HESIOD

hesiod, the father of greek didactic poetry, probably flourished during the 8th century b.c. his father had migrated from the aeolic cyme in asia minor to boeotia; and hesiod and his brother perses were born at ascra, near mount helicon (_works and days_, 635). here, as he fed his father's flocks, he received his commission from the muses to be their prophet and poet--a commission which he recognized by dedicating to them a tripod won by him in a contest of song (see below) at some funeral games at chalcis in euboea, still in existence at helicon in the age of pausanias (_theogony_, 20-34, _w. and d._, 656; pausanias ix. 38. 3). after the death of his father hesiod is said to have left his native land in disgust at the result of a law-suit with his brother and to have migrated to naupactus. there was a tradition that he was murdered by the sons of his host in the sacred enclosure of the nemean zeus at oeneon in locris (thucydides iii. 96; pausanias ix. 31); his remains were removed for burial by command of the delphic oracle to orchomenus in boeotia, where the ascraeans settled after the destruction of their town by the thespians, and where, according to pausanias, his grave was to be seen. hesiod's earliest poem, the famous _works and days_, and according to boeotian testimony the only genuine one, embodies the experiences of his daily life and work, and, interwoven with episodes of fable, allegory, and personal history, forms a sort of boeotian shepherd's calendar. the first portion is an ethical enforcement of honest labour and dissuasive of strife and idleness (1-383); the second consists of hints and rules as to husbandry (384-764); and the third is a religious calendar of the months, with remarks on the days most lucky or the contrary for rural or nautical employments. the connecting link of the whole poem is the author's advice to his brother, who appears to have bribed the corrupt judges to deprive hesiod of his already scantier inheritance, and to whom, as he wasted his substance lounging in the agora, the poet more than once returned good for evil, though he tells him there will be a limit to this unmerited kindness. in the _works and days_ the episodes which rise above an even didactic level are the "creation and equipment of pandora," the "five ages of the world" and the much-admired "description of winter" (by some critics judged post-hesiodic). the poem also contains the earliest known fable in greek literature, that of "the hawk and the nightingale." it is in the _works and days_ especially that we glean indications of hesiod's rank and condition in life, that of a stay-at-home farmer of the lower class, whose sole experience of the sea was a single voyage of 40 yds. across the euripus, and an old-fashioned bachelor whose misogynic views and prejudice against matrimony have been conjecturally traced to his brother perses having a wife as extravagant as himself. the other poem attributed to hesiod or his school which has come down in great part to modern times is _the theogony_, a work of grander scope, inspired alike by older traditions and abundant local associations. it is an attempt to work into system, as none had essayed to do before, the floating legends of the gods and goddesses and their offspring. this task herodotus (ii. 53) attributes to hesiod, and he is quoted by plato in the _symposium_ (178 b) as the author of the _theogony_. the first to question his claim to this distinction was pausanias, the geographer (a.d. 200). the alexandrian grammarians had no doubt on the subject; and indications of the hand that wrote the _works and days_ may be found in the severe strictures on women, in the high esteem for the wealth-giver plutus and in coincidences of verbal expression. although, no doubt, of hesiodic origin, in its present form it is composed of different recensions and numerous later additions and interpolations. the _theogony_ consists of three divisions--(1) a cosmogony, or creation; (2) a theogony proper, recounting the history of the dynasties of zeus and cronus; and (3) a brief and abruptly terminated heroogony, the starting-point not improbably of the supplementary poem, the [greek: katalogos], or "lists of women" who wedded immortals, of which all but a few fragments are lost.[1] the proem (1-116) addressed to the heliconian and pierian muses, is considered to have been variously enlarged, altered and arranged by successive rhapsodists. the poet has interwoven several episodes of rare merit, such as the contest of zeus and the olympian gods with the titans, and the description of the prison-house in which the vanquished titans are confined, with the giants for keepers and day and night for janitors (735 seq.). the only other poem which has come down to us under hesiod's name is the _shield of heracles_, the opening verses of which are attributed by a nameless grammarian to the fourth book of _eoiai_. the theme of the piece is the expedition of heracles and iolaus against the robber cycnus; but its main object apparently is to describe the shield of heracles (141-317). it is clearly an imitation of the homeric account of the shield of achilles (_iliad_, xviii. 479) and is now generally considered spurious. titles and fragments of other lost poems of hesiod have come down to us: didactic, as the _maxims of cheiron_; genealogical, as the _aegimius_, describing the contest of that mythical ancestor of the dorians with the lapithae; and mythical, as the _marriage of ceyx_ and the _descent of theseus to hades_. recent editions of hesiod include the [greek: agon homerou kai hesiodou], the contest of song between homer and hesiod at the funeral games held in honour of king amphidamas at chalcis. this little tract belongs to the time of hadrian, who is actually mentioned as having been present during its recitation, but is founded on an earlier account by the sophist alcidamas (q.v.). quotations (old and new) are made from the works of both poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience, the judge decides in favour of hesiod. certain biographical details of homer and hesiod are also given. a strong characteristic of hesiod's style is his sententious and proverbial philosophy (as in _works and days_, 24-25, 40, 218, 345, 371). there is naturally less of this in the _theogony_, yet there too not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or adage. he has undying fame as the first of didactic poets (see didactic poetry), the accredited systematizer of greek mythology and the rough but not unpoetical sketcher of the lines on which virgil wrought out his exquisitely finished georgics. bibliography.--complete works: _editio princeps_ (milan, 1493); gottling-flach (1878), with full bibliography up to date of publication; c. sittl (1889), with introduction and critical and explanatory notes in greek; f. a. paley (1883); a. rzach (1902), including the fragments. separate works: _works and days_: van lennep (1847); a. kirchhoff (1889); a. steitz, _die werke und tage des hesiodos_ (1869), dealing chiefly with the composition and arrangement of the poem; g. wlastoff, _promethee, pandore, et la legende des siecles_ (1883). _theogony_: van lennep (1843); f. g. welcker (1865), valuable edition; g. f. schomann (1868), with text, critical notes and exhaustive commentary; h. flach, _die hesiodische theogonie_ (1873), with prolegomena dealing chiefly with the digamma in hesiod, _system der hesiodischen kosmogonie_ (1874), and _glossen und scholien zur theogonie_ (1876); meyer, _de compositione theogoniae_ (1887). _shield of heracles_: wolf-ranke (1840); van lennep-hullemann (1854); f. stegemann, _de scuti herculis hesiodei poeta homeri carminum imitatore_ (1904); the fragments were published by w. marckscheffel in 1840; for the [greek: agon homerou] (ed. a. rzach, 1908) see f. nietzsche in _rheinisches museum_ (new series), xxv. p. 528. for papyrus fragments of the "catalogue," some 50 lines on the wooing of helen, and a shorter fragment in praise of peleus, see wilamowitz-mollendorff in _sitzungsber. der konigl. preuss. akad. der wissenschaften_, for 26th of july 1900; for fragments relating to meleager and the suitors of helen, _berliner klassikertexte_, v. (1907); of the _theogony, oxyrh. pap._ vi. (1908). on the subject generally, consult g. f. schomann, _opuscula_, ii. (1857); h. flach, _die hesiodischen gedichte_ (1874); a. rzach, _der dialekt des hesiodos_ (1876); p. o. gruppe, _die griechischen kulte und mythen_, i. (1887); o. friedel, _die sage vom tode hesiods_ (1879), from _jahrbucher fur classische philologie_ (10th suppl. band, 1879); j. adam, _religious teachers of greece_ (1908). there is a full bibliography of the publications relating to hesiod (1884-1898) by a. rzach in bursian's _jahresbericht uber die fortschritte der klassischen altertumswissenschaft_, xxvii. (1900). there are translations of the hesiodic poems in english by cooke (1728), c. a. elton (1815), j. banks (1856), and specially by a. w. mair, with introduction and appendices (oxford library of translations, 1908); in german (metrical version) with valuable introductions and notes by r. peppmuller (1896) and in other modern languages. (j. da.; j. h. f.) footnote: [1] part of the poem was called eoiai, because the description of each heroine began with [greek: e oie], "or like as." (see bibliography.)