{
    "system": "GoGuides Verified Text",
    "api_version": "verified-text-v1",
    "status": "ok",
    "response_type": "verified_text_record",
    "source_key": "britannica_1911",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
    "license_code": "public_domain",
    "attribution": null,
    "license_url": null,
    "chunk_id": "1911:jizakh:aee5566b345a",
    "title": "JIZAKH",
    "section": null,
    "hash_alg": "sha256",
    "hash_sha256": "31552649c60fe428a85c608ed6de96bfeff415d23847aac2d764a42d95d0ae38",
    "normalizer": {
        "name": "ggnorm",
        "version": "1.0"
    },
    "verified_text": "jizakh, a town of russian central asia, in the province of samarkand, on the transcaspian railway, 71 m. n.e. of the city of samarkand. pop. (1897), 16,041. as a fortified post of bokhara it was captured by the russians in 1866. joab (heb. \"yah[weh] is a father\"), in the bible, the son of zeruiah, david's sister (1 chron. ii. 16). his brothers were asahel and abishai. all three were renowned warriors and played a prominent part in david's history. abishai on one occasion saved the king's life from a philistine giant (2 sam. xxi. 17), and joab as warrior and statesman was directly responsible for much of david's success. joab won his spurs, according to one account, by capturing jerusalem (1 chron. xi. 4-9); with abishai and ittai of gath he led a small army against the israelites who had rebelled under absalom (2 sam. xviii. 2); and he superintended the campaign against ammon and edom (2 sam. xi. 1, xii. 26; 1 kings xi. 15). he showed his sturdy character by urging the king after the death of absalom to place his duty to his people before his grief for the loss of his favourite son (2 sam. xix. 1-8), and by protesting against david's proposal to number the people, an innovation which may have been regarded as an infringement of their liberties (2 sam. xxiv.; 1 chron. xxi. 6). the hostility of the \"sons of zeruiah\" towards the tribe of benjamin is characteristically contrasted with david's own generosity towards saul's fallen house. abishai proposed to kill saul when david surprised him asleep (1 sam. xxvi. 8), and was anxious to slay shimei when he cursed the king (2 sam. xvi. 9). but david was resigned to the will of yahweh and refused to entertain the suggestions. after asahel met his death at the hands of abner, joab expostulated with david for not taking revenge upon the guilty one, and indeed the king might be considered bound in honour to take up his nephew's cause. but when joab himself killed abner, david's imprecation against him and his brother abishai showed that he dissociated himself from the act of vengeance, although it brought him nearer to the throne of all israel (2 sam. iii.). fear of a possible rival may have influenced joab, and this at all events led him to slay amasa of judah (2 sam. xx. 4-13). the two deeds are similar, and the impression left by them is expressed in david's last charges to solomon (1 kings ii.). but here joab had taken the side of adonijah against solomon, and was put to death by benaiah at solomon's command, and it is possible that the charges are the fruit of a later tradition to remove all possible blame from solomon (q.v.). it is singular that joab is not blamed for killing absalom, but it would indeed be strange if the man who helped to reconcile father and son (2 sam. xiv.) should have perpetrated so cruel an act in direct opposition to the king's wishes (xviii. 5, 10-16). a certain animus against joab's family thus seems to underlie some of the popular narratives of the life of david (q.v.). (s. a. c.) joachim of floris (c. 1145-1202), so named from the monastery of san giovanni in fiore, of which he was abbot, italian mystic theologian, was born at celico, near cosenza, in calabria. he was of noble birth and was brought up at the court of duke roger of apulia. at an early age he went to visit the holy places. after seeing his comrades decimated by the plague at constantinople he resolved to change his mode of life, and, on his return to italy, after a rigorous pilgrimage and a period of ascetic retreat, became a monk in the cistercian abbey of casamari. in august 1177 we know that he was abbot of the monastery of corazzo, near martirano. in 1183 he went to the court of pope lucius iii. at veroli, and in 1185 visited urban iii. at verona. there is extant a letter of pope clement iii., dated the 8th of june 1188, in which clement alludes to two of joachim's works, the _concordia_ and the _expositio in apocalypsin_, and urges him to continue them. joachim, however, was unable to continue his abbatial functions in the midst of his labours in prophetic exegesis, and, moreover, his asceticism accommodated itself but ill with the somewhat lax discipline of corazzo. he accordingly retired into the solitudes of pietralata, and subsequently founded with some companions under a rule of his own creation the abbey of san giovanni in fiore, on monte nero, in the _massif_ of la sila. the pope and the emperor befriended this foundation; frederick ii. and his wife constance made important donations to it, and promoted the spread of offshoots of the parent house; while innocent iii., on the 21st of january 1204, approved the \"ordo florensis\" and the \"institutio\" which its founder had bestowed upon it. joachim died in 1202, probably on the 20th of march. of the many prophetic and polemical works that were attributed to joachim in the 13th and following centuries, only those enumerated in his will can be regarded as absolutely authentic. these are the _concordia novi et veteris testamenti_ (first printed at venice in 1519), the _expositio in apocalypsin_ (venice, 1527), the _psalterium decem chordarum_ (venice, 1527), together with some \"libelli\" against the jews or the adversaries of the christian faith. it is very probable that these \"libelli\" are the writings entitled _concordia evangeliorum_, _contra judaeos_, _de articulis fidei_, _confessio fidei_ and _de unitate trinitatis_. the last is perhaps the work which was condemned by the lateran council in 1215 as containing an erroneous criticism of the trinitarian theory of peter lombard. this council, though condemning the book, refrained from condemning the author, and approved the order of floris. nevertheless, the monks continued to be subjected to insults as followers of a heretic, until they obtained from honorius iii. in 1220 a bull formally recognizing joachim as orthodox and forbidding anyone to injure his disciples. it is impossible to enumerate here all the works attributed to joachim. some served their avowed object with great success, being powerful instruments in the anti-papal polemic and sustaining the revolted franciscans in their hope of an approaching triumph. among the most widely circulated were the commentaries on jeremiah, isaiah and ezekiel, the _vaticinia pontificum_ and the _de oneribus ecclesiae_. of his authentic works the doctrinal essential is very simple. joachim divides the history of humanity, past, present and future, into three periods, which, in his _expositio in apocalypsin_ (bk. i. ch. 5), he defines as the age of the law, or of the father; the age of the gospel, or of the son; and the age of the spirit, which will bring the ages to an end. before each of these ages there is a period of incubation, or initiation: the first age begins with abraham, but the period of initiation with the first man adam. the initiation period of the third age begins with st benedict, while the actual age of the spirit is not to begin until 1260, the church--_mulier amicta sole_ (rev. xii. 1)--remaining hidden in the wilderness 1260 days. we cannot here enter into the infinite details of the other subdivisions imagined by joachim, or into his system of perpetual concordances between the new and the old testaments, which, according to him, furnish the prefiguration of the third age. far more interesting as explaining the diffusion and the religious and social importance of his doctrine is his conception of the second and third ages. the first age was the age of the letter, the second was intermediary between the letter and the spirit, and the third was to be the age of the spirit. the age of the son is the period of study and wisdom, the period of striving towards mystic knowledge. in the age of the father all that was necessary was obedience; in the age of the son reading is enjoined; but the age of the spirit was to be devoted to prayer and song. the third is the age of the _plena spiritus libertas_, the age of contemplation, the monastic age _par excellence_, the age of a monachism wholly directed towards ecstasy, more oriental than benedictine. joachim does not conceal his sympathies with the ideal of basilian monachism. in his opinion--which is, in form at least, perfectly orthodox--the church of peter will be, not abolished, but purified; actually, the hierarchy effaces itself in the third age before the order of the monks, the _viri spirituales_. the entire world will become a vast monastery in that day, which will be the resting-season, the sabbath of humanity. in various passages in joachim's writings the clerical hierarchy is represented by rachel and the contemplative order by her son joseph, and rachel is destined to efface herself before her son. similarly, the teaching of christ and the apostles on the sacraments is considered, implicitly and explicitly, as transitory, as representing that passage from the _significantia_ to the _significata_ which joachim signalizes at every stage of his demonstration. joachim was not disturbed during his lifetime. in 1200 he submitted all his writings to the judgment of the holy see, and unreservedly affirmed his orthodoxy; the lateran council, which condemned his criticism of peter lombard, made no allusion to his eschatological temerities; and the bull of 1220 was a formal certificate of his orthodoxy. the joachimite ideas soon spread into italy and france, and especially after a division had been produced in the franciscan order. the rigorists, who soon became known as \"spirituals,\" represented st francis as the initiator of joachim's third age. certain convents became centres of joachimism. around the hermit of hyeres, hugh of digne, was formed a group of franciscans who expected from the advent of the third age the triumph of their ascetic ideas. the joachimites even obtained a majority in the general chapter of 1247, and elected john of parma, one of their number, general of the order. pope alexander iv., however, compelled john of parma to renounce his dignity, and the joachimite opposition became more and more vehement. pseudo-joachimite treatises sprang up on every hand, and, finally, in 1254, there appeared in paris the _liber introductorius ad evangelium aeternum_, the work of a spiritual franciscan, gherardo da borgo san donnino. this book was published with, and as an introduction to, the three principal works of joachim, in which the spirituals had made some interpolations.[1] gherardo, however, did not say, as has been supposed, that joachim's books were the new gospel, but merely that the calabrian abbot had supplied the key to holy writ, and that with the help of that _intelligentia mystica_ it would be possible to extract from the old and new testaments the eternal meaning, the gospel according to the spirit, a gospel which would never be written; as for this eternal sense, it had been entrusted to an order set apart, to the franciscan order announced by joachim, and in this order the ideal of the third age was realized. these affirmations provoked very keen protests in the ecclesiastical world. the secular masters of the university of paris denounced the work to pope innocent iv., and the bishop of paris sent it to the pope. it was innocent's successor, alexander iv., who appointed a commission to examine it; and as a result of this commission, which sat at anagni, the destruction of the _liber introductorius_ was ordered by a papal breve dated the 23rd of october 1255. in 1260 a council held at arles condemned joachim's writings and his supporters, who were very numerous in that region. the joachimite ideas were equally persistent among the spirituals, and acquired new strength with the publication of the commentary on the apocalypse. this book, probably published after the death of its author and probably interpolated by his disciples, contains, besides joachimite principles, an affirmation even clearer than that of gherardo da borgo of the elect character of the franciscan order, as well as extremely violent attacks on the papacy. the joachimite literature is extremely vast. from the 14th century to the middle of the 16th, ubertin of casale (in his _arbor vitae crucifixae_), bartholomew of pisa (author of the _liber conformitatum_), the calabrian hermit telesphorus, john of la rochetaillade, seraphin of fermo, johannes annius of viterbo, coelius pannonius, and a host of other writers, repeated or complicated _ad infinitum_ the exegesis of abbot joachim. a treatise entitled _de ultima aetate ecclesiae_, which appeared in 1356, has been attributed to wycliffe, but is undoubtedly from the pen of an anonymous joachimite franciscan. the heterodox movements in italy in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as those of the segarellists, dolcinists, and fraticelli of every description, were penetrated with joachimism; while such independent spirits as roger bacon, arnaldus de villa nova and bernard delicieux often comforted themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace promised by joachim. dante held joachim in great reverence, and has placed him in paradise (_par._, xii. 140-141). see _acta sanctorum, boll._ (may), vii. 94-112; w. preger in _abhandl. der kgl. akad. der wissenschaften_, hist, sect., vol. xii., pt. 3 (munich, 1874); idem, _gesch. d. deutschen mystik im mittelalter_, vol. i. (leipzig, 1874); e. renan, \"joachim de flore et l'evangile eternel\" in _nouvelles etudes d'histoire religieuse_ (paris, 1884); f. tocco, _l'eresia nel medio evo_ (florence, 1884); h. denifle, \"das evangelium aeternum und die commission zu anagni\" in _archiv fur literatur- und kirchengesch. des mittelalters_, vol. i.; paul fournier, \"joachim de flore, ses doctrines, son influence\" in _revue des questions historiques_, t. i. (1900); h. c. lea, _history of the inquisition of the middle ages_, vol. iii. ch. i. (london, 1888); f. ehrle's article \"joachim\" in wetzer and welte's _kirchenlexikon_. on joachimism see e. gebhardt, \"recherches nouvelles sur l'histoire du joachimisme\" in _revue historique_, vol. xxxi. (1886); h. haupt, \"zur gesch. des joachimismus\" in _briegers zeitschrift fur kirchengesch._, vol. vii. (1885). (p. a.) footnote: [1] preger is the only writer who has maintained that the three books in their primitive form date from 1254. joachim i. (1484-1535), surnamed nestor, elector of brandenburg, elder son of john cicero, elector of brandenburg, was born on the 21st of february 1484. he received an excellent education, became elector of brandenburg on his father's death in january 1499, and soon afterwards married elizabeth, daughter of john, king of denmark. he took some part in the political complications of the scandinavian kingdoms, but the early years of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his electorate, where by stern and cruel measures he succeeded in restoring some degree of order (see brandenburg). he also improved the administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, and was a friend to the towns. on the approach of the imperial election of 1519, joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of francis i., king of france, and by those of charles, afterwards the emperor charles v. having treated with, and received lavish promises from, both parties, he appears to have hoped for the dignity for himself; but when the election came he turned to the winning side and voted for charles. in spite of this step, however, the relations between the emperor and the elector were not friendly, and during the next few years joachim was frequently in communication with the enemies of charles. joachim is best known as a pugnacious adherent of catholic orthodoxy. he was one of the princes who urged upon the emperor the necessity of enforcing the edict of worms, and at several diets was prominent among the enemies of the reformers. he was among those who met at dessau in july 1525, and was a member of the league established at halle in november 1533. but his wife adopted the reformed faith, and in 1528 fled for safety to saxony; and he had the mortification of seeing these doctrines also favoured by other members of his family. joachim, who was a patron of learning, established the university of frankfort-on-the-oder in 1506. he died at stendal on the 11th of july 1535. see t. von buttlar, _der kampf joachims i. von brandenburg gegen den adel_ (1889); j. g. droysen, _geschichte der preussischen politik (1855-1886)._ joachim ii. (1505-1571), surnamed hector, elector of brandenburg, the elder son of joachim i., elector of brandenburg, was born on the 13th of january 1505. having passed some time at the court of the emperor maximilian i., he married in 1524 a daughter of george, duke of saxony. in 1532 he led a contingent of the imperial army on a campaign against the turks; and soon afterwards, having lost his first wife, married hedwig, daughter of sigismund i., king of poland. he became elector of brandenburg on his father's death in july 1535, and undertook the government of the old and middle marks, while the new mark passed to his brother john. joachim took a prominent part in imperial politics as an advocate of peace, though with a due regard for the interests of the house of habsburg. he attempted to make peace between the protestants and the emperor charles v. at frankfort in 1539, and subsequently at other places; but in 1542 he led the german forces on an unsuccessful campaign against the turks. when the war broke out between charles and the league of schmalkalden in 1546 the elector at first remained neutral; but he afterwards sent some troops to serve under the emperor. with maurice, elector of saxony, he persuaded philip, landgrave of hesse, to surrender to charles after the imperial victory at muhlberg in april 1547, and pledged his word that the landgrave would be pardoned. but, although he felt aggrieved when the emperor declined to be bound by this promise, he refused to join maurice in his attack on charles. he supported the _interim_, which was issued from augsburg in may 1548, and took part in the negotiations that resulted in the treaty of passau (1552), and the religious peace of augsburg (1555). in domestic politics he sought to consolidate and strengthen the power of his house by treaties with neighbouring princes, and succeeded in secularizing the bishoprics of brandenburg, havelberg and lebus. although brought up as a strict adherent of the older religion, he showed signs of wavering soon after his accession, and in 1539 allowed free entrance to the reformed teaching in the electorate. he took the communion himself in both kinds, and established a new ecclesiastical organization in brandenburg, but retained much of the ceremonial of the church of rome. his position was not unlike that of henry viii. in england, and may be partly explained by a desire to replenish his impoverished exchequer with the wealth of the church (see brandenburg). after the peace of augsburg the elector mainly confined his attention to brandenburg, where he showed a keener desire to further the principles of the reformation. by his luxurious habits and his lavish expenditure on public buildings he piled up a great accumulation of debt, which was partly discharged by the estates of the land in return for important concessions. he cast covetous eyes upon the archbishopric of magdeburg and the bishopric of halberstadt, both of which he secured for his son frederick in 1551. when frederick died in the following year, the elector's son sigismund obtained the two sees; and on sigismund's death in 1566 magdeburg was secured by his nephew, joachim frederick, afterwards elector of brandenburg. joachim, who was a prince of generous and cultured tastes, died at kopenick on the 3rd of january 1571, and was succeeded by his son, john george. in 1880 a statue was erected to his memory at spandau. see steinmuller, _einfuhrung der reformation in die kurmark brandenburg durch joachim ii._ (1903); s. isaacsohn, \"die finanzen joachims ii.\" in the _zeitschrift fur preussische geschichte und landeskunde_ (1864-1883); j. g. droysen, _geschichte der preussischen politik_ (1855-1886).",
    "source_url": "https://archive.org/details/EB1911WMF",
    "observed_at": "2026-02-08 18:43:15",
    "integrity": {
        "hash_check": "match",
        "hash_scope": "full_normalized_text",
        "computed_sha256": "31552649c60fe428a85c608ed6de96bfeff415d23847aac2d764a42d95d0ae38"
    },
    "machine_use": {
        "read": true,
        "cite": true,
        "decision": "verified_public_domain_text"
    },
    "documentation": {
        "white_paper_url": "https://www.goguides.com/white-paper.php",
        "pdf_url": "https://www.goguides.com/whitepapers/goguides-ai-source-clearance-white-paper.pdf"
    }
}