HISTORY

the coast of colombia was one of the first parts of the american continent visited by the spanish navigators. alonso de ojeda touched at several points in 1499 and 1501; and columbus himself visited veragua, portobello, and other places in his last voyage in 1502. in 1508 ojeda obtained from the spanish crown a grant of the district from cape vela westward to the gulf of darien, while the rest of the country from the gulf of darien to cape gracias-a-dios was bestowed on his fellow-adventurer, nicuessa. the two territories designated respectively nueva andalucia and castella de oro were united in 1514 into the province of tierra-firma, and entrusted to pedro arias de avila. in 1536-1537 an expedition under gonzalo jimenez de quesada made their way from santa marta inland by the river magdalena, and penetrated to bogota, the capital of the muiscas or chibchas. quesada gave to the country the name of new granada. by the middle of the century the spanish power was fairly established, and flourishing communities arose along the coasts, and in the table-lands of cundinamarca formerly occupied by the muiscas. for the better government of the colony the spanish monarch erected a presidency of new granada in 1564, which continued till 1718, when it was raised to the rank of a viceroyalty. in the following year, however, the second viceroy, d. jorge villalonga, count de la cueva, expressing his opinion that the maintenance of this dignity was too great a burden on the settlers, the viceroyalty gave place to a simple presidency. in 1740 it was restored, and it continued as long as the spanish authority, including within its limits not only the present colombia, but also venezuela and ecuador. an insurrection against the home government was formally commenced in 1811, and an incessant war against the spanish forces was waged till 1824. in 1819 the great national hero, bolivar (q.v.), effected a union between the three divisions of the country, to which was given the title of the republic of colombia; but in 1829 venezuela withdrew, and in 1830, the year of bolivar's death, quito or ecuador followed her example. the republic of new granada was founded on the 21st of november 1831; and in 1832 a constitution was promulgated, and the territory divided into eighteen provinces, each of which was to have control of its local affairs. the president was to hold office for four years; and the first on whom the dignity was bestowed was general francisco de paula santander. his position, however, was far from enviable; for the country was full of all the elements of unrest and contention. one of his measures, by which new granada became responsible for the half of the debts of the defunct republic of colombia, gave serious offence to a large party, and he was consequently succeeded not, as he desired, by jose maria obando, but by a member of the opposition, jose ignacio de marquez. this gave rise to a civil war, which lasted till 1841, and not only left the country weak and miserable, but afforded an evil precedent which has since been too frequently followed. the contest terminated in favour of marquez, and he was succeeded in may 1841 by pedro alcantara herran, who had assisted to obtain the victory. in 1840 the province of cartagena had seceded, and the new president had hardly taken office before panama and veragua also declared themselves independent, under the title of the state of the isthmus of panama. their restoration was, however, soon effected; the constitution was reformed in 1843; education was fostered, and a treaty concluded with the english creditors of the republic. further progress was made under general tomas de mosquera from 1845 to 1848; a large part of the domestic debt was cleared off, immigration was encouraged, and free trade permitted in gold and tobacco. the petty war with ecuador, concluded by the peace of santa rosa de carchi, is hardly worthy of mention. from 1849 to 1852 the reins were in the hands of general jose hilario lopez, a member of the democratic party, and under him various changes were effected of a liberal tendency. in january 1852 slavery was entirely abolished. the next president was jose maria obando, but his term of office had to be completed by vice-presidents obaldia and mallarino. in 1853 an important alteration of the constitution took place, by which the right was granted to every province to declare itself independent, and to enter into merely federal connexion with the central republic, which was now known as the granadine confederation. in 1856 and 1857 antioquia and panama took advantage of the permission. the conservative party carried their candidate in 1857, mariano ospino, a lawyer by profession; but an insurrection broke out in 1859, which was fostered by the ex-president mosquera, and finally took the form of a regular civil war. bogota was captured by the democrats in july 1861, and mosquera assumed the chief power. a congress at bogota established a republic, with the name of the united states of colombia, adopted a new federal constitution, and made mosquera dictator. meanwhile the opposite party was victorious in the west; and their leader, julio arboleda, formed an alliance with don garcia moreno, the president of ecuador. he was assassinated, however, in 1862; and his successor, leonardo canal, came to terms with mosquera at cali. the dictatorship was resigned into the hands of a convention (february 1863) at rio negro, in antioquia; a provisional government was appointed, a constitution was drawn up, and mosquera elected president till 1864. an unsuccessful attempt was also made to restore the union between the three republics of the former federation. the presidency of manuel murillo toro (1864-1866) was disturbed by various rebellions, and even mosquera, who next came to the helm, found matters in such a disorganized condition that he offered to retire. on the refusal of his resignation, he entered into a struggle with the majority in the congress, and ultimately resorted to an adjournment and the unconstitutional arrest of 68 of the senators and representatives. to the decree of impeachment published by the congress he replied by a notice of dissolution and a declaration of war; but he soon found that the real power was with his opponents, who effected his arrest, and condemned him first to two years' imprisonment, but afterwards by commutation to two years' exile. the presidency of santos gutierrez (1868-1870) was disturbed by insurrections in different parts of the republic, the most important of which was that in panama, where the most absolute disorganization prevailed. under his successor, general e. salgar, a liberal candidate elected in opposition to general herran, a treaty was finally concluded with the united states in connexion with an interoceanic canal, a bank was established at bogota, and educational reforms instituted. manuel murillo toro (1872-1874) and santiago perez (1874-1876) saw the country apparently acquiring constitutional equilibrium, and turning its energies to the development of its matchless resources. the election for the presidential term 1876-1878 resulted in favour of aquiles parra, who was succeeded in april 1878 by general julian trujillo. his administration was marked by a strong effort to place the financial position of the government on a more satisfactory footing, and the internal indebtedness was substantially reduced during his rule. in april 1880 senor rafael nunez acceded to the presidency. during his term of office revolutionary disturbances occurred in the provinces of cauca and antioquia, but were suppressed with no great difficulty. provision was made in 1880 for a settlement of the boundary dispute with costa rica, and in july of that year the federal congress authorized the formation of a naval squadron. a movement was now set afoot in favour of a confederation of the three republics of colombia, ecuador and venezuela on the basis of the original conditions existing after the expulsion of spanish authority, and a resolution was passed by the chamber of deputies to that effect. the opposition shown by venezuela and ecuador to this project prevented any definite result from being achieved. in april 1882 senor francisco j. laldua became president, but his death occurring a year later, general jose eusebio otalora was nominated to exercise the executive power for the unexpired portion of the term. in 1883 the dispute in connexion with the boundary between colombia and venezuela was submitted by the two governments to the arbitration of alphonso xii., king of spain, and a commission of five members was appointed to investigate the merits of the respective claims. the decision in this dispute was finally given by the queen regent of spain on the 16th of march 1891. in april 1884 senor rafael nunez was again proclaimed president of the republic in his absence abroad. pending his return the administration was left in the hands of general campo serrano and general eliseo payan. the liberal party had been instrumental in the re-election of nunez, and looked for a policy in conformity with their views and political convictions. president nunez had no sooner returned to colombia than the liberals discovered that his political opinions had changed and had become strongly conservative. discontent at this condition of affairs soon spread. nunez from motives of ill-health did not openly assume the presidential office, but from his house near cartagena he practically directed the government of the republic. the liberals now began to foment a series of revolutionary movements, and these led in 1885 to a civil war extending over the departments of boyaca, cundinamarca, magdalena and panama. general reyes and general velez were the two principal leaders of the revolt. in order to protect the passage of the traffic across the isthmus of panama during these disturbed times detachments of united states marines were landed at panama and colon, in accordance with the terms of the concession under which the railway had been constructed. after a number of defeats the leaders of the revolt surrendered in august 1885, and on the 5th of september following peace was officially proclaimed. nunez, who had meanwhile assumed the presidential duties, now brought about a movement in favour of a fresh act of constitution for colombia, and a new law to that effect was finally approved and promulgated on 4th august 1886. under the terms of this act the federal system of government for colombia was abolished, the states becoming departments, the governors of these political divisions being appointed by the president of the republic. each department has a local legislative assembly elected by the people. the national congress is constituted of the senate and the house of representatives. the senate is composed of twenty-seven members elected for six years, one-third retiring every two years, three of whom are nominated by each of the nine departments. the house of representatives comprises members elected for four years by universal suffrage, each department forming a constituency and returning one member for every 50,000 inhabitants. congress convenes every two years. the presidential term of office under the new act was fixed at six years in place of the two years formerly prevailing. the judiciary was irremovable, and trial by jury was allowed for criminal offences. capital punishment was re-established, and the press was made responsible for matter published. the unlicensed trade in arms and ammunition thitherto existing was prohibited. previous to 1886 the crime of murder was only punishable by 10 years' imprisonment, a sentence which in practice was reduced to two-thirds of that term; slander and libel were formerly offences which the law had no power to restrain, and no responsibility attached to seditious publications. after the promulgation of this new act of constitution president nunez was proclaimed as president of the republic for the term ending in 1892. he was unable, however, in consequence of ill-health, to reside at bogota and discharge the presidential duties, and consequently in august 1888 senor carlos holguin was designated to act for him. in 1892 president nunez was again elected to the presidency for a term of six years, his continued ill-health, however, forcing him to place the active performance of his duties in the hands of the vice-president, senor miguel caro. in 1895 the liberals made another attempt to seize the government of the country, but the movement was suppressed without any very great difficulty. in this same year nunez died, and vice-president caro became the actual president, an office he had practically filled during the three previous years. in 1898 senor m. a. sanclemente, a strong conservative, and supported by the church party, was elected to the presidency for the period ending in 1904. in october 1899 the liberals organized another revolutionary outbreak for the purpose of trying to wrest the power from conservatives, but this attempt had no better success than the movements of 1885 and 1895. in january 1900, however, vice-president jose marroquin seized upon the government, imprisoned president sanclemente (who died in prison in march 1902), and another period of disturbance began. the rebels were defeated in may in a desperate battle at cartagena; and continuous fighting went on about panama, where british marines had to be landed to protect foreign interests. as the year 1900 advanced, the conflict went on with varying success, but the government troops were generally victorious, and in august vice-president marroquin was recognized as the acting head of the executive, with a cabinet under general calderon. in 1901 the rebellion continued, and severe fighting took place about colon. further complications arose in august, when trouble occurred between colombia and venezuela. on the one hand, there were grounds for believing that the clericals and conservatives in both countries were acting together; and, on the other, it was expected that president castro of venezuela would not be sorry to unite his own countrymen, and to divert their attention from internal affairs, by a war against colombia. the colombian revolutionary leaders had made use of the venezuelan frontier as a base of operations, and the result was an invasion of venezuelan territory by colombian government troops, an incident which at once caused a diplomatic quarrel. the united states government in september offered its good offices, but president castro refused them, and the state of affairs became gradually more menacing. meanwhile both panama and colon were seriously threatened by the rebel forces, who in november succeeded in capturing colon by surprise. the situation was complicated by the fact that the railway traffic on the isthmus was in danger of interruption, and on the capture of colon it became necessary for the american, british and french naval authorities to land men for the protection of the railway and of foreign interests. on the 18th of september the venezuelans, who had entered colombia, were totally routed near la hacha, and after fierce fighting the insurgents at colon were compelled to surrender on the 29th of november. but the civil war was not yet ended. for another eight months it was to continue, causing immense damage to property and trade, and the loss of tens of thousands of lives. in many towns and villages the male population was almost entirely destroyed. not till june 1903 was internal peace finally restored. in the autumn of that same year colombia, exhausted and half ruined, was to suffer a further severe loss in the secession of panama. the abrogation of the clayton-bulwer treaty in 1901, and the failure of the second french company to construct a canal between colon and panama (see panama canal) had, after many hesitations, induced the united states government to abandon the nicaragua route and decide on adopting that of panama. negotiations were set on foot with colombia, and an arrangement--under what was known as the hay-herran treaty--was made to the following effect. colombia agreed (1) to the transfer of the rights, under the concession, of the french company to the united states; (2) to cede, on a hundred years' lease, a right of way for the canal, and a strip of land 5m. broad on either side of the waterway, and the two ports of colon and panama. the united states agreed to pay colombia (1) £2,000,000 down in cash, and, ten years later, an annual rental of £50,000, and further a share of the price paid to the french company, _i.e._ £8,000,000, in which colombia held 50,000 shares. this treaty was signed by the plenipotentiaries and ratified by the united states senate. the colombian congress, however, refused to ratify the treaty on the ground that when the negotiations had taken place the country was in a state of siege, really in the hope of securing a larger money payment. the adjournment took place on the 31st of october. on the 3rd of november a revolution broke out at panama, and the state seceded from colombia and declared itself to be an independent republic. this opportune revolution was no doubt fomented by persons interested in the carrying through of the united states scheme for piercing the isthmus, but their task was one that presented no difficulties, for the isthmian population had been in a state of perennial insurrection against the central government for many years. whoever may have instigated the rising, this much is certain, that american warships prevented the colombian troops from landing to suppress the revolt. on the 7th of november the united states government formally recognized the independence of the republic of panama (q.v.). the other powers in succession likewise recognized the new state; the recognition of great britain was given on the 26th of december. colombia thus sacrificed a great opportunity of obtaining, by the ratification of the hay-herran treaty, such a pecuniary recompense for the interest in the territory through which the canal was to be constructed as would have gone far to re-establish her ruined financial credit. in 1904 the troubled term of president marroquin came to an end, and by the narrowest of majorities general rafael reyes was elected in his place. he had been sent as a special envoy to washington to protest against the recognition of panama, and to attempt to revive the hay-herran treaty, and to secure favourable terms for colombia in the matter of the canal. he failed to do so, but it was recognized that he had discharged his difficult task with great skill and ability. on his accession to office as president he found the country exhausted and disorganized, more especially in the department of finance, and the congress was on the whole hostile to him. finding himself hampered in his efforts to reform abuses, the president dissolved the congress, and summoned a national constituent and legislative assembly to meet on the 15th of march 1905, and with its aid proceeded to modify the constitution. having personal acquaintance with the success of the rule of president porfirio diaz in mexico, general reyes determined to set about the regeneration of colombia by similar methods. his tenure of the presidency was extended to a term of ten years from the 1st of january 1905, and the restriction as to re-election at the end of that term was withdrawn, other alterations being made in the constitution with the effect of placing general reyes really in the position of a dictator. he soon proved that he had the ability and the integrity of purpose to use his great opportunity for the benefit of his country. his firm and masterful government and wise measures did much to allay the spirit of unrest which had so long been the bane of colombia, and though an attempt at assassination was made in the spring of 1906, the era of revolution appeared to be over. the chief foreign treaties entered into by colombia in the last quarter of the 19th century were:--(1) a treaty with great britain, signed on the 27th of october 1888, for the extradition of criminals; (2) a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation with italy, signed on the 27th of october 1892; (3) two protocols with italy, signed respectively on the 24th of may and on the 25th of august 1886, in connexion with the affair of the italian subject cerruti; (4) a consular convention with holland, signed on the 20th of july 1881; (5) a treaty of peace and friendship with spain, signed on the 30th of january 1881; (6) a convention with spain for the reciprocal protection of intellectual property; (7) a concordat with the vatican, signed on the 31st of december 1887; (8) an agreement with the vatican, signed on the 20th of august 1892, in connexion with ecclesiastical jurisdiction; (9) an agreement with the republic of san salvador, signed on the 24th of december 1880, in regard to the despatch of a delegate to an international congress; (10) a treaty of peace, friendship and commerce with germany, signed on the 23rd of july 1892; (11) a treaty with the republic of costa rica, signed in 1880, for the delimitation of the boundary; (12) the postal convention, signed at washington, on the 4th of july 1891; (13) a convention with great britain, signed on the 31st of july 1896, in connexion with the claim of messrs punchard, m'taggart, lowther & co.; (14) a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation with peru, signed on the 6th of august 1898; (15) an extradition treaty with peru, signed on the 6th of august 1898; (16) a treaty of peace, friendship and defensive alliance with venezuela, signed on the 21st of november 1896, and on the same date a treaty regulating the frontier commerce. (g. e.) authorities.--c. e. akers, _a history of south america, 1854-1904_ (new york, 1905); j. j. borda, _compendio de historia de colombia_ (bogota, 1890); salvador roldan camacho, _notas de viaje_ (bogota, 1890), and _escritos varios_ (bogota, 1892); dr alfred hettner, _reisen in den colombianischen anden_ (leipzig, 1888); angel lemos, _compendio de geografia de la republica de colombia_ (medellin, 1894); albert millican, _travels and adventures of an orchid hunter_ (london, 1891); j. m. cordovez mauro, _reminiscencias santafe y bogota_ (bogota, 1899); norris and laird (bureau of navigation), _telegraphic determination of longitudes in mexico, central america, the west indies, and on the north coast of south america_ (washington, 1891); r. nunez and h. jalhay, _la republique de colombia, geographie, histoire, &c._ (bruxelles, 1893); j. m. q. otero, _historia patria_ (bogota, 1891); lisimaco palau, _la republica de colombia_ (1893); m. paz and f. perez, _atlas geografico e historico de la republica de colombia_ (1893); r. s. pereira, _les etats unis de colombia_ (paris, 1883); felipe perez, _geografia general, fisica y politica de los estados unidos de colombia_ (bogota, 1883); f. loraine petrie, _the republic of colombia_ (london, 1906); elisee reclus, _geografia de colombia_ (bogota, 1893); w. reiss and a. stubel, _reisen in sudamerika. geologische studien in der republik colombia_ (berlin, 1893); ernesto restrepo, _ensayo etnografico y arqueologico de la provincia de los quimbayas_ (bogota, 1892), and _estudios sobre los aborigines de colombia_ (bogota, 1892); vicente restrepo, _estudio sobre las minas de oro y plata de colombia_ (bogota, 1888, translated by c. w. fisher, new york, 1886); w. l. scruggs, _the colombian and venezuelan republics_ (london, 1899; boston, 1900); w. sievers, _reisen in der sierra nevada de santa marta_ (leipzig, 1887); f. j. vergara y velasco, _nueva geografia de colombia_ (bogota, 1892); frank vincent, _around and about south america_ (new york, 1890); r. g. watson, _spanish and portuguese south america during the colonial period_ (2 vols., london, 1884). see also the diplomatic and consular reports of great britain and the united states; publications of the international bureau of american republics (washington, d.c.); bureau of statistics, _commercial america in 1905_ (washington, 1906). footnote: [1] see a. hettner and g. linck, "beitrage zur geologie und petrographie der columbianischen anden," _zeits. deutsch. geol. ges._ vol. xl. (1888), pp. 204-230; w. sievers, "die sierra nevada de santa marta und die sierra de perija," _zeits. ges. erdk. berlin_, vol. xxiii. (1888), pp. 1-158 and p. 442, pls. i. and iii.; a. hettner, "die kordillere von bogota," _peterm. mitt._, erganzungsheft 104 (1892), and "die anden des westlichen columbiens," _peterm. mitt._ (1893), pp. 129-136; w. reiss and a. stubel, _reisen in sud america. geologische studien in der republik colombia_ (berlin, 1892-1899),--a good geological bibliography will be found in part ii. of this work.