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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "title": "GUGLIELMI",
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    "verified_text": "guglielmi, pietro (1727-1804), italian composer, was born at massa carrara in may 1727, and died in rome on the 19th of november 1804. he received his first musical education from his father, and afterwards studied under durante at the conservatorio di santa maria di loreto at naples. his first operatic work, produced at turin in 1755, established his reputation, and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his own country, so that in 1762 he was called to dresden to conduct the opera there. he remained for some years in germany, where his works met with much success, but the greatest triumphs were reserved for him in england. he went to london, according to burney, in 1768, but according to florimo in 1772, returning to naples in 1777. he still continued to produce operas at an astounding rate, but was unable to compete successfully with the younger masters of the day. in 1793 he became _maestro di cappella_ at st peter's, rome. he was a very prolific composer of italian comic opera, and there is in most of his scores a vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed by cimarosa himself. in serious opera he was less successful. but here also he shows at least the qualities of a competent musician. considering the enormous number of his works, his unequal workmanship and the frequent instances of mechanical and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise us. the following are among the most celebrated of his operas: _i due gemelli_, _la serva inamorata_, _la pastorella nobile_, _la bella peccatrice_, _rinaldo_, _artaserse_, _didone_ and _enea e lavinia_. he also wrote oratorios and miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and chamber music. of his eight sons two at least acquired fame as musicians--pietro carlo (1763-1827), a successful imitator of his father's operatic style, and giacomo, an excellent singer. guiana (_guyana_, _guayana_[1]), the general name given in its widest acceptation to the part of south america lying to the north-east from 8 deg. 40' n. to 3 deg. 30' s. and from 50 deg. w. to 68 deg. 30' w. its greatest length, from cabo do norte to the confluence of the rio xie and rio negro, is about 1250 m., its greatest breadth, from barima point in the mouth of the orinoco to the confluence of the rio negro and amazon, 800 m. its area is roughly 690,000 sq. m. comprised in this vast territory are venezuelan (formerly spanish) guiana, lying on both sides of the orinoco and extending s. and s.w. to the rio negro and brazilian settlements; british guiana, extending from venezuela to the left bank of the corentyn river; dutch guiana (or surinam), from the corentyn to the maroni river; french guiana (or cayenne), from the maroni to the oyapock river;[2] brazilian (formerly portuguese) guiana, extending from the southern boundaries of french, dutch, british and part of venezuelan guiana, to the amazon and the negro. of these divisions the first and last are now included in venezuela and brazil respectively; british, dutch and french guiana are described in order below, and are alone considered here. [illiustration: map of guiana.] in their physical geography the three guianas present certain common characteristics. in each the principal features are the rivers and their branch streams. in each colony the northern portion consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland and gradually rising to a height of 10 to 15 ft. above the sea. this alluvial plain varies in width from 50 m. to 18 m. and is traversed by ridges of sand and shells, roughly parallel to what is now the coast, indicating the trend of former shore lines. by the draining and diking of these lands the plantations have been formed along the coast and up the rivers. these low lands are attached to a somewhat higher plateau, which towards the coast is traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by ranges of hills rising in places to as much as 2000 ft. the greater part of this belt of country, in which the auriferous districts principally occur, is covered with a dense growth of jungle and high forest, but savannahs, growing only a long wiry grass and poor shrubs, intrude here and there, being in the s.e. much nearer to the coast than in the n.w. the hinterlands consist of undulating open savannahs rising into hills and mountains, some grass-covered, some in dense forest. _geology_[3].--guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and crystalline schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite, diabase, &c. the gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived, not from quartz reefs, but from the schists and intrusive rocks, the selvages of the diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as 5 oz. of gold to the ton. in british guiana a series of conglomerates, red and white sandstone and red shale, rests upon the gneiss and forms the remarkable table-topped mountains roraima, kukenaam, &c. the beds are horizontal, and according to brown and sawkins, three layers of greenstone, partly intrusive and partly contemporaneous, are interstratified with the sedimentary deposits. the age of these beds is uncertain, but they evidently correspond with the similar series which occurs in brazil, partly palaeozoic and partly cretaceous. in dutch guiana there are a few small patches supposed to belong to the cretaceous period. along the coast, and in the lower parts of the river valleys, are deposits which are mainly quaternary but may also include beds of tertiary age. _history._--the coast of guiana was sighted by columbus in 1498 when he discovered the island of trinidad and the peninsula of paria, and in the following year by alonzo de ojeda and amerigo vespucci; and in 1500 vincente yanez pinzon ventured south of the equator, and sailing north-west along the coast discovered the amazon; he is believed to have also entered some of the other rivers of guiana, one of which, now called oyapock, is marked on early maps as rio pinzon. little, however, was known of guiana until the fame of the fabled golden city manoa or el dorado tempted adventurers to explore its rivers and forests. from letters of these explorers found in captured ships, sir walter raleigh was induced to ascend the orinoco in search of el dorado in 1595, to send lawrence keymis on the same quest in the following year, and in 1617 to try once again, with the same intrepid lieutenant, an expedition fraught with disaster for both of them. as early as 1580 the dutch had established a systematic trade with the spanish main, but so far as is known their first voyage to guiana was in 1598. by 1613 they had three or four settlements on the coast of demerara and essequibo, and in about 1616 some zeelanders settled on a small island, called by them _kyk ober al_ (\"see over all\"), in the confluence of the cuyuni and mazaruni rivers. while the dutch traders were struggling for a footing in essequibo and demerara, english and french traders were endeavouring to form settlements on the oyapock river, in cayenne and in surinam, and by 1652 the english had large interests in the latter and the french in cayenne. in 1663 charles ii. issued letters patent to lord willoughby of parham and lawrence hyde, second son of the earl of clarendon, granting them the district between the copenam and maroni rivers, a province described as extending from e. to w. some 120 m. this colony was, however, formally ceded to the netherlands in 1667 by the peace of breda, great britain taking possession of new york. meanwhile the dutch west india company, formed in 1621, had taken possession of essequibo, over which colony it exercised sovereign rights until 1791. in 1624 a dutch settlement was effected in the berbice river, and from this grew berbice, for a long time a separate and independent colony. in 1657 the zeelanders firmly established themselves in the pomeroon, moruca and demerara rivers, and by 1674 the dutch were colonizing all the territory now known as british and dutch guiana. the new dutch west indian company, founded in that year to replace the older company which had failed, received guiana by charter from the states-general in 1682. in the following year the company sold one-third of their territory to the city of amsterdam, and another third to cornelis van aerssens, lord of sommelsdijk. the new owners and the company incorporated themselves as the chartered society of surinam, and sommelsdijk agreed to fill the post of governor of the colony at his own expense. the lucrative trade in slaves was retained by the west indian company, but the society could import them on its own account by paying a fine to the company. sommelsdijk's rule was wise and energetic. he repressed and pacified the indian tribes, erected forts and disciplined the soldiery, constructed the canal which bears his name, established a high court of justice and introduced the valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut. but on the 17th of june 1688 he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers. the \"third\" which sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to william iii. of england, but it was ultimately purchased by the city of amsterdam for 700,000 fl. the settlements in essequibo progressed somewhat slowly, and it was not until immigration was attracted in 1740 by offers to newcomers of free land and immunity for a decade from taxation that anything like a colony could be said to exist there. in 1732 berbice placed itself under the protection of the states-general of holland and was granted a constitution, and in 1773 demerara, till then a dependency of essequibo, was constituted as a separate colony. in 1781 the three colonies, demerara, essequibo and berbice, were captured by british privateers, and were placed by rodney under the governor of barbados, but in 1782 they were taken by france, then an ally of the netherlands, and retained until the peace of 1783, when they were restored to holland. in 1784 essequibo and demerara were placed under one governor, and georgetown--then called stabroek--was fixed on as the seat of government. the next decade saw a series of struggles between the colonies and the dutch west india company, which ended in the company being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly by the states-general. in 1796 the british again took possession, and retained the three colonies until the peace of amiens in 1802, when they were once again restored to holland, only to be recaptured by great britain in 1803, in which year the history proper of british guiana began. british guiana.",
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