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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911)",
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    "title": "GRIFFENFELDT",
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    "verified_text": "griffenfeldt, peder, count (_peder schumacher_) (1635-1699), danish statesman, was born at copenhagen on the 24th of august 1635, of a wealthy trading family connected with the leading civic, clerical and learned circles in the danish capital. his tutor, jens vorde, who prepared him in his eleventh year for the university, praises his extraordinary gifts, his mastery of the classical languages and his almost disquieting diligence. the brilliant way in which he sustained his preliminary examination won him the friendship of the examiner, bishop jasper brokman, at whose palace he first met frederick iii. the king was struck with the lad's bright grey eyes and pleasant humorous face; and brokman, proud of his pupil, made him translate a chapter from a hebrew bible first into latin and then into danish, for the entertainment of the scholarly monarch. in 1654 young schumacher went abroad for eight years, to complete his education. from germany he proceeded to the netherlands, staying at leiden, utrecht and amsterdam, and passing in 1657 to queen's college, oxford, where he lived three years. the epoch-making events which occurred in england, while he was at oxford, profoundly interested him, and coinciding with the revolution in denmark, which threw open a career to the middle classes, convinced him that his proper sphere was politics. in the autumn of 1660 schumacher visited paris, shortly after mazarin's death, when the young louis xiv. first seized the reins of power. schumacher seems to have been profoundly impressed by the administrative superiority of a strong centralised monarchy in the hands of an energetic monarch who knew his own mind; and, in politics, as in manners, france ever afterwards was his model. the last year of his travels was spent in spain, where he obtained a thorough knowledge of the castilian language and literature. his travels, however, if they enriched his mind, relaxed his character, and he brought home easy morals as well as exquisite manners. on his return to copenhagen, in 1662, schumacher found the monarchy established on the ruins of the aristocracy, and eager to buy the services of every man of the middle classes who had superior talents to offer. determined to make his way in this \"new promised land,\" the young adventurer contrived to secure the protection of kristoffer gabel, the king's confidant, and in 1663 was appointed the royal librarian. a romantic friendship with the king's bastard, count ulric frederick gyldenlove, consolidated his position. in 1665 schumacher obtained his first political post as the king's secretary, and the same year composed the memorable _kongelov_ (see denmark: _history_). he was now a personage at court, where he won all hearts by his amiability and gaiety; and in political matters also his influence was beginning to be felt. on the death of frederick iii. (february 9th, 1670) schumacher was the most trusted of all the royal counsellors. he alone was aware of the existence of the new throne of walrus ivory embellished with three silver life-size lions, and of the new regalia, both of which treasures he had, by the king's command, concealed in a vault beneath the royal castle. frederick iii. had also confided to him a sealed packet containing the _kongelov_, which was to be delivered to his successor alone. schumacher had been recommended to his son by frederick iii. on his death-bed. \"make him a great man, but do it slowly!\" said frederick, who thoroughly understood the characters of his son and of his minister. christian v. was, moreover, deeply impressed by the confidence which his father had ever shown to schumacher. when, on the 9th of february 1670, schumacher delivered the _kongelov_ to christian v., the king bade all those about him withdraw, and after being closeted a good hour with schumacher, appointed him his \"obergeheimesekreter.\" his promotion was now almost disquietingly rapid. in may 1670 he received the titles of excellency and privy councillor; in july of the same year he was ennobled under the name of griffenfeldt, deriving his title from the gold griffin with outspread wings which surmounted his escutcheon; in november 1673 he was created a count, a knight of the elephant and, finally, imperial chancellor. in the course of the next few months he gathered into his hands every branch of the government: he had reached the apogee of his short-lived greatness. but if his offices were manifold, so also were his talents. seldom has any man united so many and such various gifts in his own person and carried them so easily--a playful wit, a vivid imagination, oratorical and literary eloquence and, above all, a profound knowledge of human nature both male and female, of every class and rank, from the king to the meanest citizen. he had captivated the accomplished frederick iii. by his literary graces and ingenious speculations; he won the obtuse and ignorant christian v. by saving him trouble, by acting and thinking for him, and at the same time making him believe that he was thinking and acting for himself. moreover, his commanding qualities were coupled with an organizing talent which made itself felt in every department of the state, and with a marvellous adaptability which made him an ideal diplomatist. on the 25th of may 1671 the dignities of count and baron were introduced into denmark \"to give lustre to the court\"; a few months later the order of the danebrog was instituted as a fresh means of winning adherents by marks of favour. griffenfeldt was the originator of these new institutions. to him monarchy was the ideal form of government. but he had also a political object. the aristocracy of birth, despite its reverses, still remained the elite of society; and griffenfeldt, the son of a burgess as well as the protagonist of monarchy, was its most determined enemy. the new baronies and countships, owing their existence entirely to the crown, introduced a strong solvent into aristocratic circles. griffenfeldt saw that, in future, the first at court would be the first everywhere. much was also done to promote trade and industry, notably by the revival of the _kammer kollegium_, or board of trade, and the abolition of some of the most harmful monopolies. both the higher and the provincial administrations were thoroughly reformed with the view of making them more centralized and efficient; and the positions and duties of the various magistrates, who now also received fixed salaries, were for the first time exactly defined. but what griffenfeldt could create, griffenfeldt could dispense with, and it was not long before he began to encroach upon the jurisdiction of the new departments of state by private conferences with their chiefs. nevertheless it is indisputable that, under the single direction of this master-mind, the danish state was now able, for a time, to utilize all its resources as it had never done before. in the last three years of his administration, griffenfeldt gave himself entirely to the conduct of the foreign policy of denmark. it is difficult to form a clear idea of this, first, because his influence was perpetually traversed by opposite tendencies; in the second place, because the force of circumstances compelled him, again and again, to shift his standpoint; and finally because personal considerations largely intermingled with his foreign policy, and made it more elusive and ambiguous than it need have been. briefly, griffenfeldt aimed at restoring denmark to the rank of a great power. he proposed to accomplish this by carefully nursing her resources, and in the meantime securing and enriching her by alliances, which would bring in large subsidies while imposing a minimum of obligations. such a conditional and tentative policy, on the part of a second-rate power, in a period of universal tension and turmoil, was most difficult; but griffenfeldt did not regard it as impossible. the first postulate of such a policy was peace, especially peace with denmark's most dangerous neighbour, sweden. the second postulate was a sound financial basis, which he expected the wealth of france to supply in the shape of subsidies to be spent on armaments. above all things denmark was to beware of making enemies of france and sweden at the same time. an alliance, on fairly equal terms, between the three powers, would, in these circumstances, be the consummation of griffenfeldt's \"system\"; an alliance with france to the exclusion of sweden would be the next best policy; but an alliance between france and sweden, without the admission of denmark, was to be avoided at all hazards. had griffenfeldt's policy succeeded, denmark might have recovered her ancient possessions to the south and east comparatively cheaply. but again and again he was overruled. despite his open protests and subterraneous counter-mining, war was actually declared against sweden in 1675, and his subsequent policy seemed so obscure and hazardous to those who did not possess the clue to the perhaps purposely tangled skein, that the numerous enemies whom his arrogance and superciliousness had raised up against him, resolved to destroy him. on the 11th of march 1676, while on his way to the royal apartments, griffenfeldt was arrested in the king's name and conducted to the citadel, a prisoner of state. a minute scrutiny of his papers, lasting nearly six weeks, revealed nothing treasonable; but it provided the enemies of the fallen statesman with a deadly weapon against him in the shape of an entry in his private diary, in which he had imprudently noted that on one occasion christian v. in a conversation with a foreign ambassador had \"spoken like a child.\" on the 3rd of may griffenfeldt was tried not by the usual tribunal, in such cases the _hojesteret_, or supreme court, but by an extraordinary tribunal of 10 dignitaries, none of whom was particularly well disposed towards the accused. griffenfeldt, who was charged with simony, bribery, oath-breaking, malversation and _lese-majeste_, conducted his own defence under every imaginable difficulty. for forty-six days before his trial he had been closely confined in a dungeon without lights, books or writing materials. every legal assistance was illegally denied him. nevertheless he proved more than a match for the forensic ability arrayed against him, and his first plea in defence is in a high degree dignified and manly. finally, he was condemned to degradation and decapitation; though one of the ten judges not only refused to sign the sentence, but remonstrated in private with the king against its injustice. and indeed its injustice was flagrant. the primary offence of the ex-chancellor was the taking of bribes, which no twisting of the law could convert into a capital offence, while the charge of treason had not been substantiated. griffenfeldt was pardoned on the scaffold, at the very moment when the axe was about to descend. on hearing that the sentence was commuted to life-long imprisonment, he declared that the pardon was harder than the punishment, and vainly petitioned for leave to serve his king for the rest of his life as a common soldier. for the next two and twenty years denmark's greatest statesman lingered out his life in a lonely state-prison, first in the fortress of copenhagen, and finally at munkholm on trondhjem fiord. he died at trondhjem on the 12th of march 1699. griffenfeldt married kitty nansen, the granddaughter of the great burgomaster hans nansen, who brought him half a million rix-dollars. she died in 1672, after bearing him a daughter. see _danmark's riges histoire_, vol. v. (copenhagen, 1897-1905); jorgenson, _peter schumacher-griffenfeldt_ (copenhagen, 1893-1894); o. vaupell, _rigskansler grev griffenfeldt_ (copenhagen, 1880-1882); bain, _scandinavia_, cap. x. (cambridge, 1905). (r. n. b.) griffin [o'griobta, o'greeva], gerald (1803-1840), irish novelist and dramatic writer, was born at limerick of good family, on the 12th of december 1803. his parents emigrated in 1820 to america, but he was left with an elder brother, who was a medical practitioner at adare. as early as his eighteenth year he undertook for a short time the editorship of a newspaper in limerick. having written a tragedy, _aguire_, which was highly praised by his friends, he set out in 1823 for london with the purpose of \"revolutionizing the dramatic taste of the time by writing for the stage.\" in spite of the recommendations of john banim, he had a hard struggle with poverty. it was only by degrees that his literary work obtained any favour. _the noyades_, an opera entirely in recitative, was produced at the english opera house in 1826; and the success of _holland tide tales_ (1827) led to _tales of the munster festivals_ (3 vols., 1827), which were still more popular. in 1829 appeared his fine novel, _the collegians_, afterwards successfully adapted for the stage by dion boucicault under the title of _the colleen bawn_. he followed up this success with _the invasion_ (1832), _tales of my neighbourhood_ (1835), _the duke of monmouth_ (1836), and _talis qualis, or tales of the jury-room_ (1842). he also wrote a number of lyrics touched with his native melancholy. but he became doubtful as to the moral influence of his writings, and ultimately he came to the conclusion that his true sphere of duty was to be found within the church. he was admitted into a society of the christian brothers at dublin, in september 1838, under the name of brother joseph, and in the following summer he removed to cork, where he died of typhus fever on the 12th of june 1840. before adopting the monastic habit he burned all his manuscripts; but _gisippus_, a tragedy which he had composed before he was twenty, accidentally escaped destruction, and in 1842 was put on the drury lane stage by macready with great success. the collected works of gerald griffin were published in 1842-1843 in eight volumes, with a _life_ by his brother william griffin, m.d.; an edition of his _poetical and dramatic works_ (dublin, 1895) by c. g. duffy; and a selection of his lyrics, with a notice by george sigerson, is included in the _treasury of irish poetry_, edited by stopford a. brooke and t. w. rolleston (london, 1900).",
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