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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "chunk_id": "1911:hemingford:69ae17407bb7",
    "title": "HEMINGFORD",
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    "verified_text": "hemingford, a latin chronicler of the 14th century, was a canon regular of the austin priory of gisburn in yorkshire. hence he is sometimes known as walter of gisburn (walterus gisburnensis). bale seems to have been the first to give him the name by which he became more commonly known. his chronicle embraces the period of english history from the conquest (1066) to the nineteenth year of edward iii., with the exception of the years 1316-1326. it ends with the title of a chapter in which it was proposed to describe the battle of crecy (1346); but the chronicler seems to have died before the required information reached him. there is, however, some controversy as to whether the later portions which are lacking in some of the mss. are by him. in compiling the first part, hemingburgh apparently used the histories of eadmer, hoveden, henry of huntingdon, and william of newburgh; but the reigns of the three edwards are original, composed from personal observation and information. there are several manuscripts of the history extant--the best perhaps being that presented to the college of arms by the earl of arundel. the work is correct and judicious, and written in a pleasing style. one of its special features is the preservation in its pages of copies of the great charters, and hemingburgh's versions have more than once supplied deficiencies and cleared up obscurities in copies from other sources. the first three books were published by thomas gale in 1687, in his _historiae anglicanae scriptores quinque_, and the remainder by thomas hearne in 1731. the first portion was again published in 1848 by the english historical society, under the title _chronicon walteri de hemingburgh, vulgo hemingford nuncupati, de gestis regum angliae_, edited by h. c. hamilton. hemiptera (gr. [greek: hemi-], half and [greek: pteron], a wing), the name applied in zoological classification to that order of the class hexapoda (q.v.) which includes bugs, cicads, aphids and scale-insects. the name was first used by linnaeus (1735), who derived it from the half-coriaceous and half-membranous condition of the forewing in many members of the order. but the wings vary considerably in different families, and the most distinctive feature is the structure of the jaws, which form a beak-like organ with stylets adapted for piercing and sucking. hence the name _rhyngota_ (or _rhynchota_), proposed by j. c. fabricius (1775), is used by many writers in preference to hemiptera. [illustration: after marlatt, _bull._ 14 (n.s.) _div. ent. u.s. dept. agr._ fig. 1.--head and prothorax of cicad from side. i., frons. ii., base of mandible. iii., base of first maxillae. iv., second maxillae forming rostrum. v., pronotum.] _structure._--the head varies greatly in shape, and the feelers have usually but few segments--often only four or five. the arrangement of the jaws is remarkably constant throughout the order, if we exclude from it the lice (_anoplura_). taking as our type the head of a cicad, we find a jointed rostrum or beak (figs. 1 and 2, iv. b, c) with a deep groove on its anterior face; this organ is formed by the second pair of maxillae and corresponds therefore to the labium or \"lower lip\" of biting insects. within the groove of the rostrum two pairs of slender piercers--often barbed at the tip--work to and fro. one of these pairs (fig. 2, ii. a, b, c) represents the mandibles, the other (fig. 2, iii. a, b, c) the first maxillae. the piercing portions of the latter--representing their inner lobes or laciniae--lie median to the mandibular piercers in the natural position of the organs. these homologies of the hemipterous jaws were determined by j. c. savigny in 1816, and though disputed by various subsequent writers, they have been lately confirmed by the embryological researches of r. heymons (1899). vestigial palps have been described in various species of hemiptera, but the true nature of these structures is doubtful. in front of the rostrum and the piercers lies the pointed flexible labrum and within its base a small hypopharynx (fig. 2, iv. d) consisting of paired conical processes which lie dorsal to the \"syringe\" of the salivary glands. this latter organ injects a secretion into the plant or animal tissue from which the insect is sucking. the point of the rostrum is pressed against the surface to be pierced; then the stylets come into play and the fluid food is believed to pass into the mouth by capillary attraction. [illustration: after marlatt, _bull. 14_ (n.s.) _div. ent. u.s. dept. agr._ fig. 2.--head and prothorax of cicad, parts separated. i., a, frons; b, clypeus; c, labrum; d, epipharynx. i'., same from behind. ii., mandible. iii., 1st maxillae, a, base; b, sheath; c, stylet; c', muscle. iv., 2nd maxillae, a, sub-mentum; b, mentum; c, ligula, forming beak; d, hypopharynx (shown also from front d', and behind d\"). v., prothorax, b, haunch; a, trochanter.] the prothorax (figs. 1 and 2, v.) in hemiptera is large and free, and the mesothoracic scutellum is usually extensive. the number of tarsal segments is reduced; often three, two or only one may be present instead of the typical insectan number five. the wings will be described in connexion with the various sub-orders, but an interesting peculiarity of the hemiptera is the occasional presence of winged and wingless races of the same species. eleven abdominal segments can be recognized, at least in the early stages; as the adult condition is reached, the hinder segments become reduced or modified in connexion with the external reproductive organs, and show, in some male hemiptera, a marked asymmetry. the typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of processes, one pair belonging to the eighth and two pairs to the ninth abdominal segment, can be distinguished in the female. [illustration: after marlatt, _bull. 4_ (n.s.) _div. ent. u.s. dept. agr._ fig. 3.--a, cast-off nymphal skin of bed-bug (_cimex lectularius_); b, second instar after emergence from a; c, the same after a meal.] in the nervous system the concentration of the trunk ganglia into a single nerve-centre situated in the thorax is remarkable. the digestive system has a slender gullet, a large crop and no gizzard; in some hemiptera the hinder region of the mid-gut forms a twisted loop with the gullet. usually there are four excretory (malpighian) tubes; but there are only two in the _coccidae_ and none in the _aphidae_. \"stink glands,\" which secrete a nauseous fluid with a defensive function, are present in many hemiptera. in the adult there is a pair of such glands opening ventrally on the hindmost thoracic segment, or at the base of the abdomen; but in the young insect the glands are situated dorsally and open to the exterior on a variable number of the abdominal terga. _development._--in most hemiptera the young insect (fig. 3) resembles its parents except for the absence of wings, and is active through all stages of its growth. in all hemiptera the wing-rudiments develop externally on the nymphal cuticle, but in some families--the cicads for example--the young insect (fig. 10) is a larva differing markedly in form from its parent, and adapted for a different mode of life, while the nymph before the final moult is sluggish and inactive. in the male _coccidae_ (scale-insects) the nymph (fig. 4) remains passive and takes no food. the order of the hemiptera affords, therefore, some interesting transition stages towards the complete metamorphosis of the higher insects. [illustration: after riley and howard, _insect life_, vol. i. (u.s. dept. agr.). fig. 4.--passive nymph or \"pupa\" of male scale-insect (_icerya_).] _distribution and habits._--hemiptera are widely distributed, and are plentiful in most quarters of the globe, though they probably have not penetrated as far into remote and inhospitable regions as have the coleoptera, diptera and aptera. they feed entirely by suction, and the majority of the species pierce plant tissues and suck sap. the leaves of plants are for the most part the objects of attack, but many aphids and scale-insects pierce stems, and some go underground and feed on roots. the enormous rate at which aphids multiply under favourable conditions makes them of the greatest economic importance, since the growth of immense numbers of the same kind of plant in close proximity--as in ordinary farm-crops--is especially advantageous to the insects that feed on them. several families of bugs are predaceous in habit, attacking other insects--often members of their own order--and sucking their juices. others are scavengers feeding on decaying organic matter; the pond skaters, for example, live mostly on the juices of dead floating insects. and some, like the bed-bugs, are parasites of vertebrate animals, on whose bodies they live temporarily or permanently, and whose blood they suck. the hemiptera are especially interesting as an order from the variety of aquatic insects included therein. some of these--the _hydrometridae_ or pond-skaters, for example--move over the surface-film, on which they are supported by their elongated, slender legs, the body of the insect being raised clear of the water. they are covered with short hairs which form a velvet-like pile, so dense that water cannot penetrate. consequently when the insect dives, an air-bubble forms around it, a supply of oxygen is thus secured for breathing and the water is kept away from the spiracles. in many of these insects, while most individuals of the species are wingless, winged specimens are now and then met with. the occasional development of wings is probably of service to the species in enabling the insects to reach new fresh-water breeding-grounds. this family of hemiptera (the _hydrometridae_) and the _saldidae_ contain several insects that are marine, haunting the tidal margin. one genus of _hydrometridae_ (_halobates_) is even oceanic in its habit, the species being met with skimming over the surface of the sea hundreds of miles from land. probably they dive when the surface becomes ruffled. in these marine genera the abdomen often undergoes excessive reduction (fig. 5). other families of hemiptera--such as the \"boatmen\" (_notonectidae_) and the \"water-scorpions\" (fig. 6) and their allies (_nepidae_) dive and swim through the water. they obtain their supply of air from the surface. the _nepidae_ breathe by means of a pair of long, grooved tail processes (really outgrowths of the abdominal pleura) which when pressed together form a tube whose point can pierce the surface film and convey air to the hindmost spiracles which are alone functional in the adult. the _notonectidae_ breathe mostly through the thoracic spiracles; the air is conveyed to these from the tail-end, which is brought to the surface, along a kind of tunnel formed by overlapping hairs. [illustration: after carpenter, _proc. r. dublin soc._, vol. viii. fig. 5.--a reef-haunting hemipteron (_hermatobates haddonii_) with excessively reduced abdomen. magnified.] [illustration: fig. 6.--water-scorpion (_nepa cinerea_) with raptorial fore-legs, heteropterous wings, and long siphon for conveying air to spiracles. somewhat magnified. sc, scutellum; co, cl, m, corium, clavus and membrane of forewing.] [illustration: from marlatt, _bull._ 14 (n.s.) _div. ent. u.s. dept. agr._ fig. 7. a, body of male cicad from below, showing cover-plates of musical organs; b, from above showing drums, natural size; c, section showing muscles which vibrate drum (magnified); d, a drum at rest; e, thrown into vibration, more highly magnified.] _sound-producing organs._--the hemiptera are remarkable for the variety of their stridulating organs. in many genera of the _pentatomidae_, bristle-bearing tubercles on the legs are scraped across a set of fine striations on the abdominal sterna. in _halobates_ a comb-like series of sharp spines on the fore-shin can be drawn across a set of blunt processes on the shin of the opposite leg. males of the little water-bugs of the genus _corixa_ make a shrill chirping note by drawing a row of teeth on the flattened fore-foot across a group of spines on the haunch of the opposite leg. but the loudest and most remarkable vocal organs of all insects are those of the male cicads, which \"sing\" by the rapid vibration of a pair of \"drums\" or membranes within the metathorax. these drums are worked by special muscles, and the cavities in which they lie are protected by conspicuous plates visible beneath the base of the abdomen (see fig. 7). _fossil history._--the heteroptera can be traced back farther than any other winged insects if the fossil _protocimex silurica_ moberg, from the ordovician slates of sweden is rightly regarded as the wing of a bug. but according to the recent researches of a. handlirsch it is not insectan at all. both heteropterous and homopterous genera have been described from the carboniferous, but the true nature of some of these is doubtful. _eugereon_ is a remarkable permian fossil, with jaws that are typically hemipterous except that the second maxillae are not fused and with cockroach-like wings. in the jurassic period many of the existing families, such as the _cicadidae_, _fulgoridae_, _aphidae_, _nepidae_, _reduviidae_, _hydrometridae_, _lygaeidae_ and _coreidae_, had already become differentiated. _classification._--the number of described species of hemiptera must now be nearly 20,000. the order is divided into two sub-orders, the heteroptera and the homoptera. the anoplura or lice should not be included among the hemiptera, but it has been thought convenient to refer briefly to them at the close of this article.",
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