them, are now mostly destroyed. but the fauna of the lake is somewhat rich; a species of seal which inhabits its waters, as well as several species of arctic crustaceans, recall its former connexion with the arctic ocean. the sweet water _diatomaceae_ which are found in great variety in the ooze of the deepest parts of the lake also have an arctic character. fishing is very extensively carried on. navigation, which is practicable for only one hundred and eighty days in the year, is rather difficult owing to fogs and gales, which are often accompanied, even in april and september, with snow-storms. the prevailing winds blow from n.w. and s.w.; n.e. winds cause the water to rise in the south-western part, sometimes 3 to 5 ft. steamers ply regularly in two directions from st petersburg--to the monasteries of konnevitz and valamo, and to the mouth of the svir, whence they go up that river to lake onega and petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber, firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and various small wares from the northern shore to schlusselburg, and thence to st petersburg. navigation on the lake being too dangerous for small craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in 1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate length of 101 m. along its southern shore, uniting with the neva at schlusselburg the mouths of the rivers volkhov, syas and svir, all links in the elaborate system of canals which connect the upper volga with the gulf of finland. the population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the towns--schlusselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); new ladoga (4144); kexholm (1325) and serdobol--are small. the monasteries of valamo, founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and konnevskiy, on konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every year by many thousands of pilgrims. (p. a. k.; j. t. be.) lady (o. eng. _hlaefdige_, mid. eng. _lafdi_, _lavedi_; the first part of the word is _hlaf_, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding _hlaford_, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in "dough"; the sense development from bread-kneader, bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though not clearly to be traced historically, may be illustrated by that of "lord"), a term of which the main applications are two, (1) as the correlative of "lord" (q.v.) in certain of the usages of that word, (2) as the correlative of "gentleman" (q.v.). the primary meaning of mistress of a household is, if not obsolete, in present usage only a vulgarism. the special use of the word as a title of the virgin mary, usually "our lady," represents the lat. _domina nostra_. in lady day and lady chapel the word is properly a genitive, representing the o. eng. _hlaefdigan_. as a title of nobility the uses of "lady" are mainly paralleled by those of "lord." it is thus a less formal alternative to the full title giving the specific rank, of marchioness, countess, viscountess or baroness, whether as the title of the husband's rank by right or courtesy, or as the lady's title in her own right. in the case of the younger sons of a duke or marquess, who by courtesy have lord prefixed to their christian and family name, the wife is known by the husband's christian and family name with lady prefixed, e.g. lady john b.; the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls are by courtesy ladies; here that title is prefixed to the christian and family name of the lady, e.g. lady mary b., and this is preserved if the lady marry a commoner, e.g. mr and lady mary c. "lady" is also the customary title of the wife of a baronet or knight; the proper title, now only used in legal documents or on sepulchral monuments, is "dame" (q.v.); in the latter case the usage is to prefix dame to the christian name of the wife followed by the surname of the husband, thus dame eleanor b., but in the former, lady with the surname of the husband only, sir a. and lady b. during the 15th and 16th centuries "princesses" or daughters of the blood royal were usually known by their christian names with "the lady" prefixed, e.g. the lady elizabeth. while "lord" has retained its original application as a title of nobility or rank without extension, an example which has been followed in spanish usage by "don," "lady" has been extended in meaning to be the feminine correlative of "gentleman" throughout its sense developments, and in this is paralleled by _dame_ in german, _madame_ in french, _donna_ in spanish, &c. it is the general word for any woman of a certain social position (see gentleman).