GREEK ART

greek art, fig. 29); this was the fashion in which the athena parthenos of pheidias was draped. the "attic" or "corinthian" [greek: peplos] was sewn together on the right side from below the arm, and thus became an [greek: endyma]. the [greek: peplos] was worn in a variety of colours and often decorated with bands of ornament, both horizontal and vertical; homer uses the epithets [greek: krokopeplos] and [greek: kyanopeplos], which show that yellow and dark blue [greek: peploi] were worn, and speaks of embroidered [greek: peploi] ([greek: poikiloi]). such embroideries are indicated by painting on the statues from the acropolis and are often shown on vase paintings. the chiton, [greek: chiton], was formed by sewing together at the sides two pieces of linen, or a double piece folded together, leaving spaces at the top for the arms and neck, and fastening the top edges together over the shoulders and upper arm with buttons or brooches; more rarely we find a plain sleeveless chiton. the length of the garment varied considerably. the [greek: chitoniskos], worn in active exercise, as by the so-called "atalanta" of the vatican, or the well-known amazon statues (greek art, fig. 40), reached only to the knee; the [greek: chiton poderes] covered the feet. this long, trailing garment was especially characteristic of ionia; in the homeric poems (il. xiii. 685) we read of the [greek: iaones helkechitones]. if worn without a girdle it went by the name of [greek: chiton orthostadios]. the long chiton was regularly used by musicians (e.g. apollo the lyre-player) and charioteers. in ordinary life it was generally pulled up through the girdle and formed a [greek: kolpos] (greek art, fig. 2). herodotus (v. 82-88) tells a story (cf. aegina), the details of which are to all appearance legendary, in order to account for a change in the fashion of female dress which took place at athens in the course of the 6th century b.c. up to that time the "dorian dress" had been universal, but the athenians now gave up the use of garments fastened with pins or brooches, and adopted the linen chiton of the ionians. the statement of herodotus is illustrated both by attic vase-paintings and also by the series of archaic female statues from the acropolis of athens, which (with the exception of one clothed in the doric [greek: peplos]) wear the ionic chiton, together with an outer garment, sometimes laid over both shoulders like a cloak (greek art, fig. 3), but more usually fastened on the right shoulder only, and passed diagonally across the body so as to leave the left arm free. the garment (which resembles the doric [greek: peplos], but seems to have been rectangular rather than square) is folded over at the top, and the central part is drawn up towards the right shoulder to produce an elaborate system of zigzag folds (greek art, fig. 22). the borders of the garment are painted with geometrical patterns in vivid colours; a broad stripe of ornament runs down the centre of the skirt.[24] this fashion of dress was only temporary. thucydides (i. 6) tells us that in his own time the linen chiton of ionia had again been discarded in favour of the doric dress, and the monuments show that after the persian wars a reaction against orientalism showed itself in a return to simpler fashions. the long linen chiton, which had been worn by men as well as women, was now only retained by the male sex on religious and festival occasions; a short chiton was, however, worn at work or in active exercise (greek art, fig. 3) and often fastened on the left shoulder only, when it was called [greek: chiton heteromaschalos] or [greek: exomis]. but the garment usually worn by men of mature age was the [greek: himation], which was (like the [greek: peplos]) a plain square of woollen stuff. one corner of this was pulled over the left shoulder from the back and tucked in under the left arm; the rest of the garment was brought round the right side of the body and either carried under the right shoulder, across the chest and over the left shoulder, if it was desired that the right arm should be free, or wrapped round the right arm as well as the body, leaving the right hand in a fold like a sling (greek art, fig. 2). the [greek: himation] was also worn by women over the linen chiton, and draped in a great variety of ways, which may be illustrated by the terra-cotta figurines from tanagra (4th-3rd cent. b.c.) and the numerous types of female statues, largely represented by copies of roman date, made to serve as grave-monuments. the upper part of the [greek: himation] was often drawn over the head as in the example here shown (plate, fig. 21), a statue formerly in the duke of sutherland's collection at trentham and now in the british museum. a lighter garment was the [greek: chlamys], chlamys, a mantle worn by young men, usually over a short chiton girt at the waist, and fastened on the right shoulder (cf. the figure of hermes in greek art, fig. 2). the [greek: chlaina] was a heavy woollen cloak worn in cold weather. peasants wore sheepskins or garments of hide called [greek: baite] or [greek: sisura]; slaves, who were required by custom to conceal their limbs as much as possible, wore a sleeved chiton and long hose. a woman's head was usually covered by drawing up the [greek: himation] (see above), but sometimes instead of this, a separate piece of cloth was made to perform this service, the end of it falling over the _himation_. this was the [greek: kalyptra], or veil called [greek: kredemnon] in homer. a cap merely intended to cover in the hair and hold it together was called [greek: kekryphalos]. when the object was only to hold up the hair from the neck, the [greek: sphendone] was used, which, as its name implies, was in the form of a sling; but in this case it was called more particularly [greek: opisthosphendone], as a distinction from the _sphendon[=e]_ when worn in front of the head. the head ornaments include the [greek: diadema], a narrow band bound round the hair a little way back from the brow and temples, and fastened in the knot of the hair behind; the [greek: ampux], a variety of the diadem; the [greek: stephane], a crown worn over the forehead, its highest point being in the centre, and narrowing at each side into a thin band which is tied at the back of the head. it is doubtful whether this should be distinguished from the [greek: stephanos], a crown of the same breadth and design all round, as on the coins of argos with the head of hera, who is expressly said by pausanias to wear a _stephanos_. this word is also employed for crowns of laurel, olive or other plant. high crowns made of wicker-work ([greek: poloi, kalathoi]) were also worn (see gerhard, _antike bildwerke_, pls. 303-305). when the hair, as was most usual, was gathered back from the temples and fastened in a knot behind, hair-pins were required, and these were mostly of bone or ivory, mounted with gold or plain; so also when the hair was tied in a large knot above the forehead, as in the case of artemis, or of apollo as leader of the muses. the early athenians wore their hair in the fashion termed [greek: krobylos], with fastenings called "grasshoppers" ([greek: tettiges]), in allusion to their claim of having originally sprung from the soil (thuc. i. 6). the [greek: tettiges] have been identified by helbig with small spirals of gold wire, such as are found in early etruscan tombs lying near the head of the skeleton. such spirals were used in early athens to confine the back hair, and this fashion may therefore be identified as the [greek: krobylos]. in archaic figures the hair is most frequently arranged over the brow and temples in parallel rows of small curls which must have been kept in their places by artificial means. ear-rings ([greek: enotia, ellobia, helikteres]) of gold, silver, or bronze plated with gold, and frequently ornamented with pearls, precious stones, or enamel, were worn attached to the lobes of the ear. for necklaces ([greek: hormoi]), bracelets ([greek: opheis]), brooches ([greek: peronai]), and finger-rings ([greek: daktylioi] or [greek: sphragides]) the same variety and preciousness of material was employed. for the feet the sandal ([greek: sandalon, pedilon]) was the usual wear; for hunting and travelling high boots were worn. the hunting-boot ([greek: endromis]) was laced up the front, and reached to the calves; the [greek: kothornos] (cothurnus) was a high boot reaching to the middle of the leg, and as worn by tragic actors had high soles. slippers ([greek: persikai]) were adopted from the east by women; shoes ([greek: embades]) were worn by the poorer classes. gloves ([greek: cheirides]) were worn by the persians, but apparently never by the greeks unless to protect the hands when working (_odyssey_, xxiv. 230). hats, which were as a rule worn only by youths, workmen and slaves, were of circular shape, and either of some stiff material, as the boeotian hat observed in terra-cottas from tanagra, or of pliant material which could be bent down at the sides like the [greek: petasos] worn by hermes and sometimes even by women. the [greek: kausia], or macedonian hat, seems to have been similar to this. the [greek: kyrbasia], or [greek: kidaris], was a high-pointed hat of persian origin, as was also the [greek: tiara], which served the double purpose of an ornament and a covering for the head. workmen wore a close-fitting felt cap ([greek: pilos]). see f. studniczka, "beitrage zur geschichte der altgriechischen tracht" (_abhandlungen des arch.-epigr_. _seminars in wien_, vii. 1886); lady evans, _chapters on greek dress_ (1893); w. kalkmann, "zur tracht archaischer gewandfiguren" (_jahrb. des k. deutschen arch. instituts_, 1896, pp. 19 ff.); s. cybulski, _tabulae quibus antiquitates graecae et romanae illustrantur_, nos. 16-18 (1903), with text by w. amelung; ethel b. abrahams, _greek dress_ (1908). [illustration: fig. 19.] iv. _etruscan costume._--the female dress of the etruscans did not differ in any important respect from that of the greeks; it consisted of the _chiton_ and _himation_, which was in earlier times usually worn as a shawl, not after the fashion of the doric [greek: peplos]. two articles of costume, however, were peculiar to the etruscans--the high conical hat known as the _tutulus_,[25] and the shoes with turned-up points (latin _calcei repandi_). these have oriental analogies, and lend support to the tradition that the etruscans came from asia. both are represented on a small bronze figure in the british museum (fig. 19). on a celebrated terra-cotta sarcophagus in the british museum of much later date (fig. 20), the female figure reclining on the lid wears a greek chiton of a thin white material, with short sleeves fastened on the outside of the arm, by means of buttons and loops; a _himation_ of dark purple thick stuff is wrapped round her hips and legs; on her feet are sandals, consisting of a sole apparently of leather, and attached to the foot and leg with leather straps; under the straps are thin socks which do not cover the toes; she wears a necklace of heavy pendants; her ears are pierced for ear-rings; her hair is partly gathered together with a ribbon at the roots behind, and partly hangs in long tresses before and behind; a flat diadem is bound round her head a little way back from the brow and temples. purple, pale green and white, richly embroidered, are favourite colours in the dresses represented on the painted tombs. [illustration: redrawn from photo (mansell). fig. 20.] the chief article of male dress was called the tebenna. we are told by ancient writers that the _toga praetexta_, with its purple border ([greek: periporphyros tebenna]), as worn by roman magistrates and priests, had been derived from the etruscans (pliny, n.h. ix. 63, "praetextae apud etruscos originem invenere"); and the famous statue of the orator in florence (plate, fig. 22), an etruscan work of the 3rd century b.c., represents a man clothed in this garment, which will be described below. under the tebenna, or toga, which was necessary only for public appearance, the etruscans wore a short tunic similar to the greek chiton. for workmen and others of inferior occupation this appears to have been the only dress. youths, when engaged in horsemanship and other exercises, wore a chlamys round the shoulders, which, however, was semicircular in cut, and was fastened on the breast by buttons and a loop, or tied in a knot, whereas the greek chlamys was oblong and fastened on the shoulder by a brooch. on public or festal occasions the etruscan noble wore, besides the tebenna, a _bulla_, or necklace of _bullae_, and a wreath, _corona etrusca_. the bulla was a circular gold locket containing a charm of some kind against evil.[26] on the later sarcophagi the male figures wear not only a wreath or _corona_ proper, but also a garland of flowers hung round the neck. the male head-dress was the _galerus_, a hat of leather, said to have been worn by the lucumos in early times, or the _apex_, a pointed hat corresponding to the _tutulus_ worn by females. the fashion of shoes worn by roman senators was said to have been derived from etruria. etruscan shoes were prized both in greece and in rome. helbig's articles, referred to at the close of the next section, should be consulted. j. martha, _l'art etrusque_, gives reproductions of the most important monuments. see also the works on etruscan civilization named in the art. etruria. v. _roman costume._--we are told that the _toga_, the national garment of the romans, was originally worn both by men and by women; and though the female dress of the romans was in historical times essentially the same as that of the greeks, young girls still wore the _toga_ on festal occasions, as we see from the reliefs of the ara pacis augustae. in early times no undergarment was worn save a loin-cloth (_subligaculum_), which seems to be a survival of early mediterranean fashions (see above, sect. _aegean costume_), and candidates for office in historical times appeared in the _toga_ and _subligaculum_ only. in this period, however, the _tunica_, corresponding to the greek chiton, was universally worn in ordinary life, and the _toga_ gradually became a full-dress garment which was only worn over the _tunica_ on important social occasions; juvenal (iii. 171) tells us that in a great part of italy no one wore the _toga_ except at his burial! the _toga_ was a piece of woollen cloth in the form of a segment of a circle,[27] the chord of the arc being about three times the height of the wearer, and the height a little less than one-half of this length. one end of this garment was thrown over the left shoulder and allowed to hang down in front; the remainder was drawn round the body and disposed in various ways. in the _cinctus gabinus_, which was the fashion adopted in early times when fighting was in prospect, the end of the _toga_ was drawn tightly round the waist and formed a kind of girdle; this was retained in certain official functions, such as the opening of the temple of janus in historical times.[28] in time of peace the _toga_ was wrapped round the right arm, leaving the hand only free, much after the fashion of the greek _himation_, and thrown over the left shoulder so as to fall down behind (see roman art, plate ii., fig. 11, male figure to r.); or, if greater freedom were desired, it was passed under the right arm-pit. in religious ceremonies, the magistrate presiding at the sacrifice drew the back of the toga over his head; see in the same illustration the priest with veiled head, _ritu gabino_, who also wears his _toga_ with the _cinctus gabinus_. towards the end of the republic a new fashion was generally adopted. a considerable length of the toga was allowed to hang from the left shoulder; the remainder was passed round the body so as to rise like a baldric (_balteus_) from the right hip to the left shoulder, being folded over in front (the fold was called sinus), then brought round the back of the neck so that the end fell over the right shoulder; the hanging portion on the left side was drawn up through the _sinus_, and bulged out in an _umbo_ (plate, fig. 24). later still, this portion, instead of forming a bundle of folds in the centre, was carefully folded over and carried up over the left shoulder, and in course of time these folds were carefully arranged in several thicknesses resembling boards, _tabulae_, hence called _contabulatio_ (plate, fig. 23). yet another fashion was that adopted by the flamens, who passed the right-hand portion of the _toga_ over the right shoulder and arm and back over the left shoulder, so that it hung down in a curve over the front of the body; the upper edge was folded over. the flamens are thus represented on the ara pacis augustae. the plain white toga (_toga pura_) was the ordinary dress of the citizen, but the _toga praetexta_, which had a border of purple, was worn by boys till the age of sixteen, when they assumed the plain _toga virilis_, and also by curule magistrates and some priests. a purple toga with embroidery (_toga picta_) was worn together with a gold-embroidered tunic (_tunica palmata_) by generals while celebrating a triumph and by magistrates presiding at games; it represented the traditional dress of the kings and was adopted by julius caesar as a permanent costume. the emperors wore it on occasions of special importance. the _trabea_, which in historical times was worn by the consuls when opening the temple of janus, by the _equites_ at their yearly inspection and on some other occasions, and by the salii at their ritual dances, and had (according to tradition) formed the original costume of the augurs and flamens (who afterwards adopted the _toga praetexta_), was apparently a _toga_ smaller in size than the ordinary civil dress, decorated with scarlet stripes (_trabes_). it was fastened with brooches (fibulae) and appears to have been worn by the _equites_, e.g. at the funeral ceremony of antoninus pius. the tunica was precisely like the greek chiton; that of the senator had two broad stripes of purple (latus clavus) down the centre, that of the knight two narrow stripes (angustus clavus). a woollen undergarment (subucula) was often worn by men; the women's under-tunic was of linen (indusium). when women gave up the use of the toga, they adopted the stola, a long tunic with a border of a darker colour (instita) along the lower edge; the neck also sometimes had a border (patagium). the tunic with long sleeves (tunica manicata) was a later fashion. over this the ricinium or rica, a shawl covering the head and shoulders, was worn in early times, and retained by certain priestesses as an official costume;[29] but it gave place to the palla, the equivalent of the greek himation, and the dress of the roman women henceforward differed in no essential particular from that of the greek. a variety of cloaks were worn by men during inclement weather; in general they resembled the greek chlamys, but often had a hood (_cucullus_) which could be drawn over the head. such were the _birrus_ (so-called from its red colour), _abolla_ and _lacerna_. the _paenula_, which was the garment most commonly worn, especially by soldiers when engaged on peace duties, was an oblong piece of cloth with a hole in the centre for the neck; a hood was usually attached to the back. it survives in the ritual chasuble of the western church. the greek military chlamys appears in two forms--the _paludamentum_ of the general (e.g. trajan as represented on the arch of constantine, roman art, plate